Pharmacogenetics of plasma efavirenz exposure in HIV-infected adults and children in South Africa

Sub- and supratherapeutic efavirenz plasma concentrations with risk for HIV therapy failure are mainly genetically explained in Ugandan children: The prospective GENEFA cohort study

AIMS

Interindividual variations in efavirenz (EFV) plasma concentrations are extensive, but paediatric data on its consequences for viral control are scarce. The aim of this study was to explore the role of genetic variation in achieving therapeutic efavirenz plasma concentrations in a cohort of Ugandan children and the linkage between genetic CYP2B6 variants, EFV plasma variability, viral resistance and viral outcome.

METHODS

Ninety-nine treatment-naïve children, aged 3-12 years and living with HIV, were followed for 24 weeks after ART initiation assessing mid-dose efavirenz plasma concentrations, HIV RNA, HIV drug resistance and adherence. Polymorphisms in genes coding for drug-metabolizing enzymes were genotyped. Efavirenz concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Metabolizer phenotype was predicted from composite genotypes of CYP2B6 (c.516G>T and c.983 T>C). A mixed effects restricted maximum likelihood regression model was used to identify important factors for efavirenz exposure.

RESULTS

Efavirenz plasma concentrations were below the therapeutic interval (1000-4000 mg/mL) in 12-17% and above in 21-24% of measurements. Eight children had persisting subtherapeutic concentrations, five of which failed virologically and three acquired at least one new resistant mutation. Multivariate modelling explained 70% of interindividual variation in plasma concentration, with treatment duration, adherence, CYP2B6c.136A>G, and metabolizer phenotype as independent predictors of EFV concentration. In univariate analysis, metabolizer phenotype explained 50% of interindividual variation.

CONCLUSIONS

Metabolizer phenotype explained 50% of interindividual variation in efavirenz plasma concentration. Autoinduction was not confirmed and >33% of the concentrations were outside the therapeutic interval. Subtherapeutic concentrations worsened virological resistance and outcomes. Genotype-based dosing may help avert both sub- and supratherapeutic efavirenz plasma concentrations in Ugandan children.

Drug-induced hepatotoxicity and association with slow acetylation variants NAT2*5 and NAT2*6 in Cameroonian patients with tuberculosis and HIV co-infection

BACKGROUND

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) are major contributors to morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa including Cameroon. Pharmacogenetic variants could serve as predictors of drug-induced hepatotoxicity (DIH), in patients with TB co-infected with HIV. We evaluated the occurrence of DIH and pharmacogenetic variants in Cameroonian patients.

METHODS

Treatment-naïve patients with HIV, TB or TB/HIV co-infection were recruited at three hospitals in Cameroon, between September 2018 and November 2019. Appropriate treatment was initiated, and patients followed up for 12 weeks to assess DIH. Pharmacogenetic variants were assessed by allele discrimination TaqMan SNP assays.

RESULTS

Of the 141 treatment naïve patients, the overall incidence of DIH was 38% (53/141). The highest incidence of DIH, 52% (32/61), was observed among HIV patients. Of 32 pharmacogenetic variants, the slow acetylation variants NAT2*5 was associated with a decreased risk of DIH (OR: 0.4; 95%CI: 0.17-0.96; p = 0.038), while NAT2*6 was found to be associated with an increased risk of DIH (OR: 4.2; 95%CI: 1.1-15.2; p = 0.017) among patients treated for TB. Up to 15 SNPs differed in ≥ 5% of allele frequencies among African populations, while 25 SNPs differed in ≥ 5% of the allele frequencies among non-African populations, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

DIH is an important clinical problem in African patients with TB and HIV. The NAT2*5 and NAT2*6 variants were found to be associated with DIH in the Cameroonian population. Prior screening for the slow acetylation variants NAT2*5 and NAT2*6 may prevent DIH in TB and HIV-coinfected patients.

Major Genetic Drivers of Statin Treatment Response in African Populations and Pharmacogenetics of Dyslipidemia Through a One Health Lens

A One Health lens is increasingly significant to address the intertwined challenges in planetary health concerned with the health of humans, nonhuman animals, plants, and ecosystems. A One Health approach can benefit the public health systems in Africa that are overburdened by noncommunicable, infectious, and environmental diseases. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic revealed the previously overlooked two-fold importance of pharmacogenetics (PGx), for individually tailored treatment of noncommunicable diseases and environmental pathogens. For example, dyslipidemia, a common cardiometabolic risk factor, has been identified as an independent COVID-19 severity risk factor. Observational data suggest that patients with COVID-19 infection receiving lipid-lowering therapy may have better outcomes. However, among African patients, the response to these drugs varies from patient to patient, pointing to the possible contribution of genetic variation in important pharmacogenes. The PGx of lipid-lowering therapies may underlie differences in treatment responses observed among dyslipidemia patients as well as patients comorbid with COVID-19 and dyslipidemia. Genetic variations in APOE, ABCB1, CETP, CYP2C9, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, HMGCR, LDLR, NPC1L1, and SLCO1B1 genes affect the pharmacogenomics of statins, and they have individually been linked to differential responses to dyslipidemia and COVID-19 treatment. African populations are underrepresented in PGx research. This leads to poor accounting of additional diverse genetic variants that could be important in understanding interindividual and between-population variations in therapeutic responses to dyslipidemia and COVID-19. This expert review examines and synthesizes the salient and priority PGx variations, as seen through a One Health lens in Africa, to improve and inform personalized medicine in both dyslipidemia and COVID-19.

Pharmacokinetics of Single-Dose Versus Double-Dose Dolutegravir After Switching From a Failing Efavirenz-Based Regimen

BACKGROUND

Dolutegravir exposure is reduced after switching from efavirenz, which could select for dolutegravir resistance if switching occurs during virologic failure.

METHODS

We measured serial dolutegravir trough concentrations after switching from efavirenz in a clinical trial, which randomized some participants to a supplemental dolutegravir dose or placebo for the first 14 days. Changes in dolutegravir trough concentrations between days 3, 7, 14, and 28 were evaluated. The primary outcome was the geometric mean ratio of dolutegravir trough concentrations on day 7 versus day 28.

RESULTS

Twenty-four participants received double-dose dolutegravir (50 mg twice daily) and 11 standard dose for the first 14 days. Baseline characteristics were 77% female, median age 36 years, CD4 cell count 254 cells/mm3, and HIV-1 RNA 4.0 log10 copies/mL. The geometric mean ratio (90% CI) of dolutegravir trough concentrations on day 7 versus day 28 was 0.637 (0.485 to 0.837) in the standard-dose group and 1.654 (1.404 to 1.948) in the double-dose group. There was a prolonged induction effect at day 28 in participants with efavirenz slow metaboliser genotypes. One participant in the double-dose group had a dolutegravir trough concentration below the protein-binding adjusted concentration needed to inhibit 90% of HIV-1 (PA-IC90) at day 3.

CONCLUSIONS

No participants on standard-dose dolutegravir had dolutegravir trough concentrations below the PA-IC90. Slow efavirenz metaboliser genotypes had higher baseline efavirenz concentrations and more pronounced and longer period of induction postswitch. These findings suggest that a 14-day lead-in supplemental dolutegravir dose may not be necessary when switching from a failing efavirenz-based first-line regimen.

Towards Evidence-Based Implementation of Pharmacogenomics in Southern Africa: Comorbidities and Polypharmacy Profiles across Diseases

Pharmacogenomics may improve patient care by guiding drug selection and dosing; however, this requires prior knowledge of the pharmacogenomics of drugs commonly used in a specific setting. The aim of this study was to identify a preliminary set of pharmacogenetic variants important in Southern Africa. We describe comorbidities in 3997 patients from Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. These patient cohorts were included in pharmacogenomic studies of anticoagulation, dyslipidemia, hypertension, HIV and breast cancer. The 20 topmost prescribed drugs in this population were identified. Using the literature, a list of pharmacogenes vital in the response to the top 20 drugs was constructed leading to drug-gene pairs potentially informative in translation of pharmacogenomics. The most reported morbidity was hypertension (58.4%), making antihypertensives the most prescribed drugs, particularly amlodipine. Dyslipidemia occurred in 31.5% of the participants, and statins were the most frequently prescribed as cholesterol-lowering drugs. HIV was reported in 20.3% of the study participants, with lamivudine/stavudine/efavirenz being the most prescribed antiretroviral combination. Based on these data, pharmacogenes of immediate interest in Southern African populations include ABCB1, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, SLC22A1, SLCO1B1 and UGT1A1. Variants in these genes are a good starting point for pharmacogenomic translation programs in Southern Africa.

