Implications of Resident Memory T Cells for Transplantation

Single cell RNA-sequencing identifies the effect of Normothermic ex vivo liver perfusion on liver-resident T cells

BACKGROUND

Normothermic ex vivo liver perfusion (NEVLP) is an exciting strategy to preserve livers prior to transplant, however, the effects of NEVLP on the phenotype of tissue-resident immune cells is largely unknown. The presence of tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) in the liver may protect against acute rejection and decrease allograft dysfunction. Therefore, we investigated the effects of NEVLP on liver TRMs and assessed the ability of anti-inflammatory cytokines to reduce TRM activation during NEVLP.

METHODS

Rat livers underwent NEVLP with or without the addition of IL-10 and TGF-β. Naïve and cold storage livers served as controls. Following preservation, TRM T cell gene expression profiles were assessed through single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). Differential gene expression analysis was performed with Wilcoxon rank sum test to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with a specific treatment group. Using the online Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID), gene set enrichment was then conducted with Fisher's exact test on DEGs to highlight differentially regulated pathways and functional terms associated with treatment groups.

RESULTS

Through scRNA-seq analysis, an atlas of liver-resident memory T cell subsets was created for all livers. TRM T cells could be identified in all livers, and through scRNA-seq, DEG was identified with Wilcoxon rank sum test at FDR < 0.05. Based on the gene set enrichment analysis of DEGs using Fisher's exact test, NEVLP is associated with downregulation of multiple gene enrichment pathways associated with surface proteins. Furthermore, NEVLP with anti-inflammatory cytokines was associated with down regulation of 52 genes in TRM T cells when compared to NEVLP alone (FDR <0.05), most of which are pro-inflammatory.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to create an atlas of liver TRM T cells in the rat liver undergoing NEVLP and demonstrate the effects of NEVLP on liver TRM T cells at the single cell gene expression level.

Bergenin potentiates BCG efficacy by enriching mycobacteria-specific adaptive memory responses via the Akt-Foxo-Stat4 axis

The extensive inability of the BCG vaccine to produce long-term immune protection has not only accelerated the disease burden but also progressed towards the onset of drug resistance. In our previous study, we have reported the promising effects of Bergenin (Berg) in imparting significant protection as an adjunct immunomodulator against tuberculosis (TB). In congruence with our investigations, we delineated the impact of Berg on T cells, wherein it enhanced adaptive memory responses by modulating key transcription factors, STAT4 and Akt. We translated this finding into the vaccine model of TB and observed a notable reduction in the burden of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) in BCG-Berg co-immunized mice as compared to BCG vaccination. Moreover, Berg, along with BCG, also aided in a heightened proinflammatory response milieu that corroborates the host protective immune response against TB. Furthermore, this response aligns with the escalated central and resident memory responses by modulating the Akt-Foxo-Stat4 axis, which plays a crucial role in enhancing the vaccine efficacy of BCG. These findings showcase the utilization of immunomodulator Berg as an immunoprophylactic agent to upgrade immunological memory, making it a more effective defender against TB.

RNA-sequencing of Human Kidney Allografts and Delineation of T-Cell Genes, Gene Sets, and Pathways Associated With Acute T Cell-mediated Rejection

BACKGROUND

Delineation of T-cell genes, gene sets, pathways, and T-cell subtypes associated with acute T cell-mediated rejection (TCMR) may improve its management.

METHODS

We performed bulk RNA-sequencing of 34 kidney allograft biopsies (16 Banff TCMR and 18 no rejection [NR] biopsies) from 34 adult recipients of human kidneys. Computational analysis was performed to determine the differential intragraft expression of T-cell genes at the level of single-gene, gene set, and pathways.

RESULTS

T-cell signaling pathway gene sets for plenary T-cell activation were overrepresented in TCMR biopsies compared with NR biopsies. Heightened expression of T-cell signaling genes was validated using external TCMR biopsies. Pro- and anti-inflammatory immune gene sets were enriched, and metabolism gene sets were depleted in TCMR biopsies compared with NR biopsies. Gene signatures of regulatory T cells, Th1 cells, Th2 cells, Th17 cells, T follicular helper cells, CD4 tissue-resident memory T cells, and CD8 tissue-resident memory T cells were enriched in TCMR biopsies compared with NR biopsies. T-cell exhaustion and anergy were also molecular attributes of TCMR. Gene sets associated with antigen processing and presentation, and leukocyte transendothelial migration were overexpressed in TCMR biopsies compared with NR biopsies. Cellular deconvolution of graft infiltrating cells by gene expression patterns identified CD8 T cell to be the most abundant T-cell subtype infiltrating the allograft during TCMR.

CONCLUSIONS

Our delineation of intragraft T-cell gene expression patterns, in addition to yielding new biological insights, may help prioritize T-cell genes and T-cell subtypes for therapeutic targeting.

Dynamic establishment of recipient resident memory T cell repertoire after human intestinal transplantation

BACKGROUND

Understanding formation of the human tissue resident memory T cell (TRM) repertoire requires longitudinal access to human non-lymphoid tissues.

METHODS

By applying flow cytometry and next generation sequencing to serial blood, lymphoid tissue, and gut samples from 16 intestinal transplantation (ITx) patients, we assessed the origin, distribution, and specificity of human TRMs at phenotypic and clonal levels.

FINDINGS

Donor age ≥1 year and blood T cell macrochimerism (peak level ≥4%) were associated with delayed establishment of stable recipient TRM repertoires in the transplanted ileum. T cell receptor (TCR) overlap between paired gut and blood repertoires from ITx patients was significantly greater than that in healthy controls, demonstrating increased gut-blood crosstalk after ITx. Crosstalk with the circulating pool remained high for years of follow-up. TCR sequences identifiable in pre-Tx recipient gut but not those in lymphoid tissues alone were more likely to populate post-Tx ileal allografts. Clones detected in both pre-Tx gut and lymphoid tissue had distinct transcriptional profiles from those identifiable in only one tissue. Recipient T cells were distributed widely throughout the gut, including allograft and native colon, which had substantial repertoire overlap. Both alloreactive and microbe-reactive recipient T cells persisted in transplanted ileum, contributing to the TRM repertoire.

INTERPRETATION

Our studies reveal human intestinal TRM repertoire establishment from the circulation, preferentially involving lymphoid tissue counterparts of recipient intestinal T cell clones, including TRMs. We have described the temporal and spatial dynamics of this active crosstalk between the circulating pool and the intestinal TRM pool.

FUNDING

This study was funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) P01 grant AI106697.

Research progress on intestinal tissue-resident memory T cells in inflammatory bowel disease

Tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells are a recently discovered subpopulation of memory T cells that reside in non-lymphoid tissues such as the intestine and skin and do not enter the bloodstream. The intestine encounters numerous pathogens daily. Intestinal mucosal immunity requires a balance between immune responses to pathogens and tolerance to food antigens and symbiotic microbiota. Therefore, intestinal TRM cells exhibit unique characteristics. In healthy intestines, TRM cells induce necessary inflammation to strengthen the intestinal barrier and inhibit bacterial translocation. During intestinal infections, TRM cells rapidly eliminate pathogens by proliferating, releasing cytokines, and recruiting other immune cells. Moreover, certain TRM cell subsets may have regulatory functions. The involvement of TRM cells in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is increasingly recognized as a critical factor. In IBD, the number of pro-inflammatory TRM cells increases, whereas the number of regulatory subgroups decreases. Additionally, the classic markers, CD69 and CD103, are not ideal for intestinal TRM cells. Here, we review the phenotype, development, maintenance, and function of intestinal TRM cells, as well as the latest findings in the context of IBD. Further understanding of the function of intestinal TRM cells and distinguishing their subgroups is crucial for developing therapeutic strategies to target these cells.

Tissue-resident memory T cells and lung immunopathology

Rapid reaction to microbes invading mucosal tissues is key to protect the host against disease. Respiratory tissue-resident memory T (TRM ) cells provide superior immunity against pathogen infection and/or re-infection, due to their presence at the site of pathogen entry. However, there has been emerging evidence that exuberant TRM -cell responses contribute to the development of various chronic respiratory conditions including pulmonary sequelae post-acute viral infections. In this review, we have described the characteristics of respiratory TRM cells and processes underlying their development and maintenance. We have reviewed TRM -cell protective functions against various respiratory pathogens as well as their pathological activities in chronic lung conditions including post-viral pulmonary sequelae. Furthermore, we have discussed potential mechanisms regulating the pathological activity of TRM cells and proposed therapeutic strategies to alleviate TRM -cell-mediated lung immunopathology. We hope that this review provides insights toward the development of future vaccines or interventions that can harness the superior protective abilities of TRM cells, while minimizing the potential for immunopathology, a particularly important topic in the era of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.

Human circulating and tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells

Our current knowledge of human memory CD8⁺ T cells is derived largely from studies of the intravascular space. However, emerging data are starting to challenge some of the dogmas based on this work, suggesting that a conceptual revision may be necessary. In this review, we provide a brief history of the field and summarize the biology of circulating and tissue-resident memory CD8⁺ T cells, which are ultimately responsible for effective immune surveillance. We also incorporate recent findings into a biologically integrated model of human memory CD8⁺ T cell differentiation. Finally, we address how future innovative human studies could improve our understanding of anatomically localized CD8⁺ T cells to inform the development of more effective immunotherapies and vaccines, the need for which has been emphasized by the global struggle to contain severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

Cellular activation pathways and interaction networks in vascularized composite allotransplantation

Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) is an evolving field of reconstructive surgery that has revolutionized the treatment of patients with devastating injuries, including those with limb losses or facial disfigurement. The transplanted units are typically comprised of different tissue types, including skin, mucosa, blood and lymphatic vasculature, muscle, and bone. It is widely accepted that the antigenicity of some VCA components, such as skin, is particularly potent in eliciting a strong recipient rejection response following transplantation. The fine line between tolerance and rejection of the graft is orchestrated by different cell types, including both donor and recipient-derived lymphocytes, macrophages, and other immune and donor-derived tissue cells (e.g., endothelium). Here, we delineate the role of different cell and tissue types during VCA rejection. Rejection of VCA grafts and the necessity of life-long multidrug immunosuppression remains one of the major challenges in this field. This review sheds light on recent developments in decoding the cellular signature of graft rejection in VCA and how these may, ultimately, influence the clinical management of VCA patients by way of novel therapies that target specific cellular processes.

Berberine governs NOTCH3/AKT signaling to enrich lung-resident memory T cells during tuberculosis

Stimulation of naïve T cells during primary infection or vaccination drives the differentiation and expansion of effector and memory T cells that mediate immediate and long-term protection. Despite self-reliant rescue from infection, BCG vaccination, and treatment, long-term memory is rarely established against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) resulting in recurrent tuberculosis (TB). Here, we show that berberine (BBR) enhances innate defense mechanisms against M.tb and stimulates the differentiation of Th1/Th17 specific effector memory (TEM), central memory (TCM), and tissue-resident memory (TRM) responses leading to enhanced host protection against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant TB. Through whole proteome analysis of human PBMCs derived from PPD+ healthy individuals, we identify BBR modulated NOTCH3/PTEN/AKT/FOXO1 pathway as the central mechanism of elevated TEM and TRM responses in the human CD4+ T cells. Moreover, BBR-induced glycolysis resulted in enhanced effector functions leading to superior Th1/Th17 responses in human and murine T cells. This regulation of T cell memory by BBR remarkably enhanced the BCG-induced anti-tubercular immunity and lowered the rate of TB recurrence due to relapse and re-infection. These results thus suggest tuning immunological memory as a feasible approach to augment host resistance against TB and unveil BBR as a potential adjunct immunotherapeutic and immunoprophylactic against TB.

