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Pazuki D, Ghosh R, Howlader MMR. Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical Δ 9-THC and CBD Sensors for Chronic Pain. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:384. [PMID: 36979596 PMCID: PMC10046734 DOI: 10.3390/bios13030384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chronic pain is now included in the designation of chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, which can impair quality of life and are major causes of death and disability worldwide. Pain can be treated using cannabinoids such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) due to their wide range of therapeutic benefits, particularly as sedatives, analgesics, neuroprotective agents, or anti-cancer medicines. While little is known about the pharmacokinetics of these compounds, there is increasing interest in the scientific understanding of the benefits and clinical applications of cannabinoids. In this review, we study the use of nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensing for detecting Δ9-THC and CBD. We investigate how nanomaterials can be functionalized to obtain highly sensitive and selective electrochemical sensors for detecting Δ9-THC and CBD. Additionally, we discuss the impacts of sensor pretreatment at fixed potentials and physiochemical parameters of the sensing medium, such as pH, on the electrochemical performance of Δ9-THC and CBD sensors. We believe this review will serve as a guideline for developing Δ9-THC and CBD electrochemical sensors for point-of-care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dadbeh Pazuki
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
| | - Raja Ghosh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, Hamilton, ON L8S 4LS, Canada;
| | - Matiar M. R. Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
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Heterogeneous Bonding of PMMA and Double-Sided Polished Silicon Wafers through H2O Plasma Treatment for Microfluidic Devices. COATINGS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings11050580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this work we report on a rapid, easy-to-operate, lossless, room temperature heterogeneous H2O plasma treatment process for the bonding of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and double-sided polished (DSP) silicon substrates by for utilization in sandwich structured microfluidic devices. The heterogeneous bonding of the sandwich structure produced by the H2O plasma is analyzed, and the effect of heterogeneous bonding of free radicals and high charge electrons (e−) in the formed plasma which causes a passivation phenomenon during the bonding process investigated. The PMMA and silicon surface treatments were performed at a constant radio frequency (RF) power and H2O flow rate. Changing plasma treatment time and powers for both processes were investigated during the experiments. The gas flow rate was controlled to cause ionization of plasma and the dissociation of water vapor from hydrogen (H) atoms and hydroxyl (OH) bonds, as confirmed by optical emission spectroscopy (OES). The OES results show the relative intensity peaks emitted by the OH radicals, H and oxygen (O). The free energy is proportional to the plasma treatment power and gas flow rate with H bonds forming between the adsorbed H2O and OH groups. The gas density generated saturated bonds at the interface, and the discharge energy that strengthened the OH-e− bonds. This method provides an ideal heterogeneous bonding technique which can be used to manufacture new types of microfluidic devices.
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Shoda K, Tanaka M, Mino K, Kazoe Y. A Simple Low-Temperature Glass Bonding Process with Surface Activation by Oxygen Plasma for Micro/Nanofluidic Devices. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E804. [PMID: 32854246 PMCID: PMC7570177 DOI: 10.3390/mi11090804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The bonding of glass substrates is necessary when constructing micro/nanofluidic devices for sealing micro- and nanochannels. Recently, a low-temperature glass bonding method utilizing surface activation with plasma was developed to realize micro/nanofluidic devices for various applications, but it still has issues for general use. Here, we propose a simple process of low-temperature glass bonding utilizing typical facilities available in clean rooms and applied it to the fabrication of micro/nanofluidic devices made of different glasses. In the process, the substrate surface was activated with oxygen plasma, and the glass substrates were placed in contact in a class ISO 5 clean room. The pre-bonded substrates were heated for annealing. We found an optimal concentration of oxygen plasma and achieved a bonding energy of 0.33-0.48 J/m2 in fused-silica/fused-silica glass bonding. The process was applied to the bonding of fused-silica glass and borosilicate glass, which is generally used in optical microscopy, and revealed higher bonding energy than fused-silica/fused-silica glass bonding. An annealing temperature lower than 200 °C was necessary to avoid crack generation by thermal stress due to the different thermal properties of the glasses. A fabricated micro/nanofluidic device exhibited a pressure resistance higher than 600 kPa. This work will contribute to the advancement of micro/nanofluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yutaka Kazoe
- Department of System Design Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku, Kanagawa 223-8522, Japan; (K.S.); (M.T.); (K.M.)