Weight gain on dolutegravir: Association is not the same as causation

No abstract available.

Pharmacogenetic Aspects of Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters in Pediatric Medicine: Study Progress, Clinical Practice and Future Perspectives

As the activity of certain drug metabolizing enzymes or transporter proteins can vary with age, the effect of ontogenetic and genetic variation on the activity of these enzymes is critical for the accurate prediction of treatment outcomes and toxicity in children. This makes pharmacogenetic research in pediatrics particularly important and urgently needed, but also challenging. This review summarizes pharmacogenetic studies on the effects of genetic polymorphisms on pharmacokinetic parameters and clinical outcomes in pediatric populations for certain drugs, which are commonly prescribed by clinicians across multiple therapeutic areas in a general hospital, organized from those with the most to the least pediatric evidence among each drug category. We also further discuss the research status of the gene-guided dosing regimens and clinical implementation of pediatric pharmacogenetics. More and more drug-gene interactions are demonstrated to have clinical validity for children, and pharmacogenomics in pediatrics have shown evidence-based benefits to enhance the efficacy and precision of existing drug dosing regimens in several therapeutic areas. However, the most important limitation to the implementation is the lack of high-quality, rigorous pediatric prospective clinical studies, so adequately powered interventional clinical trials that support incorporation of pharmacogenetics into the care of children are still needed.

Influence of CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 polymorphisms on the virologic and immunologic responses of patients treated with efavirenz-containing regimen

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 polymorphisms on the virological and immunologic responses of HIV patients. A total of 153 HIV-positive patients were enlisted for the study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Viral load and median CD4 T cell counts were evaluated at baseline and month 6 (M6). Samples were identified using TaqMan genotyping assays.

RESULTS

The AG in CYP2B6 rs2279343 was associated with VLS compared to homozygous AA. In the dominant model, the AG/GG genotypes were associated with VLS compared to the AA genotype. Moreover, in overdominant model, the AG genotype was associated with VLS compared to AA/GG. Regarding immunological response, only the AG in SNP rs2279343 CYP2B6 was associated with an increase in CD4 cell count between baseline and M6. In CYP2B6 rs3745274, the CD4 cell count at M6 was higher than that of baseline for GG carriers and for GT carriers. In CYP3A4 rs2740574, the TC carriers showed a higher median CD4 count at M6 compared to that of the baseline count, as well as for CC carriers. The best genotypes combination associated with CD4 cell count improvement were AA/AG in SNP rs2279343 and GG/GT in SNP rs3745274.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support the fact that CYP2B6 rs2279343 could help in the prediction of VLS and both SNPs rs3745274 and rs2279343 in CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 rs2740574 were associated with immune recovery in Malian HIV-positive patients.

Pharmacogenetics of Breast Cancer Treatments: A Sub-Saharan Africa Perspective

Breast cancer is the most frequent cause of cancer death in low- and middle-income countries, in particular among sub-Saharan African women, where response to available anticancer treatment therapy is often limited by the recurrent breast tumours and metastasis, ultimately resulting in decreased overall survival rate. This can also be attributed to African genomes that contain more variation than those from other parts of the world. The purpose of this review is to summarize published evidence on pharmacogenetic and pharmacokinetic aspects related to specific available treatments and the known genetic variabilities associated with metabolism and/or transport of breast cancer drugs, and treatment outcomes when possible. The emphasis is on the African genetic variation and focuses on the genes with the highest strength of evidence, with a close look on CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4/5, CYP19A1, UGT1A4, UGT2B7, UGT2B15, SLC22A16, SLC38A7, FcγR, DPYD, ABCB1, and SULT1A1, which are the genes known to play major roles in the metabolism and/or elimination of the respective anti-breast cancer drugs given to the patients. The genetic variability of their metabolism could be associated with different metabolic phenotypes that may cause reduced patients' adherence because of toxicity or sub-therapeutic doses. Finally, this knowledge enhances possible personalized treatment approaches, with the possibility of improving survival outcomes in patients with breast cancer.

The role of CYP2B6 516G>T polymorphism on efavirenz/nevirapine toxicity. Implications on treatment outcomes: Lessons from Botswana

The two non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), efavirenz (EFV) and nevirapine (NVP), are currently the core antiretroviral drugs for treatment of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa including Botswana. The drugs are metabolized by Cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6) liver enzyme. The CYP2B6 gene that encodes for metabolism of these drugs is known to be highly polymorphic. One of the polymorphism in the CYP2B6 gene, 516G>T, particularly the 516T allele, is known to confer poor metabolism of EFV and NVP. This may lead to high levels of plasma drug concentrations and development of treatment toxicities, like central nervous system toxicities, and cutaneous and hepatic toxicities, for EFV and NVP, respectively. The CYP2B6 516G allele on the other hand is associated with an extensive metabolism of the two NNRTIs drugs. We sought to establish association between possible developments of NNRTIs toxicities with CYP2B6 516G>T variation in Botswana.A total of 316 peripheral blood mononuclear cells samples were used in a retrospective view. All the samples were from participants on EFV/NVP-containing regimen with known toxicity output. TaqMan Real-Time PCR approach was applied for assessing CYP2B6 516 allele variation in cases with treatment toxicity and those without. Analysis was performed by chi-square statistics and logistic regression analysis.The rate of poor metabolizers among participants with toxicity and those without toxicity was 18.4% and 15.1%, respectively. The CYP2B6 516 genotype distribution comparisons between the participants with toxicity and those without were not statistically different (chi-square = .326; P = .568).CYP2B6 516 variation was not associated with NNRTI toxicity. No other factors were associated with toxicity when considering age, baseline body mass index, baseline CD4, baseline HIV viral load and adherence. The results were discussed in the context of all the studies done in Botswana to date.

Polymorphisms at CYP enzymes, NR1I2 and NR1I3 in association with virologic response to antiretroviral therapy in Brazilian HIV-positive individuals

Virologic failure of antiretroviral therapy (ART) may be explained by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in drug absorption and metabolism genes. Here, we characterized the associations between polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 enzymes' genes CYP2B6 and CYP3A4/A5, nuclear receptor genes NR1I2/3, and initial ART efficacy among 203 HIV-positive individuals from Rio de Janeiro. Association between SNPs and virologic control was evaluated after 6 and 12 months of follow-up using Cox regression models. The SNP rs2307424 (NR1I3) was associated with increased virologic response after 12 months of treatment, while rs1523127 (NR1I2), rs3003596, and rs2502815 (NR1I3) were associated with decreased response. Increased virologic response after 12 months (_adjHR = 1.54; p = 0.02) was also observed among carriers of the NR1I3 haplotype rs2502815G-rs3003596A-rs2307424A versus the reference haplotype G-A-G. Our results suggest that NR1I2 and NR1I3 variants are associated with virologic responses to ART among Brazilians.

CYP2B6 Genotype and Weight Gain Differences Between Dolutegravir and Efavirenz

BACKGROUND

Dolutegravir is associated with more weight gain than efavirenz. Loss-of-function polymorphisms in CYP2B6 result in higher efavirenz concentrations, which we hypothesized would impair weight gain among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; PLWH) starting efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

We studied ART-naive participants from the ADVANCE study randomized to the efavirenz /emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and dolutegravir/emtricitabine/TDF arms. We compared changes in weight and regional fat on DXA from baseline to week 48 between CYP2B6 metabolizer genotypes in the efavirenz arm, and with the dolutegravir arm.

RESULTS

There were 342 participants in the dolutegravir arm and 168 in the efavirenz arm who consented to genotyping. Baseline characteristics were similar. Weight gain was greater in women than men. In the efavirenz arm CYP2B6 metaboliser genotype was associated with weight gain (P = .009), with extensive metabolizers gaining the most weight, and with changes in regional fat in women, but not in men. Weight gain was similar in CYP2B6 extensive metabolizers in the efavirenz arm and in the dolutegravir arm (P = .836). The following variables were independently associated with weight gain in all participants: baseline CD4 count, baseline human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA, and CYP2B6 metaboliser genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

CYP2B6 metaboliser genotype was associated with weight gain in PLWH starting efavirenz-based ART. Weight gain was similar between CYP2B6 extensive metabolizers in the efavirenz arm and in the dolutegravir arm, suggesting that impaired weight gain among CYP2B6 slow or intermediate metabolizers could explain the increased weight gain on dolutegravir compared with efavirenz observed in ADVANCE and other studies.

Effect of albumin and CYP2B6 polymorphisms on exposure of efavirenz: A population pharmacokinetic analysis in Chinese HIV-infected adults

BACKGROUND

Efavirenz is a vital component used to treat HIV-1 infection. Nevertheless, it shows large between-subject variability, which affects both its therapeutic response and adverse effects.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of gene polymorphisms and non-genetic factors on the variability of efavirenz pharmacokinetics and to propose the optimal dose regimens.

METHODS

A total of 769 plasma samples from 376 HIV-infected Han Chinese outpatients were collected to develop a population pharmacokinetic model using NONMEM software. The impact of patient demographics, laboratory tests, concomitant medication, and genetic polymorphisms of CYP2B6 and ABCB1 on efavirenz pharmacokinetics were explored. According to the final model, the model-informed dose optimization was conducted.

RESULTS

The pharmacokinetics of efavirenz was characterized by a one-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination. The typical values of the estimated apparent oral clearance, volume of distribution, and absorption rate constant in the final model were 9.44 L/h, 200 L, and 0.727 h ^- 1, respectively. Efavirenz clearance was significantly influenced by CYP2B6 variants, including rs2099361, rs3745274, and rs2279343, along with albumin and weight. The volume of distribution was affected by albumin and weight. Based on the CYP2B6 polymorphisms of patients, the recommended daily doses of efavirenz were 100 mg for CYP2B6 slow metabolizers, 400 or 600 mg for intermediate metabolizers, and 800 or 1000 mg for extensive metabolizers.

CONCLUSIONS

Polymorphisms of CYP2B6, along with albumin and weight, resulted as the predictors of efavirenz pharmacokinetic variability, which could be used in prescribing optimal efavirenz doses.

Pharmacogenetics of the Late-Onset Efavirenz Neurotoxicity Syndrome (LENS)

BACKGROUND

The late-onset efavirenz neurotoxicity syndrome (LENS) presents as ataxia and/or encephalopathy with supratherapeutic efavirenz plasma concentrations (>4 µg/mL). Efavirenz is primarily metabolized by cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6), with CYP2A6 as an accessory pathway. We hypothesized that participants with LENS would predominantly be CYP2B6 slow metabolizers. The aim of our study was to determine the frequency of CYP2B6 slow metabolizers in participants with LENS.

METHODS

Adult HIV-positive participants on efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy presenting with LENS were prospectively enrolled. Genetic polymorphisms known to be associated with increased efavirenz plasma concentrations in CYP2B6 (rs3745274, rs28399499, rs4803419) and CYP2A6 (rs28399433) were selected and used to determine proportions of slow metabolizers. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Median (IQR) plasma efavirenz and 8-hydroxyefavirenz were described.

RESULTS

Fifteen participants were enrolled. Thirteen (13/15) were Black-African and 13 were female. Median weight was 49.9kg with a median duration on efavirenz of 2.2 years. All 15 participants were successfully genotyped as slow CYP2B6 metabolizers, with 6 participants additionally having CYP2A6 heterozygous genotype. Thirteen were receiving the CYP2A6 enzyme inhibitor isoniazid, and all 15 were genotypic NAT2 slow or intermediate acetylators. Efavirenz plasma concentration was markedly increased at 50.5 (47.0-65.4) µg/mL; 8-hydroxyefavirenz concentration was markedly decreased at 0.10 (0.07-0.15) µg/mL.

CONCLUSIONS

Our cohort provides definitive evidence that LENS is associated with the CYP2B6 slow metabolizer genotype, with a median efavirenz plasma concentration >12-fold higher than the defined upper limit of the therapeutic range. Isoniazid and low body weight are important contributors to LENS development.

Algae-mediated processes for the treatment of antiretroviral drugs in wastewater: Prospects and challenges

The prevalence of pharmaceuticals (PCs), especially antiretroviral (ARV) drugs in various aquatic ecosystems has been expansively reported, wherein wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are identified as the primary point source. Consequently, the occurrence, ecotoxicity and treatment of ARV drugs in WWTPs have drawn much attention in recent years. Numerous studies have shown that the widely employed activated sludge-based WWTPs are incapable of removing ARV drugs efficiently from wastewater. Recently, algae-based wastewater treatment processes have shown promising results in PCs removal from wastewater, either completely or partially, through different processes such as biosorption, bioaccumulation, and intra-/inter-cellular degradation. Algal species have also shown to tolerate high concentrations of ARV drugs than the reported concentrations in the environmental matrices. In this review, emphasis has been given on discussing the current status of the occurrence of ARV drugs in the aquatic environment and WWTPs. Besides, the current trends and future perspectives of PCs removal by algae are critically reviewed and discussed. The potential pathways and mechanisms of ARV drugs removal by algae have also been discussed.

New Directions for the Consideration of HIV: Heterogeneity and the Cognition of Time

It has been almost 40 years since HIV emerged in the human population with an alarming impact in 1981, quickly reaching pandemic proportions. Reaching the goal of eradication, or at least ending the pandemic, however, has not been as easy as hoped. To better understand and therefore better address the persistence and often devastating effects of this now chronic disease, the heterogeneity of HIV-in the virus-human and human-human relationships it engages-is parsed in discussions of the groups affected and the multiple factors that drive the diverse effects of the disease, both of which make treatment and prevention of the disease highly challenging. The construct of time cognition is then considered as a heretofore unexplored factor that may inform our understanding of HIV-relevant behaviors.

Inter-ethnic genetic variations and novel variant identification in the partial sequences of CYP2B6 gene in Pakistani population

Background

Some single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the cytochrome P450 (CYP)2B6 gene lead to decreased enzyme activity and have an impact on drug metabolism. The present study was designed to investigate the patterns of genetic distinction across a hypervariable region of the CYP2B6 gene, known to contain important SNPs, i.e. rs4803419 and rs3745274, among five major ethnic groups of the Pakistani population.

Methods

Arlequin v3.5.DnaSPv6.12. and network 5 resources were used to analyze population genetic variance in the partial CYP2B6 gene sequences obtained from 104 human samples belonging to Punjabi, Pathan, Sindhi, Seraiki and Baloch ethnicities of Pakistan. The partial CYP2B6 gene region analyzed in the current study is previously known to possess important SNPs.

Results

The data analyses revealed that genetic variance among samples mainly came from differentiation within the ethnic groups. However, significant genetic variation was also found among the various ethnic groups. The high pairwise Fst genetic distinction was observed between Seraiki and Sindhi ethnic groups (Fst = 0.13392, P-value = 0.026) as well as between Seraiki and Balochi groups (Fst = 0.04303, P-value = −0.0030). However, the degree of genetic distinction was low between Pathan and Punjabi ethnic groups. Some SNPs, including rs3745274 and rs4803419, which are previously shown in strong association with increased plasma Efavirenz level, were found in high frequency. Besides, a novel SNP, which was not found in dbSNP and Ensemble databases, was identified in the Balochi ethnicity. This novel SNP is predicted to affect the CYP2B6 splicing pattern.

Conclusion

These results may have significant implications in Pakistani ethnicities in the context of drugs metabolized by CYP2B6, especially in Seraiki and Balochi ethnicity. The novel heterogeneous SNP, found in the present study, might lead to altered drug-metabolizing potential of CYP2B6 and, therefore, may be implicated in non-responder phenomenon.

Prevalence and associated factors of depressive symptoms among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Jakarta, Indonesia

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the prevalence of depressive symptoms among people living with HIV (PLHIV) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a large HIV treatment facility in Jakarta, Indonesia, and to assess associated factors.

METHODS

The Indonesian version of Beck Depression Inventory-II was used to assess depressive symptoms of 346 participants visiting the HIV Integrated Clinic Cipto Mangunkusumo hospital between June and November 2018.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms (BDI-II score ≥14) were exhibited by 50.9% of participants, with prevalences of mild, moderate and severe depression of 30.4%, 15.6% and 4.9%, respectively. Poisson regression with robust variance analysis indicated that having lower income (aPR = 1.38, 95% CI 1.12-1.63), duration of ART for 1-5 years (aPR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.01-1.54) and same-sex partnership (aPR = 1.27, 95% CI 1.02-1.58) were positively associated with depressive symptoms. Age, sex and history of using intravenous drugs, and ART-based regimen were not associated with depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive symptoms were common among our population despite long-term ART use and were associated with having low-income, ART for 1-5 years and same-sex partnership.

Association of CYP2B6 Genetic Variation with Efavirenz and Nevirapine Drug Resistance in HIV-1 Patients from Botswana

Purpose

CYP2B6 liver enzyme metabolizes the two non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors Efavirenz (EFV) and Nevirapine (NVP) used in the antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimens for HIV-infected individuals. Polymorphisms of the CYP2B6 gene influence drug levels in plasma and possibly virological outcomes. The aim of this study was to explore the potential impact of CYP2B6 genotype and haplotype variation on the risk of developing EFV/NVP drug resistance mutations (DRMs) in HIV-1 patients receiving EFV-/NVP-containing regimens in Botswana.

Patients and Methods

Participants were a sub-sample of a larger study (Tshepo study) conducted in Gaborone, Botswana, among HIV-infected individuals taking EFV/NVP containing ART. Study samples were retrieved and assigned to cases (with DRMs) and controls (without DRMs). Four single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the CYP2B6 gene (−82T>C; 516G>T; 785A>G; 983T>C) were genotyped, the haplotypes reconstructed, and the metabolic score assigned. The possible association between drug resistance and several independent factors (baseline characteristics and CYP2B6 genotypes) was assessed by Binary Logistic Regression (BLR) analysis. EFV/NVP resistance status and CYP2B6 haplotypes were also analyzed using Z-test, chi-square and Fisher’s exact test statistics.

Results

Two hundred and twenty-seven samples were analysed (40 with DRMs, 187 without DRMs). BLR analysis showed an association between EFV/NVP resistance and CYP2B6 516G allele (OR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.27–4.01; P=0.005). Moreover, haplotype analysis revealed that the proportion of EFV/NVP-resistant infections was higher among CYP2B6 fast than extensive/slow metabolizers (30.8% vs 16.8%; P=0.035), with the 516G allele more represented in the haplotypes of fast than extensive/slow metabolizers (100.0% vs 53.8%; P<0.001).

Conclusion

We demonstrated that the CYP2B6 516G allele, and even more when combined in fast metabolic haplotypes, is associated with the presence of EFV/NVP resistance, strengthening the need to assess the CYP2B6 genetic profiles in HIV-infected patients in order to improve the virologic outcomes of NNRTI containing ART.

Influence of selected polymorphisms in disposition genes on lumefantrine pharmacokinetics when coadministered with efavirenz

BACKGROUND

Coadministration of artemether-lumefantrine and efavirenz has been shown to result in significant interactions. The influence of functional genetic polymorphisms in selected CYPs on the magnitude of this interaction was investigated in pregnant and nonpregnant adults.

METHOD

A standard 3-day regimen of artemether-lumefantrine was administered to each patient on steady-state efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy (ART). Pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained from intensive plasma concentration-time data. Genotyping data were tested for compliance with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium by Chi-square test. Linear regressions, Mann-Whitney U-test or Kruskal-Wallis tests were conducted to examine the association of lumefantrine plasma level with CYP2B6 c.516G>T, NR1I3 152c-1089T>C, CYP2B6 c.983T>C, CYP3A5*3 and CYP3A4*22.

RESULTS

Among a total of 69 malaria-HIV coinfected patients (34 nonpregnant and 35 pregnant), median (interquartile range) age was 33 (27-36.5) years and body weight was 59.5 (50-67.5) kg. In nonpregnant group, CYP2B6 c.516G>T was significantly associated with lower log Cday 7 of lumefantrine using multivariate linear regressions (β = -0.239; P = 0.013). In 59% of women with CYP2B6 c.516T, Cday 7 of lumefantrine was below the target of 280 ng/mL compared to 47% in the noncarriers. CYP2B6 c.983T>C significantly associated with higher log Cday 7 of desbutyl lumefantrine in both pregnant (β = 0.383; P = 0.033) and nonpregnant (β = 0.395; P = 0.023) groups. Composite genotypes for both CYP2B6 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms strongly associated with lumefantrine plasma concentration. An associative trend between lumefantrine pharmacokinetics and NR1I3 152c-1089T>C genotypes indicated that 70% of the Cday 7 of lumefantrine in those with NR1I3 152c-1089TT genotype was below 280 ng/mL compared to 53% in those with NR1I3 152c-1089CC or CT genotype.

CONCLUSION

The findings revealed that the efavirenz-lumefantrine interaction was accentuated in the group with CYP2B6 c.516T, c.983C and NR1I3 152c-1089T alleles. This warrants further investigations of other drug-drug interactions for optimising dosing in genetically defined subgroups, particularly during drug development.

AntiRetroviral Therapy In Second-line: investigating Tenofovir-lamivudine-dolutegravir (ARTIST): protocol for a randomised controlled trial

Background: Dolutegravir has superior efficacy and tolerability than lopinavir-ritonavir in second-line antiretroviral therapy after failure of a first-line non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors-based regimen, when dolutegravir is accompanied by at least one fully active nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI). Resistance testing to select NRTIs is not feasible in low- and middle-income countries due to cost and limited laboratory capacity. Evidence suggests that recycling tenofovir plus lamivudine or emtricitabine backbone with dolutegravir could provide an effective second-line option. This study aims to determine the virologic efficacy of tenofovir-lamivudine-dolutegravir (TLD) with and without a lead-in supplementary dose of dolutegravir (to counteract the inducing effect of efavirenz) in patients failing a first-line regimen of tenofovir-emtricitabine-efavirenz (TEE). Methods: We will perform a parallel group, randomised (1:1), double blind, placebo-controlled, Phase II trial, comparing TLD fixed dose combination daily with a lead-in supplementary 50 mg dolutegravir dose versus matching placebo taken 12 hours later for the first 14 days, in patients failing a first-line TEE regimen. The trial will be set in two primary care clinics in Khayelitsha; a large, peri-urban informal settlement in Cape Town, South Africa. We will enrol 130 participants, with follow-up to 48 weeks. The primary endpoint is proportion achieving viral load <50 copies/mL at week 24 using a modified intention-to-treat analysis and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration snapshot algorithm. Secondary endpoints include virologic suppression at weeks 12 and 48, time to suppression, emergence of dolutegravir and new NRTI resistance mutations, safety, and tolerability. Discussion: Impaired viral fitness due to NRTI resistance mutations and dolutegravir's high barrier to resistance provide rationale for switching patients from a failing TEE regimen to TLD; however, clinical evidence regarding virologic efficacy is lacking. This study provides estimates of such a strategy's early virologic efficacy with and without a supplementary dolutegravir dosing. Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03991013 (19/06/2019).

Potential challenges to sustained viral load suppression in the HIV treatment programme in South Africa: a narrative overview

Background

South Africa, with one of the highest HIV prevalences in the world, introduced the universal test and treat (UTT) programme in September 2016. Barriers to sustained viral suppression may include drug resistance in the pre-treated population, non-adherence, acquired resistance; pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and concurrent use of alternative treatments.

Objective

The purpose of this review is to highlight potential challenges to achieving sustained viral load suppression in South Africa (SA), a major expectation of the UTT initiative.

Methodology

Through the PRISMA approach, published articles from South Africa on transmitted drug resistance; adherence to ARV; host genetic factors in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and interactions between ARV and herbal medicine were searched and reviewed.

Results

The level of drug resistance in the pre-treated population in South Africa has increased over the years, although it is heterogeneous across and within Provinces. At least one study has documented a pre-treated population with moderate (> 5%) or high (> 15%) levels of drug resistance in eight of the nine Provinces. The concurrent use of ARV and medicinal herbal preparation is fairly common in SA, and may be impacting negatively on adherence to ARV. Only few studies have investigated the association between the genetically diverse South African population and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ARVs.

Conclusion

The increasing levels of drug resistant viruses in the pre-treated population poses a threat to viral load suppression and the sustainability of first line regimens. Drug resistance surveillance systems to track the emergence of resistant viruses, study the burden of prior exposure to ARV and the parallel use of alternative medicines, with the goal of minimizing resistance development and virologic failure are proposed for all the Provinces of South Africa. Optimal management of the different drivers of drug resistance in the pre-treated population, non-adherence, and acquired drug resistance will be beneficial in ensuring sustained viral suppression in at least 90% of those on treatment, a key component of the 90-90-90 strategy.

Pharmacogenetic considerations in the treatment of co-infections with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in Congolese populations of Central Africa

BACKGROUND

HIV-infection, tuberculosis and malaria are the big three communicable diseases that plague sub-Saharan Africa. If these diseases occur as co-morbidities they require polypharmacy, which may lead to severe drug-drug-gene interactions and variation in adverse drug reactions, but also in treatment outcomes. Polymorphisms in genes encoding drug-metabolizing enzymes are the major cause of these variations, but such polymorphisms may support the prediction of drug efficacy and toxicity. There is little information on allele frequencies of pharmacogenetic variants of enzymes involved in the metabolism of drugs used to treat HIV-infection, TB and malaria in the Republic of Congo (ROC). The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the occurrence and allele frequencies of 32 pharmacogenetic variants localized in absorption distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) and non-ADME genes and to compare the frequencies with population data of Africans and non-Africans derived from the 1000 Genomes Project.

RESULTS

We found significant differences in the allele frequencies of many of the variants when comparing the findings from ROC with those of non-African populations. On the other hand, only a few variants showed significant differences in their allele frequencies when comparing ROC with other African populations. In addition, considerable differences in the allele frequencies of the pharmacogenetic variants among the African populations were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings contribute to the understanding of pharmacogenetic variants involved in the metabolism of drugs used to treat HIV-infection, TB and malaria in ROC and their diversity in different populations. Such knowledge helps to predict drug efficacy, toxicity and ADRs and to inform individual and population-based decisions.

Meta-analysis of the effect of CYP2B6, CYP2A6, UGT2B7 and CAR polymorphisms on efavirenz plasma concentrations

BACKGROUND

Efavirenz primary metabolism is catalysed by CYP2B6 with minor involvement of CYP2A6. Subsequently, phase I metabolites are conjugated by UGT2B7, and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) has been shown to transcriptionally regulate many relevant enzymes and transporters. Several polymorphisms occurring in the genes coding for these proteins have been shown to impact efavirenz pharmacokinetics in some but not all studies.

OBJECTIVES

A meta-analysis was performed to assess the overall effect of CYP2B6 rs3745274, CYP2A6 (rs28399454, rs8192726 and rs28399433), UGT2B7 (rs28365062 and rs7439366) and NR1I3 (rs2307424 and rs3003596) polymorphisms on mid-dose efavirenz plasma concentrations.

METHODS

Following a literature review, pharmacokinetic parameters were compiled and a meta-analysis for these variants was performed using Review Manager and OpenMetaAnalyst. A total of 28 studies were included.

RESULTS

Unsurprisingly, the analysis confirmed that individuals homozygous for the T allele for CYP2B6 rs3745274 had significantly higher efavirenz concentrations than those homozygous for the G allele [weighted standard mean difference (WSMD) = 2.98; 95% CI 2.19-3.76; P < 0.00001]. A subgroup analysis confirmed ethnic differences in frequency but with a similar effect size in each ethnic group (P = 0.96). Associations with CYP2A6 and UGT2B7 variants were not statistically significant, but T homozygosity for CAR rs2307424 was associated with significantly lower efavirenz concentrations than in C homozygotes (WSMD = -0.32; 95% CI -0.59 to -0.06; P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis provides the overall effect size for the impact of CYP2B6 rs3745274 and NR1I3 rs2307424 on efavirenz pharmacokinetics. The analysis also indicates that some previous associations were not significant when interrogated across studies.

Pharmacogenomics and pharmacokinetics of efavirenz 400 or 600 mg in 184 treatment-naive HIV-infected patients in China

Background: The pharmacogenomics and pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of 400 mg efavirenz have rarely been reported. Materials & methods: A total of 184 treatment-naive HIV-infected patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive a lower dose (tenofovir disoproxil 200 mg, efavirenz 400 mg and lamivudine) or a standard dose regimen. Relationships between pharmacogenomics and efavirenz pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics were explored at 48 weeks. Results: There was no relationship between pharmacogenomics and adverse reactions of the central nervous system and antiretoviral efficacy. CYP2B6 516G>T, 785A>G, 18492C>T and ABCB1 3435C>T T/C were associated with higher efavirenz plasma levels in the standard but not the lower dose group. No relationship was found between pharmacogenomics and antiretoviral efficacy. Patients who were <60 kg had higher efavirenz concentration compared with those with weight ≥60 kg when using 600 mg efavirenz, this was not observed with 400 mg efavirenz. Conclusion: The effect of pharmacogenomics and body weight on the efavirenz concentration was significant in the 600 mg group but not in the 400 mg group.

Population pharmacokinetics of efavirenz in HIV and TB/HIV coinfected children: the significance of genotype-guided dosing

OBJECTIVES

The current WHO weight-based dosing recommendations for efavirenz result in a wide variability of drug exposure in children. Our objectives are to characterize the effects of rifampicin- and isoniazid-containing anti-TB therapy and CYP2B6 activity on efavirenz concentrations in children, using non-linear mixed-effects modelling.

METHODS

This is a pharmacokinetic (PK) substudy of a prospective study that examined the interactions between anti-TB therapy and efavirenz in HIV-infected children with and without TB. PK samples were obtained 4 weeks after starting efavirenz (PK1) and repeated 4 weeks after completing TB therapy (PK2) in TB/HIV coinfected patients. Drug concentrations were measured using LC-MS/MS. Composite CYP2B6 516/983/15582 genotype was determined. Population PK modelling was performed in Monolix. Simulations were performed to obtain the predicted mid-dose concentrations (C12).

RESULTS

One hundred and five HIV-infected Ghanaian children (46 with TB/HIV) were included. The median age and weight were 7 years and 19 kg. The efavirenz concentrations over time were adequately described using a one-compartment model. Weight, composite CYP2B6 genotype and PK visit had a significant influence on the PK parameters, while TB therapy had no significant effect. Simulations showed adequate C12 for intermediate composite CYP2B6 metabolizers only.

CONCLUSIONS

Our model showed that rifampicin- and isoniazid-containing anti-TB therapy does not influence efavirenz PK parameters. On the other hand, it describes the effect of efavirenz autoinduction after completing TB treatment. In addition, dosing efavirenz in children based only on weight results in a large variability in drug exposure. We propose dose adjustments for slow and extensive composite CYP2B6 metabolizers.

Pediatric Antiretroviral Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: A Five and a Half Year Experience from a South African Tertiary Hospital

INTRODUCTION

Antiretroviral therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is not routinely used in the management of human immunodeficiency virus, but may be useful in pediatric patients who are prone to altered pharmacokinetics. Data on the routine use of antiretroviral TDM in pediatrics are sparse especially data from sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the antiretroviral TDM indications at Tygerberg Children's Hospital, identified pediatric patients who had antiretroviral TDM requests from January 2012 until June 2017 and reviewed their clinical records.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients were identified who presented with 64 clinical problems for which TDM was requested. TDM was requested for lopinavir, efavirenz and nevirapine in 83% (53/64), 14% (9/64) and 3% (2/64) of clinical problems, respectively. Lopinavir was mostly requested in patients when adherence measures did not correlate with the clinical picture, suspected non-adherence, lopinavir-rifampicin interactions and for neonatal safety monitoring. Efavirenz was requested when toxicity was suspected and nevirapine in patients receiving rifampicin. Lopinavir TDM confirmed non-adherence in 25% (4/16) of cases when adherence measures did not correlate with the clinical picture and in 43% (3/7) of cases when non-adherence was suspected by the clinician. Efavirenz TDM confirmed toxicity in 100% (6/6) of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Lopinavir TDM was mostly requested when adherence measures did not correlate with the clinical picture, when rifampicin was co-administered and for perinatal safety monitoring. Lopinavir TDM excluded pharmacokinetic reasons for failure in patients failing treatment when lopinavir dosing was supervised. Efavirenz TDM was requested for suspected toxicity with a 100% positive predictive value.

The Pharmacogenetics of Efavirenz Metabolism in Children: The Potential Genetic and Medical Contributions to Child Development in the Context of Long-Term ARV Treatment

Efavirenz (EFV) is a well-known, effective anti-retroviral drug long used in first-line treatment for children and adults with HIV and HIV/AIDS. Due to its narrow window of effective concentrations, between 1 and 4 μg/mL, and neurological side effects at supratherapeutic levels, several investigations into the pharmacokinetics of the drug and its genetic underpinnings have been carried out, primarily with adult samples. A number of studies, however, have examined the genetic influences on the metabolism of EFV in children. Their primary goal has been to shed light on issues of appropriate pediatric dosing, as well as the manifestation of neurotoxic effects of EFV in some children. Although EFV is currently being phased out of use for the treatment of both adults and children, we share this line of research to highlight an important aspect of medical treatment that is relevant to understanding the development of children diagnosed with HIV.

Analysis of CYP450 gene allelic variants can predict ifosfamide toxicity in Mexican paediatric patients

Context: Ifosfamide (IFA) is an effective antineoplastic for solid tumours in children, although it is associated with high levels of systemic toxicity and causes death in some cases. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine whether the presence of certain allelic variants of genes CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 increases the risk of toxicity in children with solid tumours treated with ifosfamide.Materials and methods: A total of 131 DNA samples were genotyped by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using TaqMan probes. Toxicity was assessed using WHO criteria, and survival analysis was performed using Kaplan-Meier curves.Results: The rs3745274 allelic variant in CYP2B6 was associated with haematological toxicity, affecting neutrophils; CYP3A4 variant rs2740574 was also associated with toxicity, affecting both leukocytes and neutrophils. Additionally, the CYP3A5 gene variant rs776746 was found to affect haemoglobin.Conclusions: Our results show that allelic variants rs3745274 (CYP2B6), rs2740574 (CYP34) and rs776746 (CYP3A5) increase the risk for high haematological toxicity.Clinical trial registration: 068/2013.

A Comparison of Plasma Efavirenz and Tenofovir, Dried Blood Spot Tenofovir-Diphosphate, and Self-Reported Adherence to Predict Virologic Suppression Among South African Women

BACKGROUND

Tenofovir-diphosphate (TFV-DP) in dried blood spots (DBS) is an objective long-term adherence measure, but data are limited on its ability to predict virologic suppression (VS) in people on antiretroviral (ARV) treatment. There are also no data comparing DBS TFV-DP with plasma ARV concentrations as predictors of VS.

METHODS

Women who were on a first-line regimen of tenofovir, emtricitabine, and efavirenz (EFV) were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. Plasma EFV and tenofovir (TFV), DBS TFV-DP assays, and 30-day self-reported adherence were evaluated as predictors of VS (<50 copies/mL) with the area under the curve of receiver operating characteristics and logistic regression.

RESULTS

We enrolled 137 women; mean age of 33 years; median 4 years on antiretroviral therapy; 88 (64%) had VS. In receiver operating characteristics analyses: DBS TFV-DP [0.926 (95% CI: 0.876 to 0.976)] had a higher area under the curve than plasma TFV [0.864 (0.797 to 0.932); P = 0.006], whereas plasma EFV [0.903 (0.839-0.967)] was not significantly different from DBS TFV-DP (P = 0.138) or plasma TFV (P = 0.140); all ARV assays performed better than self-report. The association of TFV-DP in DBS with VS strengthened with increasing concentrations [reference <350 fmol/punch: 350-699 fmol/punch aOR 37 (8-178); 700-1249 fmol/punch aOR 47 (13-175); ≥1250 fmol/punch aOR 175 (20-1539)]. "White coat adherence" (defined as DBS TFV-DP <350 fmol/punch with detectable plasma TFV) was only detected in 4 women.

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma EFV, TFV, and DBS TFV-DP were all strong predictors of VS. EFV or TFV assays have potential for development as point-of-care assays for use as objective adherence measures in resource-limited settings.

Drug resistance after cessation of efavirenz-based antiretroviral treatment started in pregnancy

Background

To reduce risk of antiretroviral resistance when stopping efavirenz (EFV)-based antiretroviral treatment (ART), staggered discontinuation of antiretrovirals (an NRTI tail) is recommended. However, no data directly support this recommendation.

Objectives

We evaluated the prevalence of HIV drug resistance mutations in pregnant women living with HIV who stopped efavirenz (EFV)/emtricitabine (FTC)/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) postpartum.

Method

In accordance with the prevailing Botswana HIV guidelines at the time, women with pre-treatment CD4 > 350 cells/mm³, initiated EFV/FTC/TDF in pregnancy and stopped ART at 6 weeks postpartum if formula feeding, or 6 weeks after weaning. A 7-day tail of FTC/TDF was recommended per Botswana guidelines. HIV-1 RNA and genotypic resistance testing (bulk sequencing) were performed on samples obtained 4-6 weeks after stopping EFV. Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Database was used to identify major mutations.

Results

From April 2014 to May 2015, 74 women who had stopped EFV/FTC/TDF enrolled, with median nadir CD4 of 571 cells/mm³. The median time from cessation of EFV to sample draw for genotyping was 5 weeks (range: 3-13 weeks). Thirty-two (43%) women received a 1-week tail of FTC/TDF after stopping EFV. HIV-1 RNA was available from delivery in 70 (95%) women, 58 (83%) of whom had undetectable delivery HIV-1 RNA (< 40 copies/mL). HIV-1 RNA was available for 71 women at the time of genotyping, 45 (63%) of whom had HIV-1 RNA < 40 copies/mL. Thirty-five (47%) of 74 samples yielded a genotype result, and four (11%) had a major drug resistance mutation: two with K103N and two with V106M. All four resistance mutations occurred among women who did not receive an FTC/TDF tail (4/42, 10%), whereas no mutations occurred among 18 genotyped women who had received a 1-week FTC/TDF tail (p = 0.053).

Conclusions

Viral rebound was slow following cessation of EFV/FTC/TDF in the postpartum period. Use of an FTC/TDF tail after stopping EFV was associated with the lower prevalence of subsequent NNRTI drug resistance mutation.

Influence of CYP2B6 activity score on the pharmacokinetics and safety of single dose efavirenz in healthy volunteers

Efavirenz is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor used as first-line therapy for the treatment of HIV infection. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) CYP2B6 G516T (rs3745274) is a well-known predictor of efavirenz disposition. Dose adjustment based on G516T variant has been shown to be beneficial. However, this variant cannot explain the entire variability of efavirenz pharmacokinetics. In this study, we evaluated the influence of 11 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CYP2B6, CYP2A6, CYP3A and ABCB1 (ATP-binding cassette sub-family B member 1) on the pharmacokinetics and safety of efavirenz after single oral dose administration to 47 healthy volunteers. We designed and validated a CYP2B6 activity score model based on two CYP2B6 SNPs (G516T and rs4803419) that predicted efavirenz disposition better than G516T alone.

Efavirenz Metabolism: Influence of Polymorphic CYP2B6 Variants and Stereochemistry

Efavirenz (more specifically the S-enantiomer) is a cornerstone antiretroviral therapy for treatment of HIV infection. The major primary metabolite is S-8-hydroxyefavirenz, which does not have antiretroviral activity but is neurotoxic. Cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6) is the major enzyme catalyzing S-8-hydroxyefavirenz formation. CYP2B6 genetics and drug interactions are major determinants of clinical efavirenz disposition and dose adjustment. In addition, as a prototypic CYP2B6 substrate, S-efavirenz and analogs can inform on the structure, activity, catalytic mechanisms, and stereoselectivity of CYP2B6. Metabolism of R-efavirenz by CYP2B6 remains unexplored. This investigation assessed S-efavirenz metabolism by clinically relevant CYP2B6 genetic variants. This investigation also evaluated R-efavirenz hydroxylation by wild-type CYP2B6.1 and CYP2B6 variants. S-Efavirenz 8-hydroxylation by wild-type CYP2B6.1 and variants exhibited positive cooperativity and apparent cooperative substrate inhibition. On the basis of Cl_max values, relative activities for S-efavirenz 8-hydroxylation were in the order CYP2B6.4 > CYP2B6.1 ≈ CYP2B6.5 ≈ CYP2B6.17 > CYP2B6.6 ≈ CYP2B6.7 ≈ CYP2B6.9 ≈ CYP2B6.19 ≈ CYP2B6.26; CYP2B6.16 and CYP2B6.18 showed minimal activity. Rates of R-efavirenz metabolism were approximately 1/10 those of S-efavirenz for wild-type CYP2B6.1 and variants. On the basis of Cl_max values, there was 14-fold enantioselectivity (S > R-efavirenz) for wild-type CYP2B6.1, and 5- to 22-fold differences for other CYP2B6 variants. These results show that both CYP2B6 516G > T (CYP2B6*6 and CYP2B6*9) and 983T > C (CYP2B6*16 and CYP2B6*18) polymorphisms cause canonical diminishment or loss-of-function variants for S-efavirenz 8-hydroxylation, provide a mechanistic basis for known clinical pharmacogenetic differences in efavirenz disposition, and may predict additional clinically important variant alleles. Efavirenz is the most stereoselective CYP2B6 drug substrate yet identified and may be a useful probe for the CYP2B6 active site and catalytic mechanisms. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Clinical disposition of the antiretroviral S-efavirenz is affected by CYP2B6 polymorphisms. Expressed CYP2B6 with 516G>T (CYP2B6*6 and CYP2B6*9), and 983T>C (CYP2B6*16 and CYP2B6*18) polymorphisms had a diminishment or loss of function for efavirenz 8-hydroxylation. This provides a mechanistic basis for efavirenz clinical pharmacogenetics and may predict additional clinically important variant alleles. Efavirenz metabolism showed both cooperativity and cooperative substrate inhibition. With greater than 10-fold enantioselectivity (S- vs. R- metabolism), efavirenz is the most stereoselective CYP2B6 drug substrate yet identified. These findings may provide mechanistic insights.

The role of rilpivirine in Southern Africa

Rilpivirine, a second-generation non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), is included as an option in first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) for antiretroviral-naïve individuals in treatment guidelines in high-income countries, including the United States and many European countries. Rilpivirine is available in a single-tablet fixed-dose combination, has a favourable tolerability profile and is of relatively low cost. However, rilpivirine has reduced efficacy in patients commencing ART at high viral loads. Therefore, baseline viral load testing is required before commencing rilpivirine, and it is not recommended for patients commencing therapy with a viral load greater than 100 000 copies/mL. Rilpivirine is not included in the treatment regimens recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), which form the basis of treatment guidelines in many lower- and middle-income countries. Some patients commencing standard first-line regimens experience treatment-limiting toxicity. A low-cost rilpivirine-containing fixed-dose combination would potentially be a useful addition to treatment options available in South Africa and other countries in the region, for patients who do not tolerate standard first-line ART. In this article, we explore the utility of rilpivirine as an option in ART in South Africa and the region in the context of current public-sector regimens. We consider what role rilpivirine might play if first-line therapy moves to a dolutegravir-based regimen, as has already happened in some lower- and middle-income countries, including Botswana, Kenya and Brazil. Finally, we describe emerging evidence for rilpivirine in the prevention of HIV transmission.

Pharmacogenetics and pharmacokinetics of CNS penetration of efavirenz and its metabolites

BACKGROUND

There are limited data on the pharmacogenetics and pharmacokinetics of the CNS penetration of efavirenz.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated genetic polymorphisms associated with CSF concentrations of efavirenz and its metabolites and explored the relationships with neurocognitive performance.

METHODS

We included 47 HIV-infected South African black adults with and without HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder on efavirenz/tenofovir/emtricitabine and collected paired plasma-CSF samples. We considered 2049 SNPs, including SNPs known to affect plasma efavirenz exposure, from potentially relevant genes (ABCC5, ABCG2, ABCB1, SLCO2B1, SCLO1A2, ABCC4, CYP2B6 and CYP2A6) and 880 met a linkage disequilibrium (LD)-pruning threshold.

RESULTS

We identified 9 slow, 21 intermediate and 17 extensive metabolizers. The CYP2B6 983 genotype in multivariate analyses predicted log10-transformed concentrations of plasma efavirenz (β = 0.38, P = 2.7 × 10-03), plasma 7-hydroxy-efavirenz (β = 0.59, P = 3.7 × 10-03), plasma 8-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio (β = -0.31, P = 1.8 × 10-04) and CSF efavirenz (β = 0.36, P = 0.01). Lower plasma 7-hydroxy-efavirenz concentrations were independently associated with CYP2A6 rs10853742 (β = -0.55, P = 3.5 × 10-05), ABCB1 rs115780656 (β = -0.65, P = 4.1 × 10-05) and CYP2A6 -48A→C (β = -0.59, P = 0.01). CYP2A6 -48A→C was independently associated with higher CSF 8-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio (β = 0.54, P = 0.048). CYP2B6 rs2279345 polymorphism was associated with lower plasma 7-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio in multivariate analyses (P < 0.05). No polymorphisms were associated with CSF:plasma ratios of efavirenz, plasma or CSF concentrations of 8-hydroxy-efavirenz or neurocognitive performance.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified novel genetic associations with plasma efavirenz, plasma 7-hydroxy-efavirenz, plasma 7-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio, plasma 8-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio, CSF efavirenz and CSF 8-hydroxy-efavirenz:efavirenz ratio.

Cytochrome P450 CYP2B6*6 distribution among Congolese individuals with HIV, Tuberculosis and Malaria infection

BACKGROUND

The cytochrome P450 CYP2B6*6 (CYP2B6 c.516G>T; rs3745274) is one of the genetic factors that alters the drug metabolism in antimalarial, antiretroviral and TB first-line drugs. In Central African populations, the distribution of the CYP2B6*6 variant is poorly documented. This study investigated the distribution of CYP2B6 c.516G>T variant among Congolese individuals.

METHODS

A total of 418 patients with HIV-1 mono-infection, HIV-1 and Tuberculosis coinfection and symptomatic P. falciparum malaria were genotyped for the CYP2B6 c.516G>T SNP using Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). The allele frequencies and genotype distributions were determined.

RESULTS

The CYP2B6 c.516G>T was successfully analysed in 69% (288/418) of the study participants. Among the investigated individuals, the distribution of the major allele CYP2B6*G was 45% and the minor CYP2B6*T allele was 55%. Significant differences in genotype distribution were also observed among the studied individuals. The CYP2B6*GG (rapid metabolizer) genotype was observed in 17% (49/288) followed by CYP2B6*GT (intermediate metabolizer) 55% (159/288) and CYP2B6*TT (poor metabolizers) 28% (80/288).

CONCLUSION

This study contributes to increasing understanding on population pharmacogenetics and may help policy makers regulate treatment guidelines in the Congolese population with a high burden of HIV, Malaria and TB.

Risk Factors and Pathogenesis of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder: The Role of Host Genetics

Neurocognitive impairments associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection remain a considerable health issue for almost half the people living with HIV, despite progress in HIV treatment through combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). The pathogenesis and risk factors of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) are still incompletely understood. This is partly due to the complexity of HAND diagnostics, as phenotypes present with high variability and change over time. Our current understanding is that HIV enters the central nervous system (CNS) during infection, persisting and replicating in resident immune and supporting cells, with the subsequent host immune response and inflammation likely adding to the development of HAND. Differences in host (human) genetics determine, in part, the effectiveness of the immune response and other factors that increase the vulnerability to HAND. This review describes findings from studies investigating the role of human host genetics in the pathogenesis of HAND, including potential risk factors for developing HAND. The similarities and differences between HAND and Alzheimer's disease are also discussed. While some specific variations in host genes regulating immune responses and neurotransmission have been associated with protection or risk of HAND development, the effects are generally small and findings poorly replicated. Nevertheless, a few specific gene variants appear to affect the risk for developing HAND and aid our understanding of HAND pathogenesis.

CYP2B6 Genetic Polymorphisms, Depression, and Viral Suppression in Adults Living with HIV Initiating Efavirenz-Containing Antiretroviral Therapy Regimens in Uganda: Pooled Analysis of Two Prospective Studies

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CYP2B6 have been shown to predict variation in plasma efavirenz concentrations, but associations between these SNPs and efavirenz-mediated depression and viral suppression are less well described. We evaluated three SNPs in CYP2B6 (rs3745274, rs28399499, and rs4803419) in Ugandan persons living with HIV. To define exposure, we used previously published pharmacokinetic modeling data to categorize participants as normal, intermediate, and poor efavirenz metabolizers. Our outcomes were probable depression in the first 2 years after antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation (mean score of >1.75 on the Hopkins Symptom Depression Checklist) and viral suppression 6 months after ART initiation. We fit generalized estimating equation and modified Poisson regression models adjusted for demographic, clinical, and psychosocial characteristics with or without individuals with depression at the time of ART initiation. Among 242 participants, there were no differences in the pre-ART depression or viral load by efavirenz metabolism strata (p > .05). Participants were classified as normal (32%), intermediate (50%), and poor (18%) metabolizers. Seven percent (56/242) of follow-up visits met criteria for depression. Eighty-five percent (167/202) of participants who completed a 6-month visit achieved viral suppression. CYP2B6 metabolizer strata did not have a statistically significant association with either depression [adjusted risk ratio (aRR) comparing intermediate or poor vs. normal, 1.46; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.72-2.95] or 6-month viral suppression (aRR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.88-1.15). However, in analyses restricted to participants without pre-ART depression, poorer CYP2B6 metabolism was associated with increased odds of depression (adjusted odds ratio, 4.11; 95% CI, 1.04-16.20). Efavirenz-metabolizing allele patterns are strongly associated with risk of incident depression. Future work should elucidate further region-specific gene-environment interactions and whether alternate polymorphisms may be associated with efavirenz metabolism.

