Taking the bitter with the sweet: relationship of supertasting and sweet preference with metabolic syndrome and dietary intake

Comparing body composition between the sweet-liking phenotypes: experimental data, systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Legislation aimed at reducing sugar intake assumes that sweet-liking drives overconsumption. However, evidence that a greater liking for sweet taste is associated with unhealthier body size is mixed and complicated by relatively small samples, an overreliance on body mass index (BMI) and lack of classification using sweet-liking phenotypes.

METHODS

We first examined body size data in two larger samples with sweet-liking phenotyping: extreme sweet-likers, moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers. Adults (18-34yrs), attended a two-session lab-based experiment involving phenotyping for sweet-liking status and a bioelectrical impedance body composition measurement (Experiment One: N = 200; Experiment Two: N = 314). Secondly, we conducted an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis: systematic searches across four databases identified 5736 potential articles. Of these, 53 papers met our search criteria: a taste assessment that measured liking using sucrose (>13.7% w/v), which allowed sweet-liking phenotyping and included either BMI, body fat percentage (BF%), fat-free mass (FFM) or waist-circumference.

RESULTS

A significant effect of sweet-liking phenotype on FFM was found in both Experiment One and Two, with extreme sweet-likers having significantly higher FFM than sweet-dislikers. In Experiment One, sweet-dislikers had a significantly higher BF% than extreme sweet-likers and moderate sweet-likers. However, as these data are from one research group in a young, predominantly westernised population, and the results did not perfectly replicate, we conducted the IPD meta-analyses to further clarify the findings. Robust one-stage IPD meta-analyses of 15 studies controlling for sex revealed no significant differences in BF% (n = 1836) or waist-circumference (n = 706). For BMI (n = 2368), moderate sweet-likers had slightly lower BMI than extreme sweet-likers, who had the highest overall BMI. Most interestingly, for FFM (n = 768), moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers showed significantly lower FFM than extreme sweet-likers.

CONCLUSION

The higher BMI often seen in sweet-likers may be due to a larger FFM and questions the simple model where sweet liking alone is a risk factor for obesity.

Characterizing Individual Differences in Sweet Taste Hedonics: Test Methods, Locations, and Stimuli

Sweetness drives the consumption of added sugars, so understanding how to best measure sweet hedonics is important for developing strategies to lower sugar intake. However, methods to assess hedonic response to sweetness vary, making results across studies difficult to integrate. We compared methods to measure optimal sucrose concentration in 21 healthy adults (1) using paired-comparison preference tracking vs. ratings of liking, (2) with participants in the laboratory vs. at home, and (3) using aqueous solutions vs. vanilla milk. Tests were replicated on separate days to assess test-retest reliability. Test-retest reliability was similar between laboratory and home testing, but tended to be better for vanilla milk and preference tracking. Optimal sucrose concentration was virtually identical between laboratory and home, slightly lower when estimated via preference tracking, and about 50% lower in vanilla milk. However, optimal sucrose concentration correlated strongly between methods, locations, and stimuli. More than 50% of the variability in optimal sucrose concentration could be attributed to consistent differences among individuals, while much less variability was attributable to differences between methods. These results demonstrate convergent validity between methods, support testing at home, and suggest that aqueous solutions can be useful proxies for some commonly consumed beverages for measuring individual differences.

Understanding sweet-liking phenotypes and their implications for obesity: Narrative review and future directions

Building on a series of recent studies that challenge the universality of sweet liking, here we review the evidence for multiple sweet-liking phenotypes which strongly suggest, humans fall into three hedonic response patterns: extreme sweet likers (ESL), where liking increases with sweetness, moderate sweet likers (MSL), who like moderate but not intense sweetness, and sweet dislikers (SD), who show increasing aversion as sweetness increases. This review contrasts how these phenotypes differ in body size and composition, dietary intake and behavioural measures to test the widely held view that sweet liking may be a key driver of obesity. Apart from increased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in ESL, we found no clear evidence that sweet liking was associated with obesity and actually found some evidence that SD, rather than ESL, may have slightly higher body fat. We conclude that ESL may have heightened awareness of internal appetite cues that could protect against overconsumption and increased sensitivity to wider reward. We note many gaps in knowledge and the need for future studies to contrast these phenotypes in terms of genetics, neural processing of reward and broader measures of behaviour. There is also the need for more extensive longitudinal studies to determine the extent to which these phenotypes are modified by exposure to sweet stimuli in the context of the obesogenic environment.

Longitudinal Associations Between Taste Sensitivity, Taste Liking, Dietary Intake and BMI in Adolescents

Taste sensitivity and liking drive food choices and ingestive behaviors from childhood to adulthood, yet their longitudinal association with dietary intake and BMI is largely understudied. Here, we examined the longitudinal relationship between sugar and fat sensitivity, sugar and fat liking, habitual dietary intake, and BMI percentiles in a sample of 105 healthy-weight adolescents (baseline: BMI %tile 57.0 ± 24.3; age 14–16 years) over a 4-year period. Taste sensitivity was assessed via a triangle fat and sweet taste discrimination test. Taste liking were rated on a visual analog scale for four milkshakes that varied in sugar and fat contents (high-fat/high-sugar (HF/HS), low-fat/high-sugar (LF/HS), high-fat/low-sugar (HF/LS), low-fat/low-sugar (LF/LS) milkshakes). A modified version of the reduced Block Food Frequency Questionnaire (BFFQ) was used to assess dietary intake. All measurements were repeated annually. Repeated measures correlations and linear mixed effects models were used to model the associations between the variables. Sugar sensitivity was negatively associated with liking for the LF/HS milkshake over the 4-year period. Low sugar sensitivity at baseline predicted increases in BMI percentile over time, but this association didn’t survive a correction for multiple comparisons. Percent daily intake from fat was positively associated with liking for the HF/HS milkshake and negatively associated with liking for the LF/LS milkshake over 4 years. Together, these results demonstrate that lower sensitivity to sweet taste is linked to increased hedonic response to high-sugar foods and increased energy intake from fat seems to condition adolescents to show increased liking for high-fat/high-sugar foods.

Positive association between bitter taste threshold and preference of vegetables among adolescents

AIM

Better understanding of aspects of taste in adolescents is needed since it has bearings on food policies, food industry and pharmaceutical design. Furthermore, taste preferences likely play a role in overeating and anorexia. We aimed to validate a questionnaire about taste preferences and dietary habits along with measurements of sense of smell and taste.

METHODS

We included adolescents from nearby schools in Aarhus, Denmark, from 2017 to 2019. Scoring preferences and habits on a Likert scale, they completed a food item questionnaire. Their chemosensation was tested by the Sniffin' Sticks and Taste Drop Test.

RESULTS

We included 100 adolescents: 53 males, 47 females; average age: 15.9 years (12-17 years). Retest of the questionnaire showed good reliability (Cohen's kappa: 0.5953). Snacks scored the highest average liking (4.48), whereas starches had the highest frequency of consumption (3.64). Bitter taste threshold was positively associated with liking and familiarity with vegetables (P = .032; P = .012), respectively. Healthy self-reported dietary habits were associated with a higher self-reported consumption of vegetables and a decreased consumption of snacks.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents preferred unhealthy food items, but they also reported more frequent consumption of healthy than unhealthy food items. A higher threshold for the bitter taste, that is, being less sensitive to bitter taste, was associated with higher liking and familiarity of vegetables.

Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking-Obesity Hypothesis

Taste hedonics drive food choices, and food choices affect weight maintenance. Despite this, the idea that hyper-palatability of sweet foods is linked to obesity development has been controversial for decades. Here, we investigate whether interpersonal differences in sweet-liking are related to body composition. Healthy adults aged 18–34 years from the UK (n = 148) and the US (n = 126) completed laboratory-based sensory tests (sucrose taste tests) and anthropometric measures (body mass index; BMI, body fat; fat-free mass; FFM, waist/hips circumferences). Habitual beverage intake and lifestyle and behavioural characteristics were also assessed. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, we classified participants into three phenotypes: sweet liker (SL), sweet disliker (SD), and inverted-U (liking for moderate sweetness). Being a SD was linked to higher body fat among those younger than 21 years old, while in the older group, SLs had the highest BMI and FFM; age groups reflected different levels of exposure to the obesogenic environment. FFM emerged as a better predictor of sweet-liking than BMI and body fat. In the older group, sweetened beverage intake partially explained the phenotype–anthropometry associations. Collectively, our findings implicate underlying energy needs as an explanation for the variation in sweet-liking; the moderating roles of age and obesogenic environment require additional consideration.

Impact of Taste on Food Choices in Adolescence-Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Studies of adults report that perceived taste affects food choices and intake, which in turn may have an impact on health. However, corresponding evidence on adolescents is limited.  Our aim was to summarize current evidence of the impact of taste perception on food choice preferences or dietary intakes among adolescents (mean age 10-19.9 years). Systematic searches identified 13 papers, 12 cross-sectional and one cohort study published between 1 January 2000 to 20 February 2020 assessing the impact of taste (using phenotypic and/or genotypic markers) on food choices in adolescents without any disease conditions. Qualitative assessment in the current review indicated that individuals sensitive to bitter tastes often have a lower preference of bitter-tasting food and higher preference for sweet-tasting food. A meta-analysis of three studies on bitter-taste sensitivity revealed no difference in preference for bitter-tasting vegetables between bitter tasters and non-tasters (standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.04; 95% CI: -0.18, 0.26; p = 0.72). Overall, a limited number of studies were available for review. As a result, we report no clear relationship between taste perception and food choices or intake in adolescents. More studies are needed to evaluate the link between adolescents' taste perceptions and dietary intake.

Quantifying Sweet Taste Liker Phenotypes: Time for Some Consistency in the Classification Criteria

Taste hedonics is a well-documented driver of food consumption. The role of sweetness in directing ingestive behavior is largely rooted in biology. One can then intuit that individual differences in sweet-liking may constitute an indicator of variations in the susceptibility to diet-related health outcomes. Despite half a century of research on sweet-liking, the best method to identify the distinct responses to sweet taste is still debated. To help resolve this issue, liking and intensity ratings for eight sucrose solutions ranging from 0 to 1 M were collected from 148 young adults (29% men). Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed three response patterns: a sweet-liker (SL) phenotype characterized by a rise in liking as concentration increased, an inverted U-shaped phenotype with maximum liking at 0.25 M, and a sweet-disliker (SD) phenotype characterized by a decline in liking as a function of concentration. Based on sensitivity and specificity analyses, present data suggest the clearest discrimination between phenotypes is seen with 1.0 M sucrose, where a liking rating between -15 and +15 on a -50/+50 scale reliably distinguished individuals with an inverted U-shaped response from the SLs and the SDs. If the efficacy of this approach is confirmed in other populations, the discrimination criteria identified here can serve as the basis for a standard method for classifying sweet taste liker phenotypes in adults.

Sweet Taste as a Predictor of Dietary Intake: A Systematic Review

Taste is frequently cited as an important factor in food choice, and while a number of studies have attempted to identify relationships between taste function and dietary intake, a systematic review of these studies has been lacking. This review identified studies that examined associations between taste function or taste perception and dietary intake. The purpose was to determine which taste measure was most closely associated with dietary intake in healthy adults. Studies that measured some component of dietary intake, either acutely or longer-term, were eligible for inclusion. Studies were grouped into three categories: those that measured sensitivity (thresholds), intensity, or hedonic responses to sweet stimuli. Sensitivity and intensity studies demonstrated little association with dietary intake measures. Hedonic measurements were more likely to be associated with dietary intake, especially if sweet likers were analyzed separately from sweet dislikers, but the degree of heterogeneity among stimulus concentrations and dietary measures as well as small sample sizes likely obscured more consistent relationships between hedonic evaluation and dietary intake. Due to the potential for within-day and between-day variability in both taste function and dietary intake, future work should explore obtaining more than one taste measurement before comparing results to longer-term dietary assessments and attempts to standardize methods.

Eating Experiences, Sweet Preference, and Weight Gain in Women During Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer: A Mixed Methods Study

Weight gain during breast cancer treatment has not been explained yet. This study aimed to explore eating experience and its relationship with weight gain and sweet preference and intake in women in chemotherapy treatment for breast cancer. Thirty-one patients indicated for adjuvant (n = 16) or neoadjuvant (n = 15) chemotherapy containing anthracyclines were evaluated. Weight, sweet preference in cashew juice (weight/volume, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36%), and sweet food intake frequency ["healthy sweets" (HS) for fruits and natural juices and "nonhealthy sweets" (NHS) for other sweets] were assessed prior to initiating (T0) and after the fourth chemotherapy cycle (T1). A semistructured interview was applied at T1. At baseline, patients were 46.7 ± 11.6 years old and the mean body mass index (BMI) was 29.3 ± 7.1 kg/m². The patients' weight and BMI increased, as did the HS intake, with positive correlation between HS intake and weight change (r = 0.38; P = 0.039). Baseline sweet preference is correlated to NHS intake at T0 (r = 0.51; P = 0.004) and influences NHS intake change. The interview analysis showed opposite food behaviors: at times driven by self-care and, at other times, driven by the emotional vulnerability, which may contribute to the weight gain observed.

