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Fattore L, Pisanu A, Concas L, Casula C, Siddi C, Pisu MG, Serra M, Concas A, Porcu P. Behavioral characterization of co-exposure to cannabinoids and hormonal contraceptives in female rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 129:110890. [PMID: 37926338 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Hormonal contraceptives are among the most widely used drugs by young healthy women to block ovulation and avoid pregnancy. They reduce the ovarian secretion of estradiol and progesterone, hormones that also modulate neuronal plasticity, cognitive functions, emotions and mood. Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug worldwide and its use is increasing among young women, many of which regularly take the "pill". Despite evidence of a bidirectional interaction between the endocannabinoid system and gonadal hormones, only very few studies have examined the consequences of cannabis consumption in young females under hormonal contraceptives treatment. To fill this gap, this study evaluated the behavioral effects of co-exposure to chronic 1) hormonal contraceptives, i.e., ethinyl estradiol (EE) plus levonorgestrel (LNG), one of the synthetic estrogen-progestin combinations of hormonal contraceptives, and 2) cannabinoid receptor agonist, i.e., WIN 55,212-2 (WIN), on motor activity, emotional state and cognitive functions in young adult female rats (8-11/experimental group). Hormonal and cannabinoid treatment started at post-natal day (PND) 52 and 56, respectively, while behavioral testing occurred between PND 84-95. The results show that chronic EE-LNG treatment, at doses (0.020 and 0.060 mg/rat, respectively) known to drastically reduce plasma progesterone levels, and the contextual exposure to WIN, at a dose (12.5 μg/kg/infusion) known to be rewarding in the rat, alters the hormonal milieu but does not cause further changes in locomotor activity compared to EE-LNG or WIN alone, and does not modify anxiety-like state (as measured by the elevated plus maze and the marble burying tests) and cognitive abilities (as measured by the novel object recognition and the prepulse inhibition tests) in young adult female rats. Although exposure to EE-LNG and WIN tends to increase the duration of immobility and to reduce the time spent swimming in the forced swimming test, there was not a significant additive effect suggestive of a depressive-like state. These findings allow deepening the current knowledge on the interaction between cannabinoid agonists and hormonal contraceptives and suggest that low, rewarding doses of cannabinoids do not significantly alter the motor and cognitive skills and do not induce anxiety or depressive-like states in females that use hormonal contraceptives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Fattore
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Augusta Pisanu
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Luca Concas
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Claudia Casula
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Carlotta Siddi
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Mariangela Serra
- Department of Life and Environment Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Anthropology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Alessandra Concas
- Department of Life and Environment Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Anthropology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Patrizia Porcu
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy.
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Blumenfeld Z, Bera K, Castrén E, Lester HA. Antidepressants enter cells, organelles, and membranes. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024; 49:246-261. [PMID: 37783840 PMCID: PMC10700606 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01725-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
We begin by summarizing several examples of antidepressants whose therapeutic actions begin when they encounter their targets in the cytoplasm or in the lumen of an organelle. These actions contrast with the prevailing view that most neuropharmacological actions begin when drugs engage their therapeutic targets at extracellular binding sites of plasma membrane targets-ion channels, receptors, and transporters. We review the chemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic principles underlying the movements of drugs into subcellular compartments. We note the relationship between protonation-deprotonation events and membrane permeation of antidepressant drugs. The key properties relate to charge and hydrophobicity/lipid solubility, summarized by the parameters LogP, pKa, and LogDpH7.4. The classical metric, volume of distribution (Vd), is unusually large for some antidepressants and has both supracellular and subcellular components. A table gathers structures, LogP, PKa, LogDpH7.4, and Vd data and/or calculations for most antidepressants and antidepressant candidates. The subcellular components, which can now be measured in some cases, are dominated by membrane binding and by trapping in the lumen of acidic organelles. For common antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), the target is assumed to be the eponymous reuptake transporter(s), although in fact the compartment of target engagement is unknown. We review special aspects of the pharmacokinetics of ketamine, ketamine metabolites, and other rapidly acting antidepressants (RAADs) including methoxetamine and scopolamine, psychedelics, and neurosteroids. Therefore, the reader can assess properties that markedly affect a drug's ability to enter or cross membranes-and therefore, to interact with target sites that face the cytoplasm, the lumen of organelles, or a membrane. In the current literature, mechanisms involving intracellular targets are termed "location-biased actions" or "inside-out pharmacology". Hopefully, these general terms will eventually acquire additional mechanistic details.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zack Blumenfeld
