Expression, distribution and function of kinin B1 receptor in the rat diabetic retina

Molecular Findings Before Vision Loss in the Streptozotocin-Induced Rat Model of Diabetic Retinopathy

The streptozotocin-induced rat model of diabetic retinopathy presents similarities to the disease observed in humans. After four weeks following the induction of diabetes, the rats experience vision impairment. During this crucial four-week period, significant changes occur, with vascular damage standing out as a clinically significant factor, alongside neovascularization. While redox imbalance, activation of microglia, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and neuronal cell death are also observed, the latter remains an emerging hypothesis requiring further exploration. This review is a comprehensive and up-to-date chronological depiction of the progression of diabetic retinopathy within the initial four weeks of hyperglycemia, which precede the onset of vision loss. The data are structured in weekly changes. In the first week, oxidative stress triggers the activation of retinal microglia, which produces inflammation, leading to altered neurotransmission. The second week is characterized by leukostasis, which promotes ischemia, while neural degeneration begins and is accompanied by a simultaneous increase in vessel permeability. The progression of redox and inflammatory imbalances characterized the third week. Finally, in the fourth week, significant developments occur as vessels dilate and become tortuous, neovascularization develops, and retinal thickness diminishes, ultimately leading to vision loss. Through this clearly structured outline, this review aims to delineate a framework for the progression of streptozotocin-induced diabetic retinopathy.

The temporal dynamic of bradykinin type 2 receptor effects reveals its neuroprotective role in the chronic phase of cerebral and retinal ischemic injury

The activation of the bradykinin type 2 receptor is intricately involved in acute post-ischemic inflammatory responses. However, its precise role in different stages of ischemic injury, especially in the chronic phase, remains unclear. Following simultaneous cerebral and retinal ischemia, bradykinin type 2 receptor knockout mice and their controls were longitudinally monitored for 35 days via magnetic resonance imaging, fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, behavioral assessments, vascular permeability measurements, and immunohistochemistry, as well as glycemic status assessments. Without impacting the lesion size, bradykinin type 2 receptor deficiency reduced acute cerebral vascular permeability preventing the loss of pericytes and tight junctions. In the chronic phase of ischemia, however, it resulted in increased astrogliosis and cortical neuronal loss, as well as higher functional deficits. The retinal findings demonstrated a similar pattern. Bradykinin type 2 receptor deficiency delayed, but exacerbated the development of retinal necrosis, increased subacute vascular permeability, and promoted retinal ganglion cell loss in the chronic phase of ischemia. This investigation sheds light on the temporal dynamic of bradykinin type 2 receptor effects in ischemia, pointing to a therapeutic potential in the subacute and chronic phases of ischemic injury.

Recent advances in the discovery and development of drugs targeting the kallikrein-kinin system

BACKGROUND

The kallikrein-kinin system is a key regulatory cascade involved in blood pressure maintenance, hemostasis, inflammation and renal function. Currently, approved drugs remain limited to the rare disease hereditary angioedema. However, growing interest in this system is indicated by an increasing number of promising drug candidates for further indications.

METHODS

To provide an overview of current drug development, a two-stage literature search was conducted between March and December 2023 to identify drug candidates with targets in the kallikrein-kinin system. First, drug candidates were identified using PubMed and Clinicaltrials.gov. Second, the latest publications/results for these compounds were searched in PubMed, Clinicaltrials.gov and Google Scholar. The findings were categorized by target, stage of development, and intended indication.

RESULTS

The search identified 68 drugs, of which 10 are approved, 25 are in clinical development, and 33 in preclinical development. The three most studied indications included diabetic retinopathy, thromboprophylaxis and hereditary angioedema. The latter is still an indication for most of the drug candidates close to regulatory approval (3 out of 4). For the emerging indications, promising new drug candidates in clinical development are ixodes ricinus-contact phase inhibitor for thromboprophylaxis and RZ402 and THR-149 for the treatment of diabetic macular edema (all phase 2).

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic impact of targeting the kallikrein-kinin system is no longer limited to the treatment of hereditary angioedema. Ongoing research on other diseases demonstrates the potential of therapeutic interventions targeting the kallikrein-kinin system and will provide further treatment options for patients in the future.