Pediatric Adapted Liking Survey: A Novel, Feasible and Reliable Dietary Screening in Clinical Practice

PURPOSE

Rapid yet useful methods are needed to screen for dietary behaviors in clinical settings. We tested the feasibility and reliability of a pediatric adapted liking survey (PALS) to screen for dietary behaviors and suggest tailored caries and obesity prevention messages.

METHODS

In an observational study, children admitted to a pediatric emergency department (PED) for nonurgent care were approached to complete the PALS (33 foods, 4 nonfoods including brushing teeth). Measured height/weight were used for body mass index (BMI) percentile determination. Feasibility was assessed by response rate and PALS completion time. Reliability was assessed by internal consistency of food groups and test-retest reliability for PED-home reported PALS.

RESULTS

PALS was completed by 144 children (96% of approached) - 54% male (average age = 11 ± 3 years) with diversity in family income (43% publicly insured), race/ethnicity (15% African American, 33% Hispanic, 44% Caucasian) and adiposity (3% underweight, 50% normal, 31% overweight, 17% obese, 8% extremely obese). The average completion time was 3: 52 min, and conceptual food groups had reasonable internal reliability. From 57% (n = 82) with PED-home completion, PALS had a good/excellent test-retest reliability. Relative preferences for sweets versus brushing teeth identified unique groups of children for tailored prevention messages (high sweet/brushing preference, sweets > brushing, brushing > sweets). Females with higher adiposity reported significantly greater preference for sweet/high-fat foods, independently of demographic variables; the relationship was nonsignificant in males and with the other food groups.

CONCLUSION

The PALS appears to be a fast, feasible and reliable dietary screener in a clinical setting to assist in forming tailored diet-related messages for dental caries and obesity prevention.

Sweet taste preference in binge-eating disorder: A preliminary investigation

Research suggests that individuals with high liking for sweets are at increased risk for binge eating, which has been minimally investigated in individuals with binge-eating disorder (BED). Forty-one adults (85% female, 83% white) with binge eating concerns completed a sweet taste test and measures of eating disorder behaviors and food cravings. A subset of participants with BED completed an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT; N=21) and a 24-hour dietary recall (N=26). Regression models were used to compare highest sweet preferers (HSP [N=18]) to other sweet preferers (OSP [N=23]) and were used to assess associations between sweet taste preference and outcome variables. Effect sizes (ηp²) for differences between HSP and OSP ranged from small (≤0.01) to large (≥0.24); group differences were statistically nonsignificant except for 24-hour caloric intake (ηp²=0.16, p=0.04), protein intake (ηp²=0.16, p=0.04), and insulin sensitivity index (ηp²=0.24, p=0.04), which were higher in HSP, and postprandial insulin, which was smaller in HSP (ηp²=0.27, p=0.03). Continuous analyses replicated postprandial insulin response. Compared with OSP, HSP reported numerically higher binge-eating frequency (ηp²=0.04), over-eating frequency (ηp²=0.06), and carbohydrate intake (ηp²=0.14), and they exhibited numerically smaller postprandial glucose AUC (ηp²=0.16). Sweet taste preference may have implications for glucose regulation, binge-eating frequency, and nutrient intake in BED.

Sweet liker status in children and adults: Consequences for beverage intake in adults

Different patterns of sweet liking exist. For some, liking increases as concentration increases up to a point at which it typically plateaus. These individuals are referred to as sweet likers. How sweet likers' beverage intake, especially sugar sweetened beverage intake, differs from sweet dislikers' beverage intake is not well characterized. A total of 953 visitors (650 adults; 62.0% women; 303 children; 58.7% girls) to the Denver Museum of Nature & Science rated the taste intensity and liking of 5 sucrose solutions that spanned concentrations typically encountered in sugar-sweetened beverages (0.0-13.7% w/v) using visual analog scales. Beverage intake by adults was quantified using the validated BEVQ-15 questionnaire. Among adults, hierarchical cluster analysis identified three clusters of liking patterns (likers, dislikers, and neutrals). Among children, two clusters of liking patterns were identified (likers and dislikers). For both adults and children, BMI, percent body fat, age, and sex did not differ between clusters. Concentration by cluster interaction effects were observed for both adults and children. Adult sweet likers consumed more energy from all beverages, more sweetened juice and tea, and less water than those in other clusters. Sweet liker status may be a useful predictor of increased energy intake from beverages, but prospective trials are necessary to confirm this utility.

Tasting profile affects adoption of caloric beverage reduction in a randomized weight loss intervention

Objective

The aim of this study was to examine differences in rates of non‐caloric beverage adoption by participants classified as sweet likers (SLs) or sweet dislikers (measured using a behavioural tasting task).

Methods

Data are a sub‐study from a 6‐month, three‐group, randomized weight loss trial (CHOICE) (body mass index 36.3 ± 5.8 kg m⁻², 84% female, aged 42.2 ± 10.9 years, 53% African‐American) comparing the replacement of caloric beverages with either non‐caloric sweetened beverages (diet) or water (water) compared with a control group. This sub‐study, which included participants within the water (n = 106) and diet (n = 103) groups only, examined whether SLs (n = 33 water; n = 37 diet) varied in their adherence to caloric beverage recommendations compared with sweet dislikers (n = 73 water; n = 76 diet) over the 6‐month study.

Results

Diet intake and sweet‐liking data collected on 190 (3 months) and 169 participants (6 months) were used for analysis. The interaction between SL status and beverage group (diet vs. water) approached significance (P = 0.06) at 3 months but not 6 months. Caloric beverage intake (% energy) at 3 months was significantly higher in SLs within the water group (9.7 ± 1.4%) compared with SLs in the diet group (5.4 ± 1.0%, P = 0.03).

Conclusions

Results suggest that SL status may affect the rate in reduction of caloric beverages when water is the recommended substitution. Future studies should explore tailoring beverage recommendations to tasting profile.

Genetic and environmental influences on food preferences in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Food preferences vary substantially among adults and children. Twin studies have established that genes and aspects of the shared family environment both play important roles in shaping children's food preferences. The transition from childhood to adulthood is characterized by large gains in independence, but the relative influences of genes and the environment on food preferences in late adolescence are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to quantify the contribution of genetic and environmental influences on food preferences in older adolescents.

DESIGN

Participants were 2865 twins aged 18-19 y from the TEDS (Twins Early Development Study), a large population-based cohort of British twins born during 1994-1996. Food preferences were measured by using a self-report questionnaire of 62 individual foods. Food items were categorized into 6 food groups (fruit, vegetables, meat or fish, dairy, starch foods, and snacks) by using factor analysis. Maximum likelihood structural equation modeling established genetic and environmental contributions to variations in preferences for each food group.

RESULTS

Genetic factors influenced a significant and substantial proportion of the variation in preference scores of all 6 food groups: vegetables (0.54; 95% CI: 0.47, 0.59), fruit (0.49; 95% CI: 0.43, 0.55), starchy foods (0.32; 95% CI: 0.24, 0.39), meat or fish (0.44; 95% CI: 0.38, 0.51), dairy (0.44; 95% CI: 0.37, 0.50), and snacks (0.43; 95% CI: 0.36, 0.49). Aspects of the environment that are not shared by 2 twins in a family explained all of the remaining variance in food preferences.

CONCLUSIONS

Food preferences had a moderate genetic basis in late adolescence, in keeping with findings in children. However, by this older age, the influence of the shared family environment had disappeared, and only aspects of the environment unique to each individual twin influenced food preferences. This finding suggests that shared environmental experiences that influence food preferences in childhood may not have effects that persist into adulthood.

Patterns of Sweet Taste Liking: A Pilot Study

Two distinct patterns of sweet taste liking have been described: one showing a peak liking response in the mid-range of sucrose concentrations and the other showing a monotonic liking response at progressively higher sucrose concentrations. Classification of these patterns has been somewhat arbitrary. In this report, we analyzed patterns of sweet taste liking in a pilot study with 26 adults including 14 women and 12 men, 32.6 ± 14.5 years of age with body mass index 26.4 ± 5.1 kg/m² (mean ± SD). Sweet taste liking was measured for 10 levels of sucrose solutions (0.035 M to 1.346 M). Participants rated their liking of each solution using a visual analog scale with 0 indicating strongly disliking and 100 strongly liking. The cluster analysis demonstrated two distinct groups: 13 liked relatively low sucrose concentrations and liked high sucrose concentrations less, and 13 liked high sucrose concentrations greatly. If we use the 0.598 M sucrose solution alone and a cutoff liking score of 50, we can distinguish the two clusters with high sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%). If validated in additional studies, this simple tool may help us to better understand eating behaviors and the impact of sweet taste liking on nutrition-related disorders.