Humanized anti-IL-26 monoclonal antibody as a novel targeted therapy for chronic graft-versus-host disease

IL-26 is a Th17 cytokine, with its gene being absent in rodents. To characterize the in vivo immunological effects of IL-26 in chronic systemic inflammation, we used human IL26 transgenic (hIL-26Tg) mice and human umbilical cord blood mononuclear cells (hCBMC) in mouse allogeneic-graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and chronic xenogeneic-GVHD model, respectively. Transfer of bone marrow and spleen T cells from hIL-26Tg mice into B10.BR mice resulted in GVHD progression, with clinical signs of tissue damage in multiple organs. IL-26 markedly increased neutrophil levels both in the GVHD-target tissues and peripheral blood. Expression levels of Th17 cytokines in hIL-26Tg mice-derived donor CD4 T cells were significantly increased, whereas IL-26 did not affect cytotoxic function of donor CD8 T cells. In addition, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels were particularly enhanced in hIL-26Tg mice. We also developed a humanized neutralizing anti-IL-26 monoclonal antibody (mAb) for therapeutic use, and its administration after onset of chronic xenogeneic-GVHD mitigated weight loss and prolonged survival, with preservation of graft-versus-leukemia effect. Taken together, our data elucidate the in vivo immunological effects of IL-26 in chronic GVHD models and suggest that a humanized anti-IL-26 mAb may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of chronic GVHD.

Emerging Concepts of Tissue-resident Memory T Cells in Transplantation

In this review, we summarize and discuss recent advances in understanding the characteristics of tissue-resident memory T cells (TRMs) in the context of solid organ transplantation (SOT). We first introduce the traditionally understood noncirculating features of TRMs and the key phenotypic markers that define this population, then provide a detailed discussion of emerging concepts on the recirculation and plasticity of TRM in mice and humans. We comment on the potential heterogeneity of transient, temporary resident, and permanent resident T cells and potential interchangeable phenotypes between TRM and effector T cells in nonlymphoid tissues. We review the literature on the distribution of TRM in human nonlymphoid organs and association of clinical outcomes in different types of SOT, including intestine, lung, liver, kidney, and heart. We focus on both tissue-specific and organ-shared features of donor- and recipient-derived TRMs after transplantation whenever applicable. Studies with comprehensive sample collection, including longitudinal and cross-sectional controls, and applied advanced techniques such as multicolor flow cytometry to distinguish donor and recipient TRMs, bulk, and single-cell T-cell receptor sequencing to track clonotypes and define transcriptome profiles, and functional readouts to define alloreactivity and proinflammatory/anti-inflammatory activities are emphasized. We also discuss important findings on the tissue-resident features of regulatory αβ T cells and unconventional γδ T cells after transplantation. Understanding of TRM in SOT is a rapidly growing field that urges future studies to address unresolved questions regarding their heterogeneity, plasticity, longevity, alloreactivity, and roles in rejection and tolerance.

Heme oxygenase-1 gene delivery for altering high mobility group box-1 protein in pancreatic islet

Pancreatic islet transplantation is a promising strategy for the treatment of type I diabetes. High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), highly expressed in islet cells, is a potent immune stimulator in immune rejection. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) gene therapy can modulate the release of HMGB1 by altering intracellular molecules for successful cell transplantation. After delivery of the heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) gene to islet cells using an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV), it was evaluated the changes in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ ions and calcineurin activity as well as histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and Poly(ADP) ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1). Inhibition of HMGB1 release was evaluated through altering these intracellular molecules. Then, after transplantation of HO1-transduced islets, the therapeutic effect of them was evaluated through measuring blood glucose level to diabetic mice and through immunohistochemical analysis. The transduced HO1 gene significantly inhibited HMGB1 release in islets that was under the cell damage by hypoxia exposure. It was confirmed that this result was initially due to the decrease in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ ion concentration and calcineurin activity. In addition, the delivered HO1 gene simultaneously reduced the activity of HAT and PARP-1, which are involved in the translocation of HMGB1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. As a result, when the HO1 gene-transduced islets were transplanted into diabetic mice, the treatment efficiency of diabetes was effectively improved by increasing the survival rate of the islets. Collectively, these results suggest that HO1 gene transfer can be used for successful islet transplantation by altering the activity of intracellular signal molecules and reducing HMGB1 release.