The retina-brain axis and diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major contributor to permanent vision loss and blindness. Changes in retinal neurons, glia, and microvasculature have been the focus of intensive study in the quest to better understand DR. However, the impact of diabetes on the rest of the visual system has received less attention. There are reports of associations of changes in the visual system with preclinical and clinical manifestations of diabetes. Simultaneous investigation of the retina and the brain may shed light on the mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration in diabetics. Additionally, investigating the links between DR and other neurodegenerative disorders of the brain including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease may reveal shared mechanisms for neurodegeneration and potential therapy options.

Prevention of Inflammation, Neovascularization, and Retinal Dysfunction by Kinin B1 Receptor Antagonism in a Mouse Model of Age-Related Macular Degeneration

The kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) contributes to vascular inflammation and neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration (AMD), particularly via the kinin B1 receptor (B1R). The aim of the present study was to determine the protective effects of the topical administration of the B1R antagonist (R-954) on inflammation, neovascularization, and retinal dysfunction in a murine model of neovascular AMD. Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) was induced in C57BL6 mice using an argon laser. A treatment with ocular drops of R-954 (100 μg/15 μL, twice daily in both eyes), or vehicle, was started immediately on day 0, for 7, 14, or 21 days. CNV, invasive microglia, and B1R immunoreactive glial cells, as well as electroretinography alterations, were observed within the retina and choroid of the CNV group but not in the control group. The staining of B1R was abolished by R-954 treatment as well as the proliferation of microglia. R-954 treatment prevented the CNV development (volume: 20 ± 2 vs. 152 ± 5 × 104 µm3 in R-954 vs. saline treatment). R-954 also significantly decreased photoreceptor and bipolar cell dysfunction (a-wave amplitude: -47 ± 20 vs. -34 ± 14 µV and b-wave amplitude: 101 ± 27 vs. 64 ± 17 µV in R-954 vs. saline treatment, day 7) as well as angiogenesis tufts in the retina. These results suggest that self-administration of R-954 by eye-drop treatment could be a promising therapy in AMD to preserve retinal health and vision.

Kinin receptors regulate skeletal muscle regeneration: differential effects for B1 and B2 receptors

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

After traumatic skeletal muscle injury, muscle healing is often incomplete and produces extensive fibrosis. Bradykinin (BK) reduces fibrosis in renal and cardiac damage models through the B2 receptor. The B1 receptor expression is induced by damage, and blocking of the kallikrein-kinin system seems to affect the progression of muscular dystrophy. We hypothesized that both kinin B1 and B2 receptors could play a differential role after traumatic muscle injury, and the lack of the B1 receptor could produce more cellular and molecular substrates for myogenesis and fewer substrates for fibrosis, leading to better muscle healing.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To test this hypothesis, tibialis anterior muscles of kinin receptor knockout animals were subjected to traumatic injury. Myogenesis, angiogenesis, fibrosis, and muscle functioning were evaluated.

RESULTS

Injured B1KO mice showed a faster healing progression of the injured area with a larger amount of central nucleated fiber post-injury when compared to control mice. In addition, they exhibited higher neovasculogenic capacity, maintaining optimal tissue perfusion for the post-injury phase; had higher amounts of myogenic markers with less inflammatory infiltrate and tissue destruction. This was followed by higher amounts of SMAD7 and lower amounts of p-SMAD2/3, which resulted in less fibrosis. In contrast, B2KO and B1B2KO mice showed more severe tissue destruction and excessive fibrosis. B1KO animals had better results in post-injury functional tests compared to control animals.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that injured skeletal muscle tissues have a better repair capacity with less fibrosis in the presence of B2 receptor and absence of B1 receptor, including better performances in functional tests.

Regulations of Retinal Inflammation: Focusing on Müller Glia

Retinal inflammation underlies multiple prevalent retinal diseases. While microglia are one of the most studied cell types regarding retinal inflammation, growing evidence shows that Müller glia play critical roles in the regulation of retinal inflammation. Müller glia express various receptors for cytokines and release cytokines to regulate inflammation. Müller glia are part of the blood-retinal barrier and interact with microglia in the inflammatory responses. The unique metabolic features of Müller glia in the retina makes them vital for retinal homeostasis maintenance, regulating retinal inflammation by lipid metabolism, purine metabolism, iron metabolism, trophic factors, and antioxidants. miRNAs in Müller glia regulate inflammatory responses via different mechanisms and potentially regulate retinal regeneration. Novel therapies are explored targeting Müller glia for inflammatory retinal diseases treatment. Here we review new findings regarding the roles of Müller glia in retinal inflammation and discuss the related novel therapies for retinal diseases.