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kallol Bera
- Department of Neurosciences and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Eero Castrén
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Henry A Lester
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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3
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Bratzu J, Ciscato M, Pisanu A, Talani G, Frau R, Porcu P, Diana M, Fumagalli F, Romualdi P, Rullo L, Trezza V, Ciccocioppo R, Sanna F, Fattore L. Communal nesting differentially attenuates the impact of pre-weaning social isolation on behavior in male and female rats during adolescence and adulthood. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1257417. [PMID: 37915532 PMCID: PMC10616881 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1257417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Early social isolation (ESI) disrupts neurodevelopmental processes, potentially leading to long-lasting emotional and cognitive changes in adulthood. Communal nesting (CN), i.e., the sharing of parental responsibilities between multiple individuals in a nest, creates a socially enriching environment known to impact social and anxiety-related behaviors. Methods This study examines the effects of (i) the CN condition and of (ii) ESI during the 3rd week of life (i.e., pre-weaning ESI) on motor, cognitive, and emotional domains during adolescence and adulthood in male and female rats reared in the two different housing conditions, as well as (iii) the potential of CN to mitigate the impact of ESI on offspring. Results We found that in a spontaneous locomotor activity test, females exhibited higher activity levels compared to males. In female groups, adolescents reared in standard housing (SH) condition spent less time in the center of the arena, suggestive of increased anxiety levels, while the CN condition increased the time spent in the center during adolescence, but not adulthood, independently from ESI. The prepulse inhibition (PPI) test showed a reduced PPI in ESI adolescent animals of both sexes and in adult males (but not in adult females), with CN restoring PPI in males, but not in adolescent females. Further, in the marble burying test SH-ESI adolescent males exhibited higher marble burying behavior than all other groups, suggestive of obsessive-compulsive traits. CN completely reversed this stress-induced effect. Interestingly, ESI and CN did not have a significant impact on burying behavior in adult animals of both sexes. Discussion Overall, our findings (i) assess the effects of ESI on locomotion, sensorimotor gating, and compulsive-like behaviors, (ii) reveal distinct vulnerabilities of males and females within these domains, and (iii) show how early-life social enrichment may successfully counteract some of the behavioral alterations induced by early-life social stress in a sex-dependent manner. This study strengthens the notion that social experiences during early-life can shape emotional and cognitive outcomes in adulthood, and points to the importance of social enrichment interventions for mitigating the negative effects of early social stress on neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Bratzu
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Ciscato
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Augusta Pisanu
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Talani
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Roberto Frau
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Patrizia Porcu
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marco Diana
- G.Minardi’ Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CPMB Science Department, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Fabio Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences ‘Rodolfo Paoletti’, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Romualdi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Laura Rullo
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Viviana Trezza
- Department of Science, University “Roma Tre”, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberto Ciccocioppo
- School of Pharmacy, Center for Neuroscience, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Sanna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