Spatiotemporal single-cell profiling reveals that invasive and tissue-resident memory donor CD8+ T cells drive gastrointestinal acute graft-versus-host disease

Organ infiltration by donor T cells is critical to the development of acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) in recipients after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (allo-HCT). However, deconvoluting the transcriptional programs of newly recruited donor T cells from those of tissue-resident T cells in aGVHD target organs remains a challenge. Here, we combined the serial intravascular staining technique with single-cell RNA sequencing to dissect the tightly connected processes by which donor T cells initially infiltrate tissues and then establish a pathogenic tissue residency program in a rhesus macaque allo-HCT model that develops aGVHD. Our results enabled creation of a spatiotemporal map of the transcriptional programs controlling donor CD8⁺ T cell infiltration into the primary aGVHD target organ, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. We identified the large and small intestines as the only two sites demonstrating allo-specific, rather than lymphodepletion-driven, T cell infiltration. GI-infiltrating donor CD8⁺ T cells demonstrated a highly activated, cytotoxic phenotype while simultaneously developing a canonical tissue-resident memory T cell (T_RM) transcriptional signature driven by interleukin-15 (IL-15)/IL-21 signaling. We found expression of a cluster of genes directly associated with tissue invasiveness, including those encoding adhesion molecules (ITGB2), specific chemokines (CCL3 and CCL4L1) and chemokine receptors (CD74), as well as multiple cytoskeletal proteins. This tissue invasion transcriptional signature was validated by its ability to discriminate the CD8⁺ T cell transcriptome of patients with GI aGVHD from those of GVHD-free patients. These results provide insights into the mechanisms controlling tissue occupancy of target organs by pathogenic donor CD8⁺ T_RM cells during aGVHD in primate transplant recipients.

CD69+ resident memory T cells are associated with graft-versus-host disease in intestinal transplantation

Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) is a common, morbid complication after intestinal transplantation (ITx) with poorly understood pathophysiology. Resident memory T cells (T_RM ) are a recently described CD69+ memory T cell subset localizing to peripheral tissue. We observed that T effector memory cells (T_EM ) in the blood increase during GvHD and hypothesized that they derive from donor graft CD69+T_RM migrating into host blood and tissue. To probe this hypothesis, graft and blood lymphocytes from 10 ITx patients with overt GvHD and 34 without were longitudinally analyzed using flow cytometry. As hypothesized, CD4+ and CD8+CD69+T_RM were significantly increased in blood and grafts of GvHD patients, alongside higher cytokine and activation marker expression. The majority of CD69+T_RM were donor derived as determined by multiplex immunostaining. Notably, CD8/PD-1 was significantly elevated in blood prior to transplantation in patients who later had GvHD, and percentages of HLA-DR, CD57, PD-1, and naïve T cells differed significantly between GvHD patients who died vs. those who survived. Overall, we demonstrate that (1) there were significant increases in T_EM at the time of GvHD, possibly of donor derivation; (2) donor T_RM in the graft are a possible source; and (3) potential biomarkers for the development and prognosis of GvHD exist.

Vitamin D3 combined with antibody agents suppresses alloreactive memory T-cell responses to induce heart allograft long-term survival

BACKGROUND

The pre-stored memory T cells in organ transplant patient carry a high risk of allograft rejection. The current study aimed to determine whether the allogenic response of adoptively transferred memory T cells in mice was suppressed by vitamin D3 monotherapy alone or in combination with monoclonal antibody treatment.

METHODS

Prior to vascularized heterotopic heart transplantation, naïve C57BL/6 mice were primed with memory T cells. Recipient mice were administered vitamin D3 alone or in combination with monoclonal antibodies (anti-CD40L/ anti-LFA-1). Memory T cells and CD4⁺ forkhead box P3⁺ T cells in recipient spleens were measured using flow cytometry. Additionally, the expression of cytokines was measured by ELISA and quantitative PCR. Inflammatory factors in the grafts were identified by hematoxylin and eosin staining.

RESULTS

Vitamin D3 in conjunction with anti-CD40L/ anti-LFA-1 antibodies were administered according to the median survival time from 6.5 to 80 days. The results revealed that grafts were protected through the prevention of inflammatory cell infiltration. Combined treatment decreased the mRNA levels of IL-2, IFN-γ and IL-10 and increased the mRNA levels of IL-4, Foxp3 and TGF-β in the allograft. Rejection was suppressed by a reduction of CD4⁺CD44^high CD62L⁺ and CD8⁺ CD44^high CD62L⁺ memory T cells, the induction of regulatory T cells in the recipient spleen and a reduction of serum IL-2, IFN-γ and IL-10 levels.

CONCLUSION

Vitamin D3 efficiently protected allografts from memory T-cell allo-responses when combined with anti-CD40L/anti-LFA-1 antibodies therapy.

Vascularized composite allotransplants as a mechanistic model for allograft rejection - an experimental study

Vascularized composite allotransplants (VCAs) seem to have several unique features of clinical and experimental importance, including uniquely definable lymphatic drainage that can be easily accessed at the level of ipsilateral regional node beds. Thus, VCA offers a unique opportunity to assess the relative contribution of peripheral and secondary lymphoid tissue to the process of rejection. We transplanted hind limb grafts from C3H donors to six different groups of C57BL/6 recipients: Spleen⁺ Map3k14^-/- ; Spleen^- Map3k14^-/- ; Spleen⁺ Node^- Map3k14^-/- ; and Spleen^- Node^- Map3k14^-/- . As positive controls, we used Map3k14^+/- with or without spleen. Map3k14^+/- mice demonstrated an average graft survival of 9.6 and 9.2 days for Spleen^- and Spleen⁺ Map3k14^+/- , respectively. Rejection in the Map3k14^-/- group was considerably delayed (28.4 days, P = 0.002) in all recipients. The Spleen^- Map3k14^-/- mice rejected their hind limb allografts in an even more delayed fashion compared to Spleen⁺ Map3k14^-/- (54.4 days, P = 0.02). Histological analysis of skin showed that acute rejection in both Map3k14^+/- mice groups was graded as Banff III or Banff IV. In the Map3k14^-/- groups, rejection was graded as Banff III. We demonstrated that in the absence of lymph nodes, grafts reject in a delayed fashion. Also, splenectomy in alymphoplastic mice further extends graft survival, but does not eliminate rejection all together.

Memory T Cells in Transplantation: Old Challenges Define New Directions

Immunologic memory is the ability of adaptive immune system to quickly and specifically recognize previously encountered antigens and initiate an effector response. Alloreactive memory cells can mount rapid and robust responses to the transplanted organ resulting in allograft injury. Thus preexisting humoral or cellular memory alloresponses are typically associated with poor graft outcomes in experimental and clinical transplantation. While both B and T lymphocytes exhibit memory responses, this review discusses recent updates on the biology of memory T cells and their relevance to the field of transplantation. Three major areas of focus are the emergence and characterization of tissue resident memory T cells, manipulation of T cell metabolic pathways, and the latest promising approaches to targeting detrimental T cell memory in the settings of organ transplantation.

Longevity and replenishment of human liver-resident memory T cells and mononuclear phagocytes

The human liver contains specialized subsets of mononuclear phagocytes (MNPs) and T cells, but whether these have definitive features of tissue residence (long-term retention, lack of egress) and/or can be replenished from the circulation remains unclear. Here we addressed these questions using HLA-mismatched liver allografts to discriminate the liver-resident (donor) from the infiltrating (recipient) immune composition. Allografts were rapidly infiltrated by recipient leukocytes, which recapitulated the liver myeloid and lymphoid composition, and underwent partial reprogramming with acquisition of CD68/CD206 on MNPs and CD69/CD103 on T cells. The small residual pool of donor cells persisting in allografts for over a decade contained CX3CR1hi/CD163hi/CD206hi Kupffer cells (KCs) and CXCR3hi tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM). CD8+ TRM were found in the local lymph nodes but were not detected egressing into the hepatic vein. Our findings inform organ transplantation and hepatic immunotherapy, revealing remarkably long-lived populations of KCs and TRM in human liver, which can be additionally supplemented by their circulating counterparts.