Kinins and Their Receptors as Potential Therapeutic Targets in Retinal Pathologies

The kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) contributes to retinal inflammation and neovascularization, notably in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Bradykinin type 1 (B1R) and type 2 (B2R) receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors that sense and mediate the effects of kinins. While B2R is constitutively expressed and regulates a plethora of physiological processes, B1R is almost undetectable under physiological conditions and contributes to pathological inflammation. Several KKS components (kininogens, tissue and plasma kallikreins, and kinin receptors) are overexpressed in human and animal models of retinal diseases, and their inhibition, particularly B1R, reduces inflammation and pathological neovascularization. In this review, we provide an overview of the KKS with emphasis on kinin receptors in the healthy retina and their detrimental roles in DR and AMD. We highlight the crosstalk between the KKS and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), which is known to be detrimental in ocular pathologies. Targeting the KKS, particularly the B1R, is a promising therapy in retinal diseases, and B1R may represent an effector of the detrimental effects of RAS (Ang II-AT1R).

Differential Expression of Kinin Receptors in Human Wet and Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration Retinae

Kinins are vasoactive peptides and mediators of inflammation, which signal through two G protein-coupled receptors, B1 and B2 receptors (B1R, B2R). Recent pre-clinical findings suggest a primary role for B1R in a rat model of wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether kinin receptors are differentially expressed in human wet and dry AMD retinae. The cellular distribution of B1R and B2R was examined by immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization in post-mortem human AMD retinae. The association of B1R with inflammatory proteins (inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA)), fibrosis markers and glial cells was also studied. While B2R mRNA and protein expression was not affected by AMD, a significant increase of B1R mRNA and immunoreactivity was measured in wet AMD retinae when compared to control and dry AMD retinae. B1R was expressed by Müller cells, astrocytes, microglia and endothelial/vascular smooth muscle cells, and colocalized with iNOS and fibrosis markers, but not with VEGFA. In conclusion, the induction and upregulation of the pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic kinin B1R in human wet AMD retinae support previous pre-clinical studies and provide a clinical proof-of-concept that B1R represents an attractive therapeutic target worth exploring in this retinal disease.

The effects of anti-VEGF and kinin B1 receptor blockade on retinal inflammation in laser-induced choroidal neovascularization

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease treated by anti-VEGF intravitreal injections. As inflammation is potentially involved in retinal degeneration, the pro-inflammatory kallikrein-kinin system is a possible alternative pharmacological target. Here, we investigated the effects of anti-VEGF and anti-B₁ receptor treatments on the inflammatory mechanisms in a rat model of choroidal neovascularization (CNV).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Immediately after laser-induced CNV, Long-Evans rats were treated by eye-drop application of a B₁ receptor antagonist (R-954) or by intravitreal injection of B₁ receptor siRNA or anti-VEGF antibodies. Effects of treatments on gene expression of inflammatory mediators, CNV lesion regression and integrity of the blood-retinal barrier was measured 10 days later in the retina. B₁ receptor and VEGF-R2 cellular localization was assessed.

KEY RESULTS

The three treatments significantly inhibited the CNV-induced retinal changes. Anti-VEGF and R-954 decreased CNV-induced up-regulation of B₁ and B₂ receptors, TNF-α, and ICAM-1. Anti-VEGF additionally reversed up-regulation of VEGF-A, VEGF-R2, HIF-1α, CCL2 and VCAM-1, whereas R-954 inhibited gene expression of IL-1β and COX-2. Enhanced retinal vascular permeability was abolished by anti-VEGF and reduced by R-954 and B₁ receptor siRNA treatments. Leukocyte adhesion was impaired by anti-VEGF and B₁ receptor inhibition. B₁ receptors were found on astrocytes and endothelial cells.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

B₁ receptor and VEGF pathways were both involved in retinal inflammation and damage in laser-induced CNV. The non-invasive, self-administration of B₁ receptor antagonists on the surface of the cornea by eye drops might be an important asset for the treatment of AMD.

Reciprocal Regulatory Interaction between TRPV1 and Kinin B1 Receptor in a Rat Neuropathic Pain Model

Kinins are mediators of pain and inflammation and evidence suggests that the inducible kinin B1 receptor (B1R) is involved in neuropathic pain (NP). This study investigates whether B1R and TRPV1 are colocalized on nociceptors and/or astrocytes to enable regulatory interaction either directly or through the cytokine pathway (IL-1β, TNF-α) in NP. Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to unilateral partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) and treated from 14 to 21 days post-PSNL with antagonists of B1R (SSR240612, 10 mg·kg^-1, i.p.) or TRPV1 (SB366791, 1 mg·kg^-1, i.p.). The impact of these treatments was assessed on nociceptive behavior and mRNA expression of B1R, TRPV1, TNF-α, and IL-1β. Localization on primary sensory fibers, astrocytes, and microglia was determined by immunofluorescence in the lumbar spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion (DRG). Both antagonists suppressed PSNL-induced thermal hyperalgesia, but only SB366791 blunted mechanical and cold allodynia. SSR240612 reversed PSNL-induced enhanced protein and mRNA expression of B1R and TRPV1 mRNA levels in spinal cord while SB366791 further increased B1R mRNA/protein expression. B1R and TRPV1 were found in non-peptide sensory fibers and astrocytes, and colocalized in the spinal dorsal horn and DRG, notably with IL-1β on astrocytes. IL-1β mRNA further increased under B1R or TRPV1 antagonism. Data suggest that B1R and TRPV1 contribute to thermal hyperalgesia and play a distinctive role in allodynia associated with NP. Close interaction and reciprocal regulatory mechanism are suggested between B1R and TRPV1 on astrocytes and nociceptors in NP.

Pancreatic kallikrein protects against diabetic retinopathy in KK Cg-Ay/J and high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced mouse models of type 2 diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Many studies have shown that tissue kallikrein has effects on diabetic vascular complications such as nephropathy, cardiomyopathy and neuropathy, but its effects on diabetic retinopathy are not fully understood. Here, we investigated the retinoprotective role of exogenous pancreatic kallikrein and studied potential mechanisms of action.

METHODS

We used KK Cg-A^y/J (KKAy) mice (a mouse model of spontaneous type 2 diabetes) and mice with high-fat diet/streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetes as our models. After the onset of diabetes, both types of mice were injected intraperitoneally with either pancreatic kallikrein (KKAy + pancreatic kallikrein and STZ + pancreatic kallikrein groups) or saline (KKAy + saline and STZ + saline groups) for 12 weeks. C57BL/6J mice were used as non-diabetic controls for both models. We analysed pathological changes in the retina; evaluated the effects of pancreatic kallikrein on retinal oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis; and measured the levels of bradykinin and B1 and B2 receptors in both models.

RESULTS

In both models, pancreatic kallikrein improved pathological structural features of the retina, increasing the thickness of retinal layers, and attenuated retinal acellular capillary formation and vascular leakage (p < 0.05). Furthermore, pancreatic kallikrein ameliorated retinal oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in both models (p < 0.05). We also found that the levels of bradykinin and B1 and B2 receptors were increased after pancreatic kallikrein in both models (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Pancreatic kallikrein can protect against diabetic retinopathy by activating B1 and B2 receptors and inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. Thus, pancreatic kallikrein may represent a new therapeutic agent for diabetic retinopathy.

Bradykinin Type 1 Receptor - Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase: A New Axis Implicated in Diabetic Retinopathy

Compelling evidence suggests a role for the inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS, and the bradykinin type 1 receptor (B1R) in diabetic retinopathy, including a possible control of the expression and activity of iNOS by B1R. In diabetic retina, both iNOS and B1R contribute to inflammation, oxidative stress, and vascular dysfunction. The present study investigated whether inhibition of iNOS has any impact on inflammatory/oxidative stress markers and on the B1R-iNOS expression, distribution, and action in a model of type I diabetes. Diabetes was induced in 6-week-old Wistar rats by streptozotocin (65 mg.kg^-1, i.p.). The selective iNOS inhibitor 1400W (150 μg.10 μl^-1) was administered twice a day by eye-drops during the second week of diabetes. The retinae were collected 2 weeks after diabetes induction to assess the protein and gene expression of markers by Western blot and qRT-PCR, the distribution of iNOS and B1R by fluorescence immunocytochemistry, and the vascular permeability by the Evans Blue dye technique. Diabetic retinae showed enhanced expression of iNOS, B1R, carboxypeptidase M (involved in the biosynthesis of B1R agonists), IL-1β, TNF-α, vascular endothelium growth factor A (VEGF-A) and its receptor, VEGF-R2, nitrosylated proteins and increased vascular permeability. All those changes were reversed by treatment with 1400W. Moreover, the additional increase in vascular permeability in diabetic retina induced by intravitreal injection of R-838, a B1R agonist, was also prevented by 1400W. Immunofluorescence staining highlighted strong colocalization of iNOS and B1R in several layers of the diabetic retina, which was prevented by 1400W. This study suggests a critical role for iNOS and B1R in the early stage of diabetic retinopathy. B1R and iNOS appear to partake in a mutual auto-induction and amplification loop to enhance nitrogen species formation and inflammation in diabetic retina. Hence, B1R-iNOS axis deserves closer scrutiny in targeting diabetic retinopathy.