The Next Generation Scientist program: capacity-building for future scientific leaders in low- and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

Scientific and professional development opportunities for early career scientists in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs) are limited and not consistent. There is a disproportionately low number of biomedical and clinical researchers in LMIC's relative to their high burden of disease, a disparity that is aggravated by emigration of up to 70% of scientists from their countries of birth for education and employment elsewhere. To help address this need, a novel University-accredited, immersive fellowship program was established by a large public-academic-private network. We sought to describe the program and summarize progress and lessons learned over its first 7-years.

METHODS

Hallmarks of the program are a structured learning curriculum and bespoke research activities tailored to the needs of each fellow. Research projects expose the scientists to state-of-the-art methodologies and leading experts in their fields while also ensuring that learnings are implementable within their home infrastructure. Fellows run seminars on drug discovery and development that reinforce themes of scientific leadership and teamwork together with practical modules on addressing healthcare challenges within their local systems. Industry mentors achieve mutual learning to better understand healthcare needs in traditionally underserved settings. We evaluated the impact of the program through an online survey of participants and by assessing research output.

RESULTS

More than 140 scientists and clinicians from 25 countries participated over the 7-year period. Evaluation revealed strong evidence of knowledge and skills transfer, and beneficial self-reported impact on fellow's research output and career trajectories. Examples of program impact included completion of post-graduate qualifications; establishment and implementation of good laboratory- and clinical- practice mechanisms; and becoming lead investigators in local programs. There was a high retention of fellows in their home countries (> 75%) and an enduring professional network among the fellows and their mentors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experience demonstrates an example for how multi-sectoral partners can contribute to scientific and professional development of researchers in LMICs and supports the idea that capacity-building efforts should be tailored to the specific needs of beneficiaries to be maximally effective. Lessons learned may be applied to the design and conduct of other programs to strengthen science ecosystems in LMICs.

Pharmacogenetics of Antiretroviral Drug Response and Pharmacokinetic Variations in Indigenous South African Populations

Interindividual and interethnic differences in response to antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) are influenced by genetic variation. The few genomic studies conducted among African-Americans and African ethnic groups do not reflect the extensive genetic diversity within African populations. ARVs are widely used in Africa. Therefore, genomic characterization of African populations is required before genotype-guided dosing becomes possible. The aim of this study was to determine and report on the frequency of genetic variants in genes implicated in metabolism and transport of ARVs in South African populations. The study comprised 48 self-reported South African Colored (SAC) and 296 self-reported Black African (BA) individuals. Allele and genotype frequency distributions for 93 variants contributing to metabolism and transport of ARVs were compared between groups, and other global populations. Fifty-three variants had significant differences in allele and genotype frequencies when comparing SAC and BA groups. Thirteen of these have strong clinical annotations, affecting efavirenz and tenofovir pharmacokinetics. This study provides a summary of the genetic variation within genes implicated in metabolism and transport of ARVs in indigenous South African populations. The observed differences between indigenous population groups, and between these groups and global populations, demonstrate that data generated from specific African populations cannot be used to infer genetic diversity within other populations on the continent. These results highlight the need for comprehensive characterization of genetic variation within indigenous African populations, and the clinical utility of these variants in ARV dosing for global precision medicine. Population pharmacogenetics is a nascent field of global health and warrants further research and education.

Polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 are associated with extensive efavirenz pharmacokinetics and CNS toxicities in an HIV cohort in Botswana

Inter-individual variability in efavirenz (EFV) pharmacokinetics and dynamics are dominantly driven by the polymorphism in cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzyme 2B6 516G>T. We hypothesized that additional CYP polymorphisms mediate the relationship between CYP2B6 516G>T, EFV metabolism, and clinical events. We investigated 21 SNPs in 814 HIV-infected adults initiating EFV-based therapy in Botswana for population pharmacokinetics, CNS toxicities, and treatment outcomes. Two SNPs (rs28399499 and rs28399433) showed reduced apparent oral EFV clearance. Four SNPs (rs2279345, rs4803417, rs4802101, and rs61663607) showed extensive clearance. Composite CYP2B-mediated EFV metabolism was significantly associated with CNS toxicity (p=0.04), with extensive metabolizers reporting more and slow and very slow metabolizers reporting less toxicity after one month compared to intermediate metabolizers. Composite CYP2B6 metabolism was not associated with composite early treatment failure. In conclusion, our data suggest that CNS-related toxicities might not be solely the result of super-therapeutic parent EFV concentrations in HIV-infected individuals in patients of African ancestry.

Pharmacogenetic associations with cytochrome P450 in antiretroviral therapy: what does the future hold?

INTRODUCTION

Several antiretroviral drugs used to treat infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are substrates of enzymes belonging to the cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily, which are polymorphically expressed. It may therefore be useful to take into account the genetic variation in these enzymes to predict the likelihood of anti-HIV treatment success, toxicity and the potential for drug-drug interactions. Areas covered: In this manuscript, the authors discuss the current state of knowledge regarding pharmacogenetic associations between CYP and all major antiretrovirals, as well as the importance of these associations. Expert opinion: While many pharmacogenetic associations for CYP have been described in the literature, replication studies are sometimes lacking. The implementation of this knowledge in clinical practice also remains difficult. Further efforts are required both to expand this field of knowledge and to enable its use in everyday clinical practice.

CYP2B6 Haplotype Predicts Efavirenz Plasma Concentration in Black South African HIV-1-Infected Children: A Longitudinal Pediatric Pharmacogenomic Study

South Africa has the highest burden of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection globally. Efavirenz (EFV), a frequently used drug against HIV infection, displays a relationship between drug concentration and pharmacodynamics effects clinically. However, haplotype-based genetic variation in drug metabolism in a pediatric sample has been little considered in a longitudinal long-term context. CYP2B6 plays a key role in variation of EFV plasma concentration through altered drug metabolism. We report here on a prospective clinical pharmacogenomics/pharmacokinetic study of Bantu-speaking children, importantly, over a period of 24 months post-initiation of EFV-based treatment in South Africa. We characterized the HIV-1-infected children (n = 60) for the CYP2B6 c.516G>T, c.785A>G, c.983T>C, and c.1459C>T single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). These SNPs were determined using polymerase chain reaction/restricted fragment length polymorphism and SNaPshot genotyping. Longitudinal mid-dose EFV plasma concentrations were determined by LC-MS/MS and association analyses with genotypes and haplotypes at 1, 3, and 24 months were performed. The CYP2B6 c.516T/T genotype showed significantly higher EFV plasma concentrations (p < 0.001) compared to non 516T-allele carriers at all three time points. The minor allele frequencies (MAF) for CYP2B6 c.516T, c.785G, c.983C, and c.1459T were 0.410, 0.408, 0.110, and 0.000 respectively. Haplotypes were constructed using CYP2B6 c.516G>T,-c.785A>G and c.983T>C. The haplotype T-G-T presented with significantly increased EFV plasma concentrations compared to the reference G-A-T haplotype at 1, 3, and 24 months (p = 0.009; p = 0.003; p = 0.001), suggesting that the T-G-T haplotype predisposes a risk of EFV plasma concentrations >4 μg/mL. The clinical implications of these pharmacogenomics observations for EFV toxicity and treatment resistance warrant further future research.

Genetic variations of the xenoreceptors NR1I2 and NR1I3 and their effect on drug disposition and response variability

NR1I2 (PXR) and NR1I3 (CAR) are nuclear receptors that are classified as xenoreceptors. Upon activation by various xenobiotics, including marketed drugs, they regulate the transcription level of major drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters and facilitate the elimination of xenobiotics from the body. The modulation of the activity of these two xenoreceptors by various ligands is a major source of pharmacokinetic variability of environmental origin. NR1I2 and NR1I3 genetic polymorphisms can affect the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic response to many drugs, such as irinotecan, tacrolimus and atazanavir. This review provides an overview of NR1I2 and NR1I3 pharmacogenetic studies in various therapeutic fields (oncology, immunomodulation and infectiology) and discusses the implementation of NR1I2 and NR1I3 genetic polymorphism testing in the clinical routine.