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Pintori N, Piva A, Guardiani V, Decimo I, Chiamulera C. Brief Environmental Enrichment exposure enhances contextual-induced sucrose-seeking with and without memory reactivation in rats. Behav Brain Res 2022; 416:113556. [PMID: 34474039 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chronic Environmental Enrichment (EE) has been shown to prevent the relapse to addictive behaviours, such as drug-taking and -seeking. Recently, acute EE was shown to reduce cue-induced sucrose-seeking, but its effects on contextual (Cx)-induced sucrose-seeking is still unknown. Here we report the effects of brief EE exposure on Cx-induced sucrose-seeking with and without prior Cx-memory reactivation. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to sucrose self-administration associated to a specific conditioning Cx (CxA), followed by a 7-day extinction in a different Cx (CxB). Afterwards, rats were exposed for 22 h to EE, and 1 h later to either i) Cx-induced sucrose-seeking (1 h, renewal without Cx-memory reactivation), ii) or two different Cx-memory reactivations: short (2-min) and long (15-min) CxA-retrieval session (Cx-Ret). In Cx-Ret experiments, CxA-induced sucrose-seeking test (1 h) was done after a subsequent 3-day extinction phase. The assessment of molecular markers of memory reactivation/reconsolidation, Zif-268 and rpS6P, was performed 2 h after Cx-Ret. Brief EE exposure enhanced Cx-induced sucrose-seeking without and with short but not long Cx-retrieval. Moreover, EE impaired discriminative responding at test prior to long, whereas improved it with or without short Cx-retrieval. Different changes in Zif-268 and rpS6P expression induced by short vs. long Cx-Ret were correlated to behavioural data, suggesting the occurrence of different memory processes affected by EE. Our data show that brief EE exposure may differently affect subsequent appetitive relapse depending on the modality of re-exposure to conditioned context. This finding suggests caution and further studies to understand the proper conditions for the use of EE against appetitive and addiction disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Pintori
- Section of Pharmacology, Dept. Diagnostic & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
| | - A Piva
- Section of Pharmacology, Dept. Diagnostic & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - V Guardiani
- Section of Pharmacology, Dept. Diagnostic & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - I Decimo
- Section of Pharmacology, Dept. Diagnostic & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - C Chiamulera
- Section of Pharmacology, Dept. Diagnostic & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Marti M, Talani G, Miliano C, Bilel S, Biggio F, Bratzu J, Diana M, De Luca MA, Fattore L. New insights into methoxetamine mechanisms of action: Focus on serotonergic 5-HT 2 receptors in pharmacological and behavioral effects in the rat. Exp Neurol 2021; 345:113836. [PMID: 34384790 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Methoxetamine (MXE) is a dissociative substance of the arylcyclohexylamine class that has been present on the designer drug market as a ketamine-substitute since 2010. We have previously shown that MXE (i) possesses ketamine-like discriminative and positive rewarding effects in rats, (ii) affects brain processing involved in cognition and emotional responses, (iii) causes long-lasting behavioral abnormalities and neurotoxicity in rats and (iv) induces neurological, sensorimotor and cardiorespiratory alterations in mice. To shed light on the mechanisms through which MXE exerts its effects, we conducted a multidisciplinary study to evaluate the various neurotransmitter systems presumably involved in its actions on the brain. In vivo microdialysis study first showed that a single administration of MXE (0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg, i.v.) is able to significantly alter serotonin levels in the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens. Then, we observed that blockade of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors through two selective antagonists, ketanserin (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) and MDL 100907 (0.03 mg/kg, i.p.), at doses not affecting animals behavior per se, attenuated the facilitatory motor effect and the inhibition on visual sensory responses induced by MXE (3 mg/kg, i.p.) and ketamine (3 mg/kg, i.p.), and prevented MXE-induced reduction of the prepulse inhibition in rats, pointing to the 5-HT2 receptors as a key target for the recently described MXE-induced sensorimotor effects. Finally, in-vitro electrophysiological studies revealed that the GABAergic and glutamatergic systems are also likely involved in the mechanisms through which MXE exerts its central effects since MXE inhibits, in a concentration-dependent manner, NMDA-mediated field postsynaptic potentials and GABA-mediated spontaneous currents. Conversely, MXE failed to alter both the AMPA component of field potentials and presynaptic glutamate release, and seems not to interfere with the endocannabinoid-mediated effects on mPFC GABAergic synapses. Altogether, our results support the notion of MXE as a NMDA receptor antagonist and shed further lights into the central mechanisms of action of this ketamine-substitute by pointing to serotonin 5-HT2 receptors as crucial players in the expression of its sensorimotor altering effects and to the NMDA and GABA receptors as potential further important targets of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy; Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Talani
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Italy
| | - Cristina Miliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Francesca Biggio
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Jessica Bratzu
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Italy
| | - Marco Diana
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Italy
| | | | - Liana Fattore
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Italy.
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6
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Pintori N, Castelli MP, Miliano C, Simola N, Fadda P, Fattore L, Scherma M, Ennas MG, Mostallino R, Flore G, De Felice M, Sagheddu C, Pistis M, Di Chiara G, De Luca MA. Repeated exposure to JWH-018 induces adaptive changes in the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways, glial cells alterations, and behavioural correlates. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 178:3476-3497. [PMID: 33837969 PMCID: PMC8457172 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Spice/K2 herbal mixtures, containing synthetic cannabinoids such as JWH‐018, have been marketed as marijuana surrogates since 2004. JWH‐018 has cannabinoid CB1 receptor‐dependent reinforcing properties and acutely increases dopaminergic transmission selectively in the NAc shell. Here, we tested the hypothesis that repeated administration of JWH‐018 (i) modulates behaviour, (ii) affects dopaminergic transmission and its responsiveness to motivational stimuli, and (iii) is associated with a neuroinflammatory phenotype. Experimental Approach Rats were administered with JWH‐018 once a day for 14 consecutive days. We then performed behavioural, electrophysiological, and neurochemical evaluation at multiple time points after drug discontinuation. Key Results Repeated JWH‐018 exposure (i) induced anxious and aversive behaviours, transitory attentional deficits, and withdrawal signs; (ii) decreased spontaneous activity and number of dopamine neurons in the VTA; and (iii) reduced stimulation of dopaminergic transmission in the NAc shell while potentiating that in the NAc core, in response to acute JWH‐018 challenge. Moreover, (iv) we observed a decreased dopamine sensitivity in the NAc shell and core, but not in the mPFC, to a first chocolate exposure; conversely, after a second exposure, dialysate dopamine fully increased in the NAc shell and core but not in the mPFC. Finally, selected dopamine brain areas showed (v) astrogliosis (mPFC, NAc shell and core, VTA), microgliosis (NAc shell and core), and downregulation of CB1 receptors (mPFC, NAc shell and core). Conclusion and Implications Repeated exposure to JWH‐018 may provide a useful model to clarify the detrimental effects of recurring use of Spice/K2 drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Pintori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Cristina Miliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Paola Fadda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Scherma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Ennas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Rafaela Mostallino
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giovanna Flore
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marta De Felice
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Claudia Sagheddu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marco Pistis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Gaetano Di Chiara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
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7
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Mancini GF, Marchetta E, Riccardi E, Trezza V, Morena M, Campolongo P. Sex-divergent long-term effects of single prolonged stress in adult rats. Behav Brain Res 2020; 401:113096. [PMID: 33359571 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Single prolonged stress (SPS) is an experimental model that recapitulates in rodents some of the core symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Although women have a two-fold greater risk to develop PTSD, most preclinical studies have been carried out in males. Furthermore, the long-term effects of behavioral alterations induced by SPS have been rarely investigated. Here, we evaluated the long-term effects of SPS on PTSD-relevant behavioral domains in rats and whether these effects were sex-dependent. To this aim, separate cohorts of male and female adult rats were subjected to SPS and, 30 days later, long-term effects were assessed. We found that SPS exposure reduced locomotor activity in both sexes in an open field task. Males only showed increased anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and marble burying tests, enhanced acoustic startle response and impaired spatial memory retention while females were unaffected. SPS exposure did not alter auditory fear memory dynamics in males, but it did alter extinction retrieval in females. We provide the first evidence that SPS reproduces long-term emotional alterations in male, but not in female, rats which were observed 30 days following trauma exposure, thus resembling some of the hallmark symptoms of PTSD. Furthermore, our results show for the first time a long-term SPS-induced alteration of cued fear extinction in females. Our findings are relevant to future research on trauma-related disorders and may help develop sex-specific interventions to treat PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Federica Mancini
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; Neurobiology of Behavior Laboratory, Santa Lucia Foundation, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Marchetta
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; Neurobiology of Behavior Laboratory, Santa Lucia Foundation, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - Eleonora Riccardi
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Viviana Trezza
- Dept. of Science, Section of Biomedical Sciences and Technologies, University Roma Tre, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Morena
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Campolongo
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; Neurobiology of Behavior Laboratory, Santa Lucia Foundation, 00143 Rome, Italy.
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Neurochemical and Behavioral Characterization after Acute and Repeated Exposure to Novel Synthetic Cannabinoid Agonist 5-MDMB-PICA. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10121011. [PMID: 33353194 PMCID: PMC7766979 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10121011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the early 2000s, herbal mixtures containing synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), broadly known as Spice/K2, have been marketed as a legal marijuana surrogate and have become very popular among adolescents. Adolescence is a critical period of development, which is associated with an increased vulnerability to the central effects of drugs. Despite growing concerns about the negative effects of the use of SCs, newly synthetized compounds are increasingly detected in drugs seized by the authorities, posing a serious threat to public health. 5F-MDMB-PICA has been recently detected and classified as a highly potent agonist of CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. Here, we first investigated the rewarding properties of 5F-MDMB-PICA in C57BL/6 adolescent and adult mice by in vivo brain microdialysis. Data showed that acute administration of a selected dose of 5F-MDMB-PICA (0.01 mg/kg i.p.) stimulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens shell of adolescent, but not of adult, mice. To further investigate the consequences of repeated exposure to this dose of 5F-MDMB-PICA, a separate group of adolescent mice was treated for 14 consecutive days and evaluated for behavioral abnormalities at adulthood, starting from 7 days after drug discontinuation. Data showed that this group of adult mice displayed an anxiety-like and compulsive-like state as revealed by an altered performance in the marble burying test. Our study suggests an alarming vulnerability of adolescent mice to the effects of 5F-MDMB-PICA. These findings provide a useful basis for understanding and evaluating both early and late detrimental effects that may derive from the use of SCs during adolescence.
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Matey JM, López-Fernández A, García-Ruiz C, Montalvo G, Moreno MD, Martínez MA. Potential Of High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry For The Detection Of Drugs And Metabolites In Hair: Methoxetamine In A Real Forensic Case. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 46:e1-e10. [PMID: 33104803 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The analysis of drugs of abuse in hair and other biological matrices of forensic interest requires great selectivity and sensitivity. This is done traditionally through target analysis, with one or more analytical methods, or with different and specific preanalytical phases, and complex procedures performed by the toxicological laboratories, and there is no exception with ketamine-like compounds, such as methoxetamine, a new psychoactive substance (NPS) whose use has increased in the last decades, and continues to grow quickly year by year. More validated methods of analysis are needed to detect these substances in low concentrations selectively. Reanalyzing the samples of a former case of a polydrug consumer accused of a crime against public health in Spain, five metabolites of methoxetamine (normethoxetamine, O-desmethylmethoxetamine, dehydromethoxetamine, dihydronormethoxetamine and hydroxynormethoxetamine) were tentatively detected using a high-resolution technique that is liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS). The most selective analytical LC-HR-MS/MS method together a universal and simpler pretreatment stages has demonstrated to allow faster analysis and more sensitivity than the one performed traditionally at the INTCF laboratories, which was gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Matey
- National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences, Department of Chemical and Drugs. José Echegaray, 4. 28232 Las Rozas de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,University of Alcalá, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering.,University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP)
| | - Adrián López-Fernández
- University of Alcalá, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- University of Alcalá, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering.,University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP)
| | - Gemma Montalvo
- University of Alcalá, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering.,University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP)
| | - M D Moreno
- National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences, Department of Chemical and Drugs. José Echegaray, 4. 28232 Las Rozas de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - M A Martínez
- National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences, Department of Chemical and Drugs. José Echegaray, 4. 28232 Las Rozas de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP)
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10
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Fattore L, Marti M, Mostallino R, Castelli MP. Sex and Gender Differences in the Effects of Novel Psychoactive Substances. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10090606. [PMID: 32899299 PMCID: PMC7564810 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10090606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex and gender deeply affect the subjective effects and pharmaco-toxicological responses to drugs. Men are more likely than women to use almost all types of illicit drugs and to present to emergency departments for serious or fatal intoxications. However, women are just as likely as men to develop substance use disorders, and may be more susceptible to craving and relapse. Clinical and preclinical studies have shown important differences between males and females after administration of “classic” drugs of abuse (e.g., Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), morphine, cocaine). This scenario has become enormously complicated in the last decade with the overbearing appearance of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) that have emerged as alternatives to regulated drugs. To date, more than 900 NPS have been identified, and can be catalogued in different pharmacological categories including synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic stimulants (cathinones and amphetamine-like), hallucinogenic phenethylamines, synthetic opioids (fentanyls and non-fentanyls), new benzodiazepines and dissociative anesthetics (i.e., methoxetamine and phencyclidine-derivatives). This work collects the little knowledge reached so far on the effects of NPS in male and female animal and human subjects, highlighting how much sex and gender differences in the effects of NPS has yet to be studied and understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council (CNR), Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
- Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00187 Rome, Italy
| | - Rafaela Mostallino
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy; (R.M.); (M.P.C.)
| | - Maria Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy; (R.M.); (M.P.C.)
- National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
- Center of Excellence “Neurobiology of Addiction”, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
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11
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Costa G, De Luca MA, Piras G, Marongiu J, Fattore L, Simola N. Neuronal and peripheral damages induced by synthetic psychoactive substances: an update of recent findings from human and animal studies. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:802-816. [PMID: 31719240 PMCID: PMC6990793 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.268895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that synthetic psychoactive substances, in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit toxic effects of varying severity at the peripheral and central levels. Nowadays, toxicity induced by synthetic psychoactive substances poses a serious harm for health, since recreational use of these substances is on the rise among young and adult people. The present review summarizes recent findings on the peripheral and central toxicity elicited by “old” and “new” synthetic psychoactive substances in humans and experimental animals, focusing on amphetamine derivatives, hallucinogen and dissociative drugs and synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta De Luca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Gessica Piras
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Jacopo Marongiu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Neuroscience, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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12
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Shafi A, Berry AJ, Sumnall H, Wood DM, Tracy DK. New psychoactive substances: a review and updates. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2020; 10:2045125320967197. [PMID: 33414905 PMCID: PMC7750892 DOI: 10.1177/2045125320967197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a heterogeneous group of substances. They are associated with a number of health and social harms on an individual and societal level. NPS toxicity and dependence syndromes are recognised in primary care, emergency departments, psychiatric inpatient and community care settings. One pragmatic classification system is to divide NPS into one of four groups: synthetic stimulants, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic hallucinogens and synthetic depressants (which include synthetic opioids and benzodiazepines). We review these four classes of NPS, including their chemical structures, mechanism of action, modes of use, intended intoxicant effects, and their associated physical and mental health harms. The current challenges faced by laboratory testing for NPS are also explored, in the context of the diverse range of NPS currently available, rate of production and emergence of new substances, the different formulations, and methods of acquisition and distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abu Shafi
- East London Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Alex J Berry
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, UK
| | | | - David M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Derek K Tracy
- Consultant Psychiatrist, Oxleas NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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13
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Moccia L, Tofani A, Mazza M, Covino M, Martinotti G, Schifano F, Janiri L, Di Nicola M. Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Impairment in Methoxetamine-Induced Psychosis: An 18F-FDG PET/CT Case Study. J Psychoactive Drugs 2019; 51:254-259. [PMID: 30741111 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2019.1578444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) have currently become a major public health concern because of relatively easy accessibility to these compounds and difficulty in identifying them with routine laboratory techniques. Here, we report the 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computerized tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT) case study of a 23-year-old man who developed a substance-induced psychotic disorder after having intravenously injected himself with an unspecified amount of methoxetamine (MXE), a ketamine derivative hallucinogen. From a clinical perspective, a blunted affective responsiveness with diminished social drive and sense of purpose, along with a profound detachment from the environment, was observed. Psychometric and neuropsychological assessments highlighted severe dissociative symptoms and lack of motivation, along with a mild impairment of verbal fluency, working memory, and attention. Patient's 18F-FDG PET/CT scans displayed a significant bilateral deficit of tracer uptake within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). DLPFC activity is critical to goal-oriented cognitive functions, including working memory and sustained attention. DLPFC is also involved in both the temporal integration across multiple sensory modes and in the volitional control of actions, leading to the possibility to construct logically coherent temporal configurations of thought, speech, and behavior. This report highlights that a single acute MXE intoxication may produce severe brain impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Moccia
- a Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Anna Tofani
- b Unit of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Surgical and Medical Sciences and Translational Medicine, Sant'Andrea Hospital, "Sapienza" University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Marianna Mazza
- a Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Marcello Covino
- c Emergency Medicine, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Giovanni Martinotti
- d Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, Institute of Psychiatry, "G. D'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara , Chieti , Italy
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- e Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire , Hatfield , UK
| | - Luigi Janiri
- a Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Marco Di Nicola
- a Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
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14
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Costa G, Serra M, Pintori N, Casu MA, Zanda MT, Murtas D, De Luca MA, Simola N, Fattore L. The novel psychoactive substance methoxetamine induces persistent behavioral abnormalities and neurotoxicity in rats. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:219-232. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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15
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Botanas CJ, de la Peña JB, Kim HJ, Lee YS, Cheong JH. Methoxetamine: A foe or friend? Neurochem Int 2018; 122:1-7. [PMID: 30365979 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Methoxetamine (MXE) is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist that is chemically and pharmacologically similar to other dissociative substances, such as ketamine and phencyclidine. There are reports on the misuse of MXE, which sometimes resulted in adverse consequences and death. Studies have also shown that MXE has abuse liability and stimulates dopamine neurotransmission in the mesolimbic reward pathway in the brain. These findings have contributed to the negative impression on MXE. However, recent preclinical studies have identified the antidepressant properties of MXE, which are attributed to its ability to affect the glutamatergic and serotonergic systems. MXE is also reported to have analgesic effects. These findings show some of the "redeeming qualities" of MXE and indicate its possible therapeutic uses. In this paper, we have reviewed the findings that provide insights into the adverse and potential therapeutic effects of MXE. We compiled studies on the toxicity, psychotomimetic effects, and abuse liability of MXE, as well as its promising antidepressant and analgesic properties. We also have discussed the mechanism of action that might mediate the somewhat paradoxical effects observed. Importantly, this review provides valuable information on MXE for future research and will enable a better understanding of its psychopharmacological properties and the mechanisms responsible for its unique effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrislean Jun Botanas
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarangro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - June Bryan de la Peña
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarangro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, United States
| | - Hee Jin Kim
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarangro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Sup Lee
- Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy & Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Hoon Cheong
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, 815 Hwarangro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01795, Republic of Korea.
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16
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Piva A, Gerace E, Di Chio M, Osanni L, Padovani L, Caffino L, Fumagalli F, Pellegrini-Giampietro DE, Chiamulera C. The metaplastic effects of NMDA receptors blockade on reactivation of instrumental memories in rats. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 154:87-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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17
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Ossato A, Bilel S, Gregori A, Talarico A, Trapella C, Gaudio RM, De-Giorgio F, Tagliaro F, Neri M, Fattore L, Marti M. Neurological, sensorimotor and cardiorespiratory alterations induced by methoxetamine, ketamine and phencyclidine in mice. Neuropharmacology 2018; 141:167-180. [PMID: 30165078 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances are intoxicating compounds developed to mimic the effects of well-established drugs of abuse. They are not controlled by the United Nations drug convention and pose serious health concerns worldwide. Among them, the dissociative drug methoxetamine (MXE) is structurally similar to ketamine (KET) and phencyclidine (PCP) and was created to purposely mimic the psychotropic effects of its "parent" compounds. Recent animal studies show that MXE is able to stimulate the mesolimbic dopaminergic transmission and to induce KET-like discriminative and rewarding effects. In light of the renewed interest in KET and PCP analogs, we decided to deepen the investigation of MXE-induced effects by a battery of behavioral tests widely used in studies of "safety-pharmacology" for the preclinical characterization of new molecules. To this purpose, the acute effects of MXE on neurological and sensorimotor functions in mice, including visual, acoustic and tactile responses, thermal and mechanical pain, motor activity and acoustic startle reactivity were evaluated in comparisons with KET and PCP to better appreciate its specificity of action. Cardiorespiratory parameters and blood pressure were also monitored in awake and freely moving animals. Acute systemic administrations of MXE, KET and PCP (0.01-30 mg/kg i.p.) differentially alter neurological and sensorimotor functions in mice depending in a dose-dependent manner specific for each parameter examined. MXE and KET (1 and 30 mg/kg i.p.) and PCP (1 and 10 mg/kg i.p.) also affect significantly cardiorespiratory parameters, systolic and diastolic blood pressure in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ossato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology (SVeB), University of Ferrara, Italy; Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology (SVeB), University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - Adolfo Gregori
- Carabinieri, Department of Scientific Investigation (RIS), 00191, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Talarico
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - Claudio Trapella
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - Rosa Maria Gaudio
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Forensic Pathology, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fabio De-Giorgio
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Franco Tagliaro
- Unit of Forensic Medicine, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Policlinico ''G.B. Rossi'', Verona, Italy; Institute of Pharmacy and Translational Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Russian Federation
| | - Margherita Neri
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council (CNR), Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, Italy; Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy.