Mucosal Immunization with a pH-Responsive Nanoparticle Vaccine Induces Protective CD8+ Lung-Resident Memory T Cells

Tissue-resident memory T cells (T_RM) patrol nonlymphoid organs and provide superior protection against pathogens that commonly infect mucosal and barrier tissues, such as the lungs, intestine, liver, and skin. Thus, there is a need for vaccine technologies that can induce a robust, protective T_RM response in these tissues. Nanoparticle (NP) vaccines offer important advantages over conventional vaccines; however, there has been minimal investigation into the design of NP-based vaccines for eliciting T_RM responses. Here, we describe a pH-responsive polymeric nanoparticle vaccine for generating antigen-specific CD8⁺ T_RM cells in the lungs. With a single intranasal dose, the NP vaccine elicited airway- and lung-resident CD8⁺ T_RM cells and protected against respiratory virus challenge in both sublethal (vaccinia) and lethal (influenza) infection models for up to 9 weeks after immunization. In elucidating the contribution of material properties to the resulting T_RM response, we found that the pH-responsive activity of the carrier was important, as a structurally analogous non-pH-responsive control carrier elicited significantly fewer lung-resident CD8⁺ T cells. We also demonstrated that dual-delivery of protein antigen and nucleic acid adjuvant on the same NP substantially enhanced the magnitude, functionality, and longevity of the antigen-specific CD8⁺ T_RM response in the lungs. Compared to administration of soluble antigen and adjuvant, the NP also mediated retention of vaccine cargo in pulmonary antigen-presenting cells (APCs), enhanced APC activation, and increased production of T_RM-related cytokines. Overall, these data suggest a promising vaccine platform technology for rapid generation of protective CD8⁺ T_RM cells in the lungs.

Consequences of donor-derived passengers (pathogens, cells, biological molecules and proteins) on clinical outcomes

It is recognized that donor factors contribute to lung transplant outcomes. Recent observations and studies have started to elucidate potential mechanisms behind explaining these observations. This perspective piece summarizes evolving lung transplant literature on the subject, focusing on donor "passenger" organisms, cells, hormones, and proteins transferred to the recipient. Many extrinsic and intrinsic donor features or properties have important consequences for subsequent allograft function in the recipient. Potentially, a better understanding of these features may provide useful novel therapeutic targets to enhance allograft outcomes.

Immunological aspects of allogeneic pancreatic islet transplantation: a comparison between mouse and human

Pancreatic islet allotransplantation is a treatment for patients with severe forms of type 1 diabetes. As long-term graft function and survival are not yet optimal, additional studies are warranted in order to continue improving transplant outcomes. The mechanisms of islet graft loss and tolerance induction are often studied in murine diabetes models. Despite numerous islet transplantation studies successfully performed over recent years, translation from experimental mouse models to human clinical application remains elusive. This review aims at critically discussing the strengths and limitations of current mouse models of diabetes and experimental islet transplantation. In particular, we will analyze the causes leading to diabetes and compare the immunological mechanisms responsible for rejection between mouse and human. A better understanding of the experimental mouse models should facilitate translation to human clinical application.

Characterization of donor and recipient CD8+ tissue-resident memory T cells in transplant nephrectomies

Tissue-resident memory T (T_RM) cells are characterized by their surface expression of CD69 and can be subdivided in CD103+ and CD103− T_RM cells. The origin and functional characteristics of T_RM cells in the renal allograft are largely unknown. To determine these features we studied T_RM cells in transplant nephrectomies. T_RM cells with a CD103+ and CD103− phenotype were present in all samples (n = 13) and were mainly CD8+ T cells. Of note, donor-derived T_RM cells were only detectable in renal allografts that failed in the first month after transplantation. Grafts, which failed later, mainly contained recipient derived T_RM cells. The gene expression profiles of the recipient derived CD8+ T_RM cells were studied in more detail and showed a previously described signature of tissue residence within both CD103+ and CD103− T_RM cells. All CD8+ T_RM cells had strong effector abilities through the production of IFNγ and TNFα, and harboured high levels of intracellular granzyme B and low levels of perforin. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that donor and recipient T_RM cells reside in the rejected renal allograft. Over time, the donor-derived T_RM cells are replaced by recipient T_RM cells which have features that enables these cells to aggressively respond to the allograft.

Dissecting the Multiplicity of Immune Effects of Immunosuppressive Drugs to Better Predict the Risk of de novo Malignancies in Solid Organ Transplant Patients

De novo malignancies constitute an emerging cause of morbidity after solid organ transplant (SOT), significantly affecting the long-term survival of transplant recipients. Pharmacologic immunosuppression may functionally impair the immunosurveillance in these patients, thereby increasing the risk of cancer development. Nevertheless, the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the immune effects induced by immunosuppressive drugs limit the current possibilities to reliably predict the risk of de novo malignancy in SOT patients. Therefore, there is the pressing need to better characterize the immune dysfunctions induced by the different immunosuppressive regimens administered to prevent allograft rejection to tailor more precisely the therapeutic schedule and decrease the risk of de novo malignancies. We herein highlight the impact exerted by different classes of immunosuppressants on the most relevant immune cells, with a particular focus on the effects on dendritic cells (DCs), the main regulators of the balance between immunosurveillance and tolerance.

Are donor lymphocytes a barrier to transplantation tolerance?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Following solid organ transplantation (SOT), populations of donor lymphocytes are frequently found in the recipient circulation. Their impact on host alloimmunity has long been debated but remains unclear, and it has been suggested that transferred donor lymphocytes may either promote tolerance to the graft or hasten its rejection. We discuss possible mechanisms by which the interaction of donor passenger lymphocytes with recipient immune cells may either augment the host alloimmune response or inhibit it.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent work has highlighted that donor T lymphocytes are the most numerous of the donor leukocyte populations within a SOT and that these may be transferred to the recipient after transplantation. Surprisingly, graft-versus-host recognition of major histocompatibility complex class II on host B cells by transferred donor CD4 T cells can result in marked augmentation of host humoral alloimmunity and lead to early graft failure. Killing of donor CD4 T cells by host natural killer cells is critical in preventing this augmentation.

SUMMARY

The ability of passenger donor CD4 T cells to effect long-term augmentation of the host humoral alloimmune response raises the possibility that ex-vivo treatment or modification of the donor organ prior to implantation may improve long-term transplant outcomes.

Outcomes of hematopoietic cell transplantation using donors or recipients with inherited chromosomally integrated HHV-6

Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) species have a unique ability to integrate into chromosomal telomeres. Mendelian inheritance via gametocyte integration results in HHV-6 in every nucleated cell. The epidemiology and clinical effect of inherited chromosomally integrated HHV-6 (iciHHV-6) in hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) recipients is unclear. We identified 4319 HCT donor-recipient pairs (8638 subjects) who received an allogeneic HCT and had archived pre-HCT peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples. We screened these samples for iciHHV-6 and compared characteristics of HCT recipients and donors with iciHHV-6 with those of recipients and donors without iciHHV-6, respectively. We calculated Kaplan-Meier probability estimates and Cox proportional hazards models for post-HCT outcomes based on recipient and donor iciHHV-6 status. We identified 60 HCT recipients (1.4%) and 40 donors (0.9%) with iciHHV-6; both recipient and donor harbored iciHHV-6 in 13 HCTs. Thus, there were 87 HCTs (2%) in which the recipient, donor, or both harbored iciHHV-6. Acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) grades 2-4 was more frequent when recipients or donors had iciHHV-6 (adjusted hazard ratios, 1.7-1.9; P = .004-.001). Cytomegalovirus viremia (any and high-level) was more frequent among recipients with iciHHV-6 (adjusted HRs, 1.7-3.1; P = .001-.040). Inherited ciHHV-6 status did not significantly affect risk for chronic GVHD, hematopoietic cell engraftment, overall mortality, or nonrelapse mortality. Screening for iciHHV-6 could guide donor selection and post-HCT risk stratification and treatment. Further study is needed to replicate these findings and identify potential mechanisms.

Infectious pathogens may trigger specific allo-HLA reactivity via multiple mechanisms

Transplant recipients can be sensitized against allo-HLA antigens by previous transplantation, blood transfusion, or pregnancy. While there is growing awareness that multiple components of the immune system can act as effectors of the alloresponse, the role of infectious pathogen exposure in triggering sensitization and allograft rejection has remained a matter of much debate. Here, we describe that exposure to pathogens may enhance the immune response to allogeneic HLA antigens via different pathways. The potential role of allo-HLA cross-reactivity of virus-specific memory T cells, activation of innate immunity leading to a more efficient induction of the adaptive alloimmune response by antigen-presenting cells, and bystander activation of existing memory B cell activation will be discussed in this review.