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Sivakumar R, Lee NY. Microfluidic device fabrication mediated by surface chemical bonding. Analyst 2020; 145:4096-4110. [DOI: 10.1039/d0an00614a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This review discusses on various bonding techniques for fabricating microdevices with a special emphasis on the modification of surface assisted by the use of chemicals to assemble microfluidic devices at room temperature under atmospheric pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajamanickam Sivakumar
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Engineering
- College of Industrial Environmental Engineering
- Gachon University
- Seongnam-si
- Korea
| | - Nae Yoon Lee
- Department of BioNano Technology
- Gachon University
- Seongnam-si
- Korea
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Haddara YM, Howlader MMR. Integration of Heterogeneous Materials for Wearable Sensors. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E60. [PMID: 30966123 PMCID: PMC6415181 DOI: 10.3390/polym10010060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 12/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Wearable sensors are of interest for several application areas, most importantly for their potential to allow for the design of personal continuous health monitoring systems. For wearable sensors, flexibility is required and imperceptibility is desired. Wearable sensors must be robust to strain, motion, and environmental exposure. A number of different strategies have been utilized to achieve flexibility, imperceptibility, and robustness. All of these approaches require the integration of materials having a range of chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties. We have given a concise review of the range of materials that must be incorporated in wearable sensors regardless of the strategies adopted to achieve wearability. We first describe recent advances in the range of wearable sensing materials and their processing requirements and then discuss the potential routes to the integration of these heterogeneous materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaser M Haddara
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
| | - Matiar M R Howlader
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
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Abstract
A sequential plasma-activated bonding technology is developed for the low-temperature direct bonding of liquid crystal polymer to glass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Ul Alam
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
| | - Yiheng Qin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
| | | | - M. Jamal Deen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
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Miled MA, Sawan M. Low-voltage DEP microsystem for submicron particle manipulation in artificial cerebrospinal fluid. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2013; 2013:1611-4. [PMID: 24110011 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2013.6609824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a new low voltage biochip for micro and nanoparticle separation. The proposed system is designed to detect the concentration of particles after being separated through reconfigurable DEP-based electrode architecture. The described system in this work is focusing on the particle frequency dependent separation. Experimental results in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) show that each particle has its own crossover frequency. Thus based on the crossover frequency, particles are attracted to the electrode's surface, while others are pushed away. Five different particles are tested with different diameters in the range of 500 nm to 4 µm. All separation process is controlled by a CMOS chip fabricated using 0.18 µm technology from TSMC and powered with 3.3 V. Efficient particle separation is observed with low voltage, below 3.3V unlike other techniques in the range of kV. The proposed platform includes an advanced PDMS based assembly technique for fast testing and prototyping in addition to reconfigurable electrode architecture.
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Howlader MMR, Zhang F, Deen MJ. Formation of gallium arsenide nanostructures in Pyrex glass. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 24:315301. [PMID: 23857990 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/31/315301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we report on a simple, low-cost process to grow GaAs nanostructures of a few nm diameter and ∼50 nm height in Pyrex glass wafers. These nanostructures were grown by sequential plasma activation of GaAs and Pyrex glass surfaces using a low-temperature hybrid plasma bonding technology in air. Raman analyses of the activated surfaces show gallium oxide and arsenic oxide, as well as suppressed non-bridging oxygen with aluminate and boroxol chains in glass. The flow of alkaline ions toward the cathode and the replacement of alkaline ions by Ga and As ions in glass result in the growth of GaAs nanostructures in nanopores/nanoscratches in glass. These nanopores/nanoscratches are believed to be the origin of the growth of the nanostructures. It was found that the length of the GaAs nanostructures may be controlled by an electrostatic force. Cross-sectional observation of the bonded interface using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy confirms the existence of the nanostructures. A possible application of the nanostructures in glass is a filtration system for biomolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matiar M R Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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Ding Y, Hong L, Nie B, Lam KS, Pan T. Capillary-driven automatic packaging. LAB ON A CHIP 2011; 11:1464-9. [PMID: 21380434 DOI: 10.1039/c0lc00710b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Packaging continues to be one of the most challenging steps in micro-nanofabrication, as many emerging techniques (e.g., soft lithography) are incompatible with the standard high-precision alignment and bonding equipment. In this paper, we present a simple-to-operate, easy-to-adapt packaging strategy, referred to as Capillary-driven Automatic Packaging (CAP), to achieve automatic packaging process, including the desired features of spontaneous alignment and bonding, wide applicability to various materials, potential scalability, and direct incorporation in the layout. Specifically, self-alignment and self-engagement of the CAP process induced by the interfacial capillary interactions between a liquid capillary bridge and the top and bottom substrates have been experimentally characterized and theoretically analyzed with scalable implications. High-precision alignment (of less than 10 µm) and outstanding bonding performance (up to 300 kPa) has been reliably obtained. In addition, a 3D microfluidic network, aligned and bonded by the CAP technique, has been devised to demonstrate the applicability of this facile yet robust packaging technique for emerging microfluidic and bioengineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhe Ding
- Micro-Nano Innovations (MiNI) Laboratory, Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Kibria MG, Zhang F, Lee TH, Kim MJ, Howlader MMR. Comprehensive investigation of sequential plasma activated Si/Si bonded interfaces for nano-integration on the wafer scale. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 21:134011. [PMID: 20208123 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/21/13/134011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The sequentially plasma activated bonding of silicon wafers has been investigated to facilitate the development of chemical free, room temperature and spontaneous bonding required for nanostructure integration on the wafer scale. The contact angle of the surface and the electrical and nanostructural behavior of the interface have been studied. The contact angle measurements show that the sequentially plasma (reactive ion etching plasma followed by microwave radicals) treated surfaces offer highly reactive and hydrophilic surfaces. These highly reactive surfaces allow spontaneous integration at the nanometer scale without any chemicals, external pressure or heating. Electrical characteristics show that the current transportation across the nanobonded interface is dependent on the plasma parameters. High resolution transmission electron microscopy results confirm nanometer scale bonding which is needed for the integration of nanostructures. The findings can be applied in spontaneous integration of nanostructures such as nanowires/nanotubes/quantum dots on the wafer scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Kibria
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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Ghafar-Zadeh E, Sawan M, Therriault D. A Microfluidic Packaging Technique for Lab-on-Chip Applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1109/tadvp.2008.920655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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