A novel prognostic factor TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and migration, and inhibits apoptosis in testicular germ cell tumor

WITHDRAWN: TRIM44 promotes autophagy through SQSTM1 oligomerization in the response to oxidative stress induced by Arsenic Trioxide in cancer cells

The authors have requested that this preprint be removed from Research Square.

Intricate confrontation: Research progress and application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immune escape

BACKGROUND

Tripartite motif (TRIM) family proteins have more than 80 members and are widely found in various eukaryotic cells. Most TRIM family proteins participate in the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation system as E3-ubiquitin ligases; therefore, they play pivotal regulatory roