Development of a nanoparticle delivery system based on zein/polysaccharide complexes

Design and Characterization of a Novel Core-Shell Nano Delivery System Based on Zein and Carboxymethylated Short-Chain Amylose for Encapsulation of Curcumin

Curcumin is a naturally occurring hydrophobic polyphenolic compound with a rapid metabolism, poor absorption, and low stability, which severely limits its bioavailability. Here, we employed a starch-protein-based nanoparticle approach to improve the curcumin bioavailability. This study focused on synthesizing nanoparticles with a zein "core" and a carboxymethylated short-chain amylose (CSA) "shell" through anti-solvent precipitation for delivering curcumin. The zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles were extensively characterized for physicochemical properties, structural integrity, ionic stability, in vitro digestibility, and antioxidant activity. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicates nanoparticle formation through hydrogen-bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions between zein and CSA. Zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles exhibited enhanced stability in NaCl solution. At a zein-to-CSA ratio of 1:1.25, only 15.7% curcumin was released after 90 min of gastric digestion, and 66% was released in the intestine after 240 min, demonstrating a notable sustained release effect. Furthermore, these nanoparticles increased the scavenging capacity of the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) free radical compared to those composed solely of zein and were essentially nontoxic to Caco-2 cells. This research offers valuable insights into curcumin encapsulation and delivery using zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles.

Revolutionizing Cancer Treatment: The Promising Horizon of Zein Nanosystems

Various nanomaterials have recently become fascinating tools in cancer diagnostic applications because of their multifunctional and inherent molecular characteristics that support efficient diagnosis and image-guided therapy. Zein nanoparticles are a protein derived from maize. It belongs to the class of prolamins possessing a spherical structure with conformational properties similar to those of conventional globular proteins like ribonuclease and insulin. Zein nanoparticles have gained massive interest over the past couple of years owing to their natural hydrophilicity, ease of functionalization, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, thereby improving oral bioavailability, nanoparticle targeting, and prolonged drug administration. Thus, zein nanoparticles are becoming a promising candidate for precision cancer drug delivery. This review highlights the clinical significance of applying zein nanosystems for cancer theragnostic─moreover, the role of zein nanosystems for cancer drug delivery, anticancer agents, and gene therapy. Finally, the difficulties and potential uses of these NPs in cancer treatment and detection are discussed. This review will pave the way for researchers to develop theranostic strategies for precision medicine utilizing zein nanosystems.

Stability of a novel glycosylated peanut protein isolate delivery system loaded with gallic acid

To overcome the shortcomings of gallic acid (GA) application, a novel glycosylated PPI delivery system was prepared for the first time in this study using the interaction between peanut protein isolate (PPI) and GA. The effects of glycosylation on the structural and functional properties of PPI and the functional properties of nanoparticles were investigated. The optimal nanoparticles were prepared at a mass ratio 1:3 of glycosylated PPI to GA with a particle size of 338.351 ± 18.823 nm and a PDI of 0.222 ± 0.039. Hydrophobic interactions were the main force maintaining the nanoparticle structure. The nanoparticles remained stable when exposed to different environmental factors. In addition, the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of nanoparticle-embedded GA were 35.94 ± 3.24 % and 62.59 ± 5.07 % after 108 h, which were significantly higher than those of the free GA group (P < 0.05). This study is important for developing GA and hydrophilic polyphenol delivery systems.

A Novel Strategy to Enhance the pH Stability of Zein Particles through Octenyl Succinic Anhydride-Modified Starch: The Role of Preparation pH

Ensuring the stability of zein nanoparticles at different pH levels is crucial for their application as nanocarriers. In this study, octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-modified starch) was employed to enhance the stability of zein nanoparticles against different pH levels by forming complex nanoparticles with OSA-modified starch. The effect of preparation pH on the stability of the zein/OSA-modified starch nanoparticles was investigated. Sedimentation occurred in zein nanoparticles as the pH reached the isoelectric point. However, the stability of zein nanoparticles at various pH levels significantly improved after adding OSA-modified starch to form zein/OSA-modified starch nanoparticles regardless of whether they were prepared under acidic or alkaline pH conditions. Notably, the stability of zein/OSA-modified starch nanoparticles prepared at an acidic pH was higher than that of those prepared at an alkaline pH, thereby highlighting the critical role of the preparation pH for zein/OSA-modified starch in maintaining the stability of zein. The stable zein/OSA-modified starch nanoparticles developed in this study exhibit significant potential for use in delivery systems across various pH environments.

The role of polysaccharides in improving the functionality of zein coated nanocarriers: Implications for colloidal stability under environmental stresses

Zein has gained popularity over the past few years as an incredible food and bio-based materials. The potential functions and health benefits of zein microcapsules or micro-/nanoparticles in bioactive components delivery, structured emulsion, etc., have received great attention. However, the development has been limited by colloidal destabilization, especially when thermal processing is involved. There is a recent trend in developing zein-polysaccharide complexes (ZPCs), which has tremendously improved the performance of zein-based colloidal carrier systems or emulsions. Increasing our understanding of zein interactions and their contribution to the structure of various macromolecules can help us to develop novel biomaterials that can be used in food, agriculture, biomedicine, and cosmetics. In addition, these nanocarriers are suitable for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds which have positive perspective in food industry. Therefore, this article aimed to review recent advances in the ZPCs that can be applied to functional or health-promoting foods, with a focus on the characteristics of different ZPCs, factors and mechanisms affecting the stability (especially thermal stability) of these complexes, and their application in food industry as a carrier for BCs. Further, the stability of ZPCs based emulsions under processing and physiological environments, as well some typical effective methods are introduced. Also, the principal challenges and prospects were enumerated and discussed.

Zein/Polysaccharide Nanoscale Electrostatic Complexes: Preparation, Drug Encapsulation and Antibacterial Properties

Characterization of zein aqueous solutions, as a function of the ethanol content and pH, was performed, giving information on the zein aggregation state for the construction of complexes. The aggregation state and surface charge of zein was found to depend on the mixed solvent composition and pH. Nonstoichiometric complex nanoparticles (NPECs) were prepared by electrostatically self-assembling zein, as the polycation, and sodium alginate or chondroitin sulfate, as the polyanions, at a pH of 4. A wide range of parameters were investigated: the alcohol-water content in the zein solutions, the charge molar ratios, the solution addition order and the addition rate. The resulting nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering, circular dichroism and scanning electron microscopy. The smallest size for the NPECs (100 nm) was obtained when the polysaccharides acted as the titrate with an addition rate of 0.03 mL·min-1. The NPECs with the best characteristics were selected for loading with ciprofloxacin and then deposited on a cellulosic material in order to evaluate their antibacterial activity. Substantial drug encapsulation with desired drug release profiles were found together with notable antibacterial efficiency, showing the tunability of the properties for both the zein and its complexes with polysaccharides, together with their application potential in the biomedical field.

Prodigiosin/celecoxib-loaded into zein/sodium caseinate nanoparticles as a potential therapy for triple negative breast cancer

Nowadays, breast cancer is considered one of the most upsetting malignancies among females. Encapsulation of celecoxib (CXB) and prodigiosin (PDG) into zein/sodium caseinate nanoparticles (NPs) produce homogenous and spherical nanoparticles with good encapsulation efficiencies (EE %) and bioavailability. In vitro cytotoxicity study conducted on human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cell lines revealed that there was a significant decline in the IC50 for encapsulated drugs when compared to each drug alone or their free combination. In addition, results demonstrated that there is a synergism between CXB and PDG as their combination indices were 0.62251 and 0.15493, respectively. Moreover, results of scratch wound healing assay revealed enhanced antimigratory effect of free drugs and fabricated NPs in comparison to untreated cells. Furthermore, In vitro results manifested that formulated nanoparticles exhibited induction of apoptosis associated with reduced angiogenesis, proliferation, and inflammation. In conclusion, nanoencapsulation of multiple drugs into nanoparticles might be a promising approach to develop new therapies for the managing of triple negative breast cancer.

Research Progress of Protein-Based Bioactive Substance Nanoparticles

Bioactive substances exhibit various physiological activities-such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities-and have great potential for application in food, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals. However, the low solubility, chemical instability, and low bioavailability of bioactive substances limit their application in the food industry. Using nanotechnology to prepare protein nanoparticles to encapsulate and deliver active substances is a promising approach due to the abundance, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of proteins. Common protein-based nanocarriers include nano-emulsions, nano-gels, nanoparticles, and nano complexes. In this review, we give an overview of protein-based nanoparticle fabrication methods, highlighting their pros and cons. Additionally, we discuss the applications and current issues regarding the utilization of protein-based nanoparticles in the food industry. Finally, we provide perspectives on future development directions, with a focus on classifying bioactive substances and their functional properties.

Non-Invasive Vaccines: Challenges in Formulation and Vaccine Adjuvants

Given the limitations of conventional invasive vaccines, such as the requirement for a cold chain system and trained personnel, needle-based injuries, and limited immunogenicity, non-invasive vaccines have gained significant attention. Although numerous approaches for formulating and administrating non-invasive vaccines have emerged, each of them faces its own challenges associated with vaccine bioavailability, toxicity, and other issues. To overcome such limitations, researchers have created novel supplementary materials and delivery systems. The goal of this review article is to provide vaccine formulation researchers with the most up-to-date information on vaccine formulation and the immunological mechanisms available, to identify the technical challenges associated with the commercialization of non-invasive vaccines, and to guide future research and development efforts.

Purification and characterization of a chicory polysaccharide and its application in stabilizing genistein for cancer therapy

Genistein is an isoflavone with chemopreventive and therapeutic effects on various types of cancers. Apparently, in contrast to the advantages of multi-target therapy, the poor water solubility of this molecule is a major obstacle to its clinical application. In this work, zein/chicory polysaccharide nanoparticles (G-zein-P NPs) were prepared by pH-induced antisolvent precipitation method for the encapsulation of genistein. Firstly, an acidic polysaccharide (CIP70-2) with a molecular weight of 66.7 kDa was identified from the roots of chicory (Cichorium intybus). This natural macromolecule was identified as a plant pectin, for which the structure included RG-I (rhamnogalacturonan I) and HG (homogalacturonan) regions. Using this polysaccharide, G-zein-P NPs were prepared, in which the water solubility of genistein was improved by encapsulation. The encapsulation efficiency and loading efficiency of genistein by composite nanoparticles reached 99.0 % and 6.96 %, respectively. In vitro tumor inhibition experiments showed that the inhibitory effect of G-zein-P NPs on HepG2 cells was twice that of unencapsulated genistein. Moreover, the significant inhibition of tumor development and metastasis by G-zein-P NPs was observed in zebrafish xenograft models. The results suggested that zein/chicory polysaccharide nanoparticles may be a promising delivery carrier for genistein application in cancer prevention and therapy.

Zein nanoparticles for drug delivery: Preparation methods and biological applications

Zein, a vegetable protein extracted from corn (Zea mays L.), forms a gastro-resistant and mucoadhesive polymer that is cheap and easy to obtain and facilitates the encapsulation of bioactives with hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic properties. The methods used for synthesizing these nanoparticles include antisolvent precipitation/nanoprecipitation, pH-driven, electrospraying, and solvent emulsification-evaporation methods. Each method has its advantages in the preparation of nanocarriers, nevertheless, all of them enable the production of zein nanoparticles that are stable and resistant to environmental factors, with different biological activities required in the cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, zein nanoparticles are promising nanocarriers that can encapsulate various bioactives with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antidiabetic properties. This article reviews the principal methods for obtaining zein nanoparticles containing bioactives, the advantages and characteristics of each method, as well as the main biological applications of nanotechnology-based formulations.

Protein-Based Fat Replacers: A Focus on Fabrication Methods and Fat-Mimic Mechanisms

The increasing occurrence of obesity and other non-communicable diseases has shifted the human diet towards reduced calorie intake. This drives the market to develop low-fat/non-fat food products with limited deterioration of textural properties. Thus, developing high-quality fat replacers which can replicate the role of fat in the food matrix is essential. Among all the established types of fat replacers, protein-based ones have shown a higher compatibility with a wide range of foods with limited contribution to the total calories, including protein isolate/concentrate, microparticles, and microgels. The approach to fabricating fat replacers varies with their types, such as thermal-mechanical treatment, anti-solvent precipitation, enzymatic hydrolysis, complexation, and emulsification. Their detailed process is summarized in the present review with a focus on the latest findings. The fat-mimic mechanisms of fat replacers have received little attention compared to the fabricating methods; attempts are also made to explain the underlying principles of fat replacers from the physicochemical prospect. Finally, a future direction on the development of desirable fat replacers in a more sustainable way was also pointed out.

Nano-Sized Fucoidan Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes: Recent Advances in Design and Prospects for Biomedical Applications

The marine polysaccharide fucoidan (FUC) is a promising polymer for pharmaceutical research and development of novel drug delivery systems with modified release and targeted delivery. The presence of a sulfate group in the polysaccharide makes FUC an excellent candidate for the formation of interpolyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with various polycations. However, due to the structural diversity of FUC, the design of FUC-based nanoformulations is challenging. This review describes the main strategies for the use of FUC-based PECs to develop drug delivery systems with improved biopharmaceutical properties, including nanocarriers in the form of FUC-chitosan PECs for pH-sensitive oral delivery, targeted delivery systems, and polymeric nanoparticles for improved hydrophobic drug delivery (e.g., FUC-zein PECs, core-shell structures obtained by the layer-by-layer self-assembly method, and self-assembled hydrophobically modified FUC particles). The importance of a complex study of the FUC structure, and the formation process of PECs based on it for obtaining reproducible polymeric nanoformulations with the desired properties, is also discussed.

Zein Nanoparticles Containing Arginine-Based Surfactants: Physicochemical Characterization and Effect on the Biological Properties

Cationic surfactants carry antimicrobial activity, based on their interaction and disruption of cell membranes. Nonetheless, their intrinsic toxicity limits their applicability. To overcome this issue, a feasible strategy consists of using solid nanoparticles to improve their delivery. The zein nanoparticles were loaded with four cationic arginine-based surfactants: one single chain Nα-lauroyl-arginine (LAM) and three Gemini surfactants Nα Nω-Bis (Nα-lauroyl-arginine) α, ω-diamide) (C₃(LA)₂, C₆(LA)₂ and C₉(LA)₂). Blank and loaded zein nanoparticles were characterized in terms of size, polydispersity and zeta potential. Furthermore, the antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts and the hemolytic activity were investigated and compared to the surfactants in a solution. Nanoparticles were found to be monodisperse, presenting a size of between 180-341 nm, a pdI of <0.2 and a positive zeta potential of between +13 and +53 mV, remaining stable over 365 days. The nanoencapsulation maintained the antimicrobial activity as unaltered, while the extensive hemolytic activity found for the surfactants in a solution was reduced drastically. Nuclear Magnetic Ressonance (NMR), molecular docking and monolayer findings indicated that zein entraps the surfactants, interfering in the surfactant-membrane interactions. Accordingly, the nanoepcasulation of arginine surfactants improved their selectivity, while the cationic charges were free to attack and destroy bacteria and fungi; the aliphatic chains were not available to disrupt the cellular membranes.

Intestinal epithelium penetration of liraglutide via cholic acid pre-complexation and zein/rhamnolipids nanocomposite delivery

BACKGROUND

Oral administration offered a painless way and improved compliance for diabetics. However, the emerging GLP-1 analog peptide drugs for diabetes primarily rely on the injection route, and the development of oral dosage forms was hampered by the low oral bioavailability due to the structural vulnerability to digestive enzymes and molecule impermeability in the gastrointestinal tract.

RESULTS

In this study, the non-covalent interaction between cholic acid (CA) and liraglutide (LIRA) was found and theoretically explained by molecular docking simulation. Formation of this physical complex of liraglutide and cholic acid (LIRA/CA Complex) reduced the self-aggregation of LIRA and accelerated intestinal epithelium penetration. By the anti-solvent method, LIRA/CA Complex was loaded into zein/rhamnolipids nanoparticles (LIRA/CA@Zein/RLs) with a loading efficiency of 76.8%. LIRA was protected from fast enzymatic degradation by the hydrophobic zein component. Meanwhile, Rhamnolipids, a glycolipid with surface activity, promoted endocytosis while also stabilizing the nanoparticles. The two components worked synergistically to ensure the delivery of LIRA/CA Complex to intestinal villi and improved oral absorption without disrupting tight junctions. LIRA/CA@Zein/RLs demonstrated a considerable intestinal epithelium absorption in mouse gastrointestinal section and a retention in vivo over 24 h, resulting in a significant and long-lasting hypoglycemic effect in Type 2 diabetes mice.

CONCLUSION

This study provided a promising oral delivery approach for LIRA and exhibited the potential for further translation into clinical application.

Advanced applications of sustainable and biological nano-polymers in agricultural production

Though still in its infancy, the use of nanotechnology has shown promise for improving and enhancing agriculture: nanoparticles (NP) offer the potential solution to depleted and dry soils, a method for the controlled release of agrochemicals, and offer an easier means of gene editing in plants. Due to the continued growth of the global population, it is undeniable that our agricultural systems and practices will need to become more efficient in the very near future. However, this new technology comes with significant worry regarding environmental contamination. NP applied to soils could wash into aquifers and contaminate drinking water, or NP applied to food crops may carry into the end product and contaminate our food supply. These are valid concerns that are not likely to be fully answered in the immediate future due to the complexity of soil-NP interactions and other confounding variables. Therefore, it is obviously preferred that NP used outdoors at this early stage be biodegradable, non-toxic, cost-effective, and sustainably manufactured. Fortunately, there are many different biologically derived, cost-efficient, and biocompatible polymers that are suitable for agricultural applications. In this mini-review, we discuss some promising organic nanomaterials and their potential use for the optimization and enhancement of agricultural practices.

Zein Nanoparticles Containing Arginine-Phenylalanine-Based Surfactants: Stability, Antimicrobial and Hemolytic Activity

Although cationic surfactants have a remarkable antimicrobial activity, they present an intrinsic toxicity that discourages their usage. In this work novel zein nanoparticles loaded with arginine-phenylalanine-based surfactants are presented. The nanoparticles were loaded with two single polar head (LAM and PNHC₁₂) and two with double amino acid polar head surfactants, arginine-phenylalanine (C₁₂PAM, PANHC₁₂). The formulations were characterized and their stability checked up to 365 days. Furthermore, the antimicrobial and hemolytic activities were investigated. Finally, NMR and molecular docking studies were carried out to elucidate the possible interaction mechanisms of surfactant-zein. The nanoparticles were obtained with satisfactory size, zeta potential and dispersibility. The surfactants containing arginine-phenylalanine residues were found to be more stable. The nanoencapsulation maintained the antimicrobial activities unaltered in comparison to the surfactants' solutions. These results are in agreement with the NMR and docking findings, suggesting that zein interacts with the surfactants by the aromatic rings of phenylalanine. As a result, the cationic charges and part of the aliphatic chains are freely available to attack the bacteria and fungi, while not available to disrupt the cellular membranes. This approach opens new possibilities for using cationic surfactants and benefits from their extraordinary antimicrobial responses for several applications.

The thermal resistance and targeting release of zein-sodium alginate binary complexes as a vehicle for the oral delivery of riboflavin

Riboflavin (RF) is one kind of vitamin B, which has low bioavailability due to the low water solubility and the high photosensitivity during food processing and storage. The anti-solvent precipitation method was applied to fabricate a zein-sodium alginate (SA) binary complexes delivery system with the loading of RF, which was aimed to enhance the delivery efficiency, stability, and controlled release of RF in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The formation mechanism, physicochemical properties as well as the digestion behaviors were investigated. The incorporation of SA significantly increased the diameter and decreased the surface positive charge of the nanoparticles. The surface morphology of the nanoparticles was characterized using the scanning electron microscope. The FTIR analysis revealed that the electrostatic attraction was the dominant binding force in the formation of the zein-SA binary complexes nanoparticles. In addition, the study on the in vitro release process showed that the zein-SA nanoparticles could delay the release of the RF under the simulated GI tract conditions, which improved their oral bioavailability. In summary, the zein-SA nanoparticle is an effective vehicle for the oral delivery of RF as well as other vitamins and bioactives in the applications of food and nutrition.

Encapsulation of vitexin-rhamnoside based on zein/pectin nanoparticles improved its stability and bioavailability

To improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of vitexin-rhamnoside (VR) isolated from hawthorn, it was encapsulated by the zein-pectin nanoparticles system. When the mass ratio of zein to pectin was 1:4, the particle size of nanoparticles was 222.7 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency of VR was 67%. Analysis with the scanning electron microscope (SEM), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed that the zein-VR-pectin nanoparticles were spherical and uniformly distributed. The hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions were the main forces to assemble the nanoparticles. The nanoparticle had good stability at pH 3-8.5 with particle sizes ranging from 234 to 251 nm, and the nanoparticles were able to resist the relatively lower ionic strength. In vitro simulated digestion and rat in vivo intestinal perfusion experiments showed that the nanoparticles exhibited significant slow-release properties and the highest absorption rate in the duodenal segment of rats, with Ka and Papp of 0.830 ± 0.11 and 17.004 ± 1.09. These results provided a theoretical and technological approach for the construction of flavonoids delivery system with slow-release properties and improved bioavailability.

Development of self-assembled zein-fucoidan complex nanoparticles as a delivery system for resveratrol

Resveratrol is a well-studied dietary polyphenol with diverse health-promoting bioactivities. However, the aqueous insolubility and chemical instability of resveratrol hamper its practical application. This study set out to address these limitations by constructing zein-fucoidan composite nanoparticles as a delivery system of resveratrol. The optimized resveratrol-loaded zein-fucoidan particles (RE-ZFP) were obtained at zein-to-fucoidan ratio of 2:1 (w/w) and zein-to-resveratrol ratio of 10:1 (w/w), and RE-ZFP showed evenly distributed and smoothly spherical microstructures, mean particle size of 121 nm, ζ-potential of - 41 mV, encapsulation efficiency for resveratrol of 95.4%. Electrostatic, steric, hydrophobic, and hydrogen-bonding interactions were major forces required to form RE-ZFP. In addition, RE-ZFP exhibited greater photostability and colloidal stability (including pH, ionic, and storage stabilities) than resveratrol-loaded zein particles (RE-ZP). Particularly, RE-ZFP showed fairly good pH stability. Moreover, zein-fucoidan-based delivery system exhibited a controlled release of resveratrol under in vitro digestion. Finally, zein-fucoidan nanocarriers presented extremely low cytotoxicity to HIEC-6 cells. All the findings demonstrate that the zein-fucoidan nanoparticles developed in the current work will be a prospective strategy for loading resveratrol and other hydrophobic bioactive ingredients and thus extending their application in nutraceuticals or pharmaceuticals.

Nanoencapsulation of Thyme Essential Oils: Formulation, Characterization, Storage Stability, and Biological Activity

This study aimed to improve the effectiveness of Thymus capitatus and Thymus algeriensis essential oils (EOs), as food preservatives, through their encapsulation in different delivery systems (DSs), namely nanoemulsions and biopolymeric nanoparticles. DSs’ preparation is tailored to enhance not only physical stability but also resulting Eos’ antioxidant and antibacterial activities through different fabrication methods (high-pressure homogenization emulsification or antisolvent precipitation) and using different emulsifiers and stabilizers. DSs are characterized in terms of droplet size distribution, ζ-potential, and stability over time, as well as antioxidant and antibacterial activities of encapsulated EOs. The antioxidant activity was studied by the FRAP assay; the antibacterial activity was evaluated by the well diffusion method. EOs of different compositions were tested, namely two EOs extracted from Thymus capitatus, harvested from Tunisia during different periods of the year (TC1 and TC2), and one EO extracted from Thymus algeriensis (TA). The composition of TC1 was significantly richer in carvacrol than TC2 and TA. The most stable formulation was the zein-based nanoparticles prepared with TC1 and stabilized with maltodextrins, which exhibit droplet size, polydispersity index, ζ-potential, and encapsulation efficiency of 74.7 nm, 0.14, 38.7 mV, and 99.66%, respectively. This formulation led also to an improvement in the resulting antioxidant (60.69 µg/mg vs. 57.67 µg/mg for non-encapsulated TC1) and antibacterial (inhibition diameters varying between 12 and 33 mm vs. a range between 12 and 28 mm for non-encapsulated TC1) activities of EO. This formulation offers a promising option for the effective use of natural antibacterial bioactive molecules in the food industry against pathogenic and spoilage bacteria.

Oral organic nanovaccines against bacterial and viral diseases

Vaccines have saved millions of humans and animals from deadly diseases. Many vaccines are still under development to fight against lethal diseases. Indeed, subunit vaccines are a versatile approach with several advantageous attributes, but they lack strong immunogenicity. Nanotechnology is an avenue to vaccine development because nanoparticles may serve as nanocarriers and adjuvants, which are critical aspects for oral vaccines. This review provides an update of oral organic nanovaccines, describing suitable nanomaterials for oral vaccine design and recent (last five-year view) oral nanovaccine developments to fight against those principal pathogens causing human and animal diseases.

Relation between Droplet Size Distributions and Physical Stability for Zein Microfluidized Emulsions

Zein, a subproduct of the food industry and a protein, possesses limited applications due to its high hydrophobic character. The objective of this research was to investigate the influence of homogenization pressure and cycles on the volumetric mean diameter (D_4,3), span values, and Turbiscan Stability Index (TSI) using the response surface methodology for microfluidized emulsions containing zein as a unique stabilizer. Results showed that homogenization pressure seems to be the most influential parameter to obtain enhanced physical stability and droplet size distributions, with the optimum being 20,000 psi. Interestingly, the optimum number of cycles for volumetric diameter, span value, and TSI is not the same. Although a decrease of D_4,3 with number of cycles is observed (optimum three cycles), this provokes an increase of span values (optimum one cycle) due to the recoalescence effect. Since physical stability is influenced by D_4,3 and span, the minimum for TSI is observed at the middle level of the cycles (2 cycles). This work highlights that not only volumetric diameter, but also span value must be taken into consideration in order to obtain stable zein emulsions. In addition, this study wants to extend the limited knowledge about zein-based emulsions processed with a Microfluidizer device.

Glycosylation of Zein Hydrolysate as a Nanocarrier for Lutein Delivery: Preparation and Stability

Lutein is a functional carotenoid that has a wide range of physiological benefits in humans. However, it easily degrades and becomes inactivated during storage and processing, resulting in low bioavailability. The development of new nanocarriers can effectively improve the stability and biological activity of lutein. In this study, zein hydrolysate (ZH) carriers were glycosylated with glucosamine (GLU) under the action of transglutaminase, and lutein-loaded glycosylated ZH nanoparticles (GZH-LUT) were constructed by liquid–liquid dispersion. The results showed that the GZH-LUT particles had a narrow size distribution in the range of 200–300 nm and a decreased zeta potential and polydispersity index. In particular, GZH trapped lutein more efficiently than ZH. In addition, GZH-LUT had better physical and chemical properties, including better water solubility, oxidative stability, and environmental stability than free lutein and ZH-LUT. These results indicate that glycosylated zein hydrolysate has the potential to be used as a novel protein-based nanocarrier to enhance the solubility and stability of lutein, which can further improve its bioavailability.

Polysaccharide-Zein Composite Nanoparticles for Enhancing Cellular Uptake and Oral Bioavailability of Curcumin: Characterization, Anti-colorectal Cancer Effect, and Pharmacokinetics

Curcumin (CUR) has demonstrated promising potential as a therapeutic agent against colorectal cancer (CRC). However, its intrinsic shortcomings, including oxidative instability, sensitivity to gastrointestinal (GI) hydrolytic/enzymatic action, and susceptibility to biotransformation and systemic elimination, have greatly undermined its value for application in clinical settings. The development of carriers, in particular oral formulations, for its efficient delivery has remained an important direction in nutraceutical research. In the present work, CUR-encapsulated nanoparticles were fabricated with zein alone (Zein-CUR) and with zein and a polysaccharide (PS) [gum Arabic (GA), hyaluronic acid (HA) and pectin (PC), respectively] (PS-Zein-CUR). Their physicochemical and biological properties were evaluated in a series of in vitro and in vivo assays. Dynamic light scattering analysis showed an increase in the particle size of the nanoparticles from 129.0 nm (Zein-CUR) to 188.8–346.4 nm (PS-Zein-CUR). The three PS-Zein-CUR formulations had significantly higher (17–22%) CUR encapsulation efficiency (EE) than Zein-CUR. Among them, HA-Zein-CUR exhibited the highest EE and loading capacity. Zeta potential and FTIR spectra indicated the involvement of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds in the formation of the PS-Zein-CUR. In human CRC cell lines (HCT8, HCT29, and HCT116), the three PS-Zein-CUR and CUR all effectively inhibited cell viability and colony formation (HA-Zein-CUR > PC-Zein-CUR > GA-Zein-CUR/CUR). HA-Zein-CUR and PC-Zein-CUR also resulted in significantly higher cellular uptake of CUR than GA-Zein-CUR and CUR. Simulated GI-digestion assay demonstrated significantly improved controlled-release properties of these two formulations. Further pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution assays in a CRC subcutaneous xenograft model in nude mice corroborated the enhanced pharmacokinetic properties of intragastric administration of HA-Zein-CUR compared with that of free CUR (3 times higher C_max and 9.18 times higher plasma AUC). HA-Zein-CUR also led to enhanced delivery and accumulation of CUR in major organs/tissues, in particular CRC tumors and colon. These results together support that HA-Zein-CUR has promising potential as an oral agent for the control of CRC.

Hyaluronic Acid-Zein Core-Shell Nanoparticles Improve the Anticancer Effect of Curcumin Alone or in Combination with Oxaliplatin against Colorectal Cancer via CD44-Mediated Cellular Uptake

Curcumin (CUR) has been reported to enhance the chemotherapeutic efficacy of oxaliplatin (OXA) in colorectal cancer (CRC) and inhibit OXA-induced side effects. However, shortcomings, including poor solubility and sensitivity to metabolic transformation, have greatly undermined its value in clinical applications. In this study, the potential of CUR-encapsulated hyaluronic acid (HA)–zein composite nanoparticles (HZ-CUR) as an oral adjuvant for OXA-based chemotherapy was assessed in representative CRC models in mice. Cell viability and colony formation assays in three human CRC cell lines showed that HZ-CUR had a stronger anti-CRC effect than free CUR when given alone and a stronger synergistic effect when combined with OXA, especially in HCT116 and HT29 cell lines. Western blotting, cellular uptake, and RNA interference assays revealed that OXA-induced upregulation of CD44 likely contributed to enhanced cellular uptake of HZ-CUR and thus the enhanced anticancer effect. The significantly improved anti-CRC effects and potential underlying mechanism of HZ-CUR alone and in combination with OXA were further validated in a subcutaneous xenograft and an in situ CRC model in mice. These findings support that HZ-CUR may be an effective oral adjuvant for OXA-based CRC chemotherapy that would not only improve its efficacy but also help reduce the associated side effects.

Tremella polysaccharides-coated zein nanoparticles for enhancing stability and bioaccessibility of curcumin

The purpose of the present research was to examine the ability of Tremella polysaccharide (TP) to stabilize zein nanoparticles (zein NPs) and appraise the performance of zein/Tremella polysaccharide nanoparticles (zein/TP NPs) in terms of encapsulating and delivering curcumin. In this study, the zein/TP NPs were fabricated based on the anti-solvent precipitation method, which were used to protect and deliver curcumin. The results suggested that TP could be deposited on the surface of zein NPs by virtue of electrostatic interaction, so as to improve the hydrophilicity of zein, provide better protection for curcumin and assemble more stable nanoparticles. Compared with zein NPs (54.73%), the zein/TP NPs exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency of curcumin (93.34%) and excellent re-dispersibility. Furthermore, the retention rate of curcumin encapsulated in zein/TP NPs reached 80.78% and 90.74% after UV irradiation and 80 °C heat treatment for 2 h, respectively, which proved that the addition of TP significantly improved the stability of curcumin. Meanwhile, in vitro digestion study demonstrated that the bioaccessibility of curcumin encapsulated in zein/TP NPs increased by 37.36% compared with in zein NPs. Therefore, the zein/TP NPs may be served as an effective and potential carrier for the delivery of nutraceuticals.

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Zein/tremella polysaccharide nanoparticles (zein/TP NPs) were fabricated via anti-solvent deposition method.

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Deposition of TP on zein nanoparticles improved the encapsulation efficiency of curcumin.

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The mass ratio of zein to TP influenced physicochemical stabilities of nanoparticles.

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Curcumin loaded in zein/TP NPs showed superior photostability and thermal stability.

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Zein/TP NPs enhanced the bioaccessibility of curcumin in vitro gastrointestinal fluids.

SCLAREIN (SCLAREol contained in zeIN) nanoparticles: Development and characterization of an innovative natural nanoformulation

Sclareol is a labdane diterpene which carries on a broad range of biological activities. However, its poor water solubility and bioavailability are the foremost drawbacks that limit its application in therapeutics. The purpose of this investigation was to develop a natural nanoformulation made up of a biopolymer i.e. zein and sclareol in order to address this issue and to enhance the pharmacological efficacy of the drug. The sclarein nanoparticles (sclareol-loaded zein nanosystems) showed a typical monomodal pattern, characterized by a mean diameter of ~120 nm, a narrow size distribution and a surface charge of ~-30 mV. The evaluation of the entrapment efficiency and the drug-loading capacity of the nanosystems demonstrated the noteworthy ability of the protein matrix to hold sclareol while allowing a gradual release of the compound over time. The nanosystems increased the cytotoxicity of sclareol at a drug concentration of ≥5 μM with respect to the free compound after just 24 h incubation against various cancer cell lines. Indeed, the interaction of tritiated sclarein formulations with cells showed a time-dependent cell uptake of the nanosystems commencing as early as 1 h from the onset of incubation, favouring a significant decrease of the efficacious concentration of the drug.

Structural characteristics and in vitro and in vivo immunoregulatory properties of a gluco-arabinan from Angelica dahurica

A water-soluble polysaccharide identified here as ADP80-2 was acquired from Angelica dahurica. ADP80-2 was a gluco-arabinan composed of arabinose and a trace of glucose with a molecular weight of 9950 g/mol. The backbone of ADP80-2 comprised →5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →3, 5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, with a terminal branch α-L-Araf-(1 → residue. In terms of immunoregulatory activity, ADP80-2 can significantly promote the phagocytosis, the production of nitric oxide (NO), and the secretion of cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) of macrophage. In addition to the cellular immunomodulatory activities, the chemokines related to immunoregulation were significantly increased in the zebrafish model after treated with ADP80-2. These biological results indicated that ADP80-2 with immunomodulatory effects was expected to be useful for the development of new immunomodulatory agents. Simultaneously, the discovery of ADP80-2 further revealed the chemical composition of A. dahurica used as a traditional Chinese medicine and spice.