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18
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Wallach J, Brandt SD. 1,2-Diarylethylamine- and Ketamine-Based New Psychoactive Substances. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018; 252:305-352. [PMID: 30196446 DOI: 10.1007/164_2018_148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
While phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine remain the most well-studied and widely known dissociative drugs, a number of other agents have appeared since the late 1950s and early 1960s, when the pharmacological potential of this class was first realized. For example, hundreds of compounds have been pursued as part of legitimate research efforts to explore these agents. Some of these found their way out of the research labs and onto illicit markets of the 1960s and following decades as PCP analogs. Other "illicit analogs" apparently never appeared in the scientific literature prior to their existence on clandestine markets, thus originating as novel innovations in the minds of clandestine chemists and their colleagues. Like so much else in this world, new technologies changed this dynamic. In the 1990s individuals separated by vast geographical distances could now communicate nearly instantaneously with ease through the Internet. Some individuals used this newly found opportunity to discuss the chemistry and psychoactive effects of dissociative drugs as well as to collaborate on the design and development of novel dissociative compounds. Similar to modern pharmaceutical companies and academic researchers, these seekers tinkered with the structure of their leads pursuing goals such as improved duration of action, analgesic effects, and reduced toxicity. Whether all these goals were achieved for any individual compound remains to be seen, but their creations have been let out of the bag and are now materialized as defined compositions of matter. Moreover, these creations now exist not only in and of themselves but live on further as permutations into various novel analogs and derivatives. In some cases these compounds have made their way to academic labs where potential clinical applications have been identified. These compounds reached wider distribution when other individuals picked up on these discussions and began to market them as "research chemicals" or "legal highs". The result is a continuously evolving game that is being played between legislatures, law enforcement, and research chemical market players. Two structurally distinct classes that have appeared as dissociative-based new psychoactive substances (NPS) are the 1,2-diarylethylamines and β-keto-arylcyclohexylamines. Examples of the former include diphenidine and various analogs such as fluorolintane and N-ethyl-lanicemine, and examples of the latter are analogs of ketamine such as methoxetamine, deschloroketamine, and 2-fluoro-2-deschloroketamine. The subject of this chapter is the introduction to some of the dissociative NPS from these classes and their known pharmacology that have emerged on the market in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Wallach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
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Zanda MT, Fadda P, Antinori S, Di Chio M, Fratta W, Chiamulera C, Fattore L. Methoxetamine affects brain processing involved in emotional response in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:3333-3345. [PMID: 28718892 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Methoxetamine (MXE) is a novel psychoactive substance that is emerging on the Internet and induces dissociative effects and acute toxicity. Its pharmacological effects have not yet been adequately investigated. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We examined a range of behavioural effects induced by acute administration of MXE (0.5-5 mg·kg-1 ; i.p.) in rats and whether it causes rapid neuroadaptive molecular changes. KEY RESULTS MXE (0.5-5 mg·kg-1 ) affected motor activity in a dose- and time-dependent manner, inducing hypermotility and hypomotility at low and high doses respectively. At low and intermediate doses (0.5 and 1 mg·kg-1 ), MXE induced anxious and/or obsessive-compulsive traits (marble burying test), did not significantly increase sociability (social interaction test) or induce spatial anxiety (elevated plus maze test). At a high dose (5 mg·kg-1 ), MXE induced transient analgesia (tail-flick and hot-plate test), decreased social interaction time (social interaction test) and reduced immobility time while increasing swimming activity (forced swim test), suggesting an antidepressant effect. Acute MXE administration did not affect self-grooming behaviour at any dose tested. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that behaviourally active doses of MXE (1 and 5 mg·kg-1 ) increased phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS MXE differentially affected motor activity, behaviour and emotional states in rats, depending on the dose tested. As reported for ketamine, phosphorylation of the ribosomal protein S6 was increased in MXE-treated animals, thus providing a 'molecular snapshot' of rapid neuroadaptive molecular changes induced by behaviourally active doses of MXE.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Zanda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - P Fadda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - S Antinori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - M Di Chio
- Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, Section of Pharmacology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - W Fratta
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - C Chiamulera
- Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, Section of Pharmacology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - L Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience (IN-CNR), National Research Council of Italy, Cagliari, Italy
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