Antitumor activity of cell-penetrant kinin B1 receptor antagonists in human triple-negative breast cancer cells

High nuclear expression of G protein-coupled receptors, including kinin B1 receptors (B1R), has been observed in several human cancers, but the clinical significance of this is unknown. We put forward the hypothesis that these "nuclearized" kinin B1R contribute to tumorigenicity and can be a new target in anticancer strategies. Our initial immunostaining and ultrastructural electron microscopy analyses demonstrated high B1R expression predominantly located at internal/nuclear compartments in the MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line as well as in clinical samples of patients with TNBC. On the basis of these findings, in the present study, we evaluated the anticancer therapeutic potential of newly identified, cell-permeable B1R antagonists in MDA-MB-231 cells (ligand-receptor binding/activity assays and LC-MS/MS analyses). We found that these compounds (SSR240612, NG67, and N2000) were more toxic to MDA-MB-231 cells in comparison with low- or non-B1R expressing MCF-10A normal human mammary epithelial cells and COS-1 cells, respectively (clonogenic, MTT proliferative/cytocidal assays, and fluorescence-activated cell-sorting (FACS)-based apoptosis analyses). By comparison, the peptide B1R antagonist R954 unable to cross cell membrane failed to produce anticancer effects. Furthermore, the putative mechanisms underlying the anticancer activities of cell-penetrant B1R antagonists were assessed by analyzing cell cycle regulation and signaling molecules related to cell survival and apoptosis (FACS and western blot). Finally, drug combination experiments showed that cell-penetrant B1R antagonists can cooperate with suboptimal doses of chemotherapeutic agents (doxorubicin and paclitaxel) to promote TNBC death. This study provides evidence on the potential value of internally acting kinin B1R antagonists in averting growth of breast cancer.

Expression, distribution and function of kinin B1 receptor in the rat diabetic retina

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The kinin B₁ receptor contributes to vascular inflammation and blood-retinal barrier breakdown in diabetic retinopathy (DR). We investigated the changes in expression, cellular localization and vascular inflammatory effect of B₁ receptors in retina of streptozotocin diabetic rats.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The distribution of B₁ receptors on retinal cell types was investigated by immunocytochemistry. Effects of B₁ receptor agonist, R-838, and antagonist, R-954, on retinal leukocyte adhesion, gene expression of kinin and VEGF systems, B₁ receptor immunoreactivity, microgliosis and capillary leakage were measured. Effect of B₁ receptor siRNA on gene expression was also assessed.

KEY RESULTS

mRNA levels of the kinin and VEGF systems were significantly enhanced at 2 weeks in streptozotocin (STZ)-retina compared to control-retina and were further increased at 6 weeks. B₁ receptor mRNA levels remained increased at 6 months. B₁ receptor immunolabelling was detected in vascular layers of the retina, on glial and ganglion cells. Intravitreal R-838 amplified B₁ and B₂ receptor gene expression, B₁ receptor levels (immunodetection), leukostasis and vascular permeability at 2 weeks in STZ-retina. Topical application (eye drops) of R-954 reversed these increases in B₁ receptors, leukostasis and vascular permeability. Intravitreal B₁ receptor siRNA inhibited gene expression of kinin and VEGF systems in STZ-retina. Microgliosis was unaffected by R-838 or R-954 in STZ-retina.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results support the detrimental role of B₁ receptors on endothelial and glial cells in acute and advanced phases of DR. Topical application of the B₁ receptor antagonist R-954 seems a feasible therapeutic approach for the treatment of DR.