Taste sensitivity, nutritional status and metabolic syndrome: Implication in weight loss dietary interventions

AIM: We investigated the relationship between taste sensitivity, nutritional status and metabolic syndrome and possible implications on weight loss dietary program.

METHODS: Sensitivity for bitter, sweet, salty and sour tastes was assessed by the three-Alternative-Forced-Choice method in 41 overweight (OW), 52 obese (OB) patients and 56 normal-weight matched controls. OW and OB were assessed also for body composition (by impedence), resting energy expenditure (by indirect calorimetry) and presence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and were prescribed a weight loss diet. Compliance to the weight loss dietary program was defined as adherence to control visits and weight loss ≥ 5% in 3 mo.

RESULTS: Sex and age-adjusted multiple regression models revealed a significant association between body mass index (BMI) and both sour taste (P < 0.05) and global taste acuity score (GTAS) (P < 0.05), with lower sensitivity with increasing BMI. This trend in sensitivity for sour taste was also confirmed by the model refitted on the OW/OB group while the association with GTAS was marginally significant (P = 0.06). MetS+ subjects presented higher thresholds for salty taste when compared to MetS- patients while no significant difference was detected for the other tastes and GTAS. As assessed by multiple regression model, the association between salty taste and MetS appeared to be independent of sex, age and BMI. Patients continuing the program (n = 37) did not show any difference in baseline taste sensitivity when compared to drop-outs (n = 29). Similarly, no significant difference was detected between patients reporting and not reporting a weight loss ≥ 5% of the initial body weight. No significant difference in taste sensitivity was detected even after dividing patients on the basis of nutritional (OW and OB) or metabolic status (MetS+ and MetS-).

CONCLUSION: There is no cause-effect relationship between overweight and metabolic derangements. Taste thresholds assessment is not useful in predicting the outcome of a diet-induced weight loss program.

The role of sweet taste in satiation and satiety

Increased energy consumption, especially increased consumption of sweet energy-dense food, is thought to be one of the main contributors to the escalating rates in overweight individuals and obesity globally. The individual’s ability to detect or sense sweetness in the oral cavity is thought to be one of many factors influencing food acceptance, and therefore, taste may play an essential role in modulating food acceptance and/or energy intake. Emerging evidence now suggests that the sweet taste signaling mechanisms identified in the oral cavity also operate in the gastrointestinal system and may influence the development of satiety. Understanding the individual differences in detecting sweetness in both the oral and gastrointestinal system towards both caloric sugar and high intensity sweetener and the functional role of the sweet taste system may be important in understanding the reasons for excess energy intake. This review will summarize evidence of possible associations between the sweet taste mechanisms within the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract and the brain systems towards both caloric sugar and high intensity sweetener and sweet taste function, which may influence satiation, satiety and, perhaps, predisposition to being overweight and obesity.

A preference test for sweet taste that uses edible strips

A novel delivery method is described for the rapid determination of taste preferences for sweet taste in humans. This forced-choice paired comparison approach incorporates the non-caloric sweetener sucralose into a set of one-inch square edible strips for the rapid determination of sweet taste preferences. When compared to aqueous sucrose solutions, significantly lower amounts of sucralose were required to identify the preference for sweet taste. The validity of this approach was determined by comparing sweet taste preferences obtained with five different sucralose-containing edible strips to a set of five intensity-matched sucrose solutions. When compared to the solution test, edible strips required approximately the same number of steps to identify the preferred amount of sweet taste stimulus. Both approaches yielded similar distribution patterns for the preferred amount of sweet taste stimulus. In addition, taste intensity values for the preferred amount of sucralose in strips were similar to that of sucrose in solution. The hedonic values for the preferred amount of sucralose were lower than for sucrose, but the taste quality of the preferred sucralose strip was described as sweet. When taste intensity values between sucralose strips and sucralose solutions containing identical amounts of taste stimulus were compared, sucralose strips produced a greater taste intensity and more positive hedonic response. A preference test that uses edible strips for stimulus delivery should be useful for identifying preferences for sweet taste in young children, and in clinical populations. This test should also be useful for identifying sweet taste preferences outside of the lab or clinic. Finally, edible strips should be useful for developing preference tests for other primary taste stimuli and for taste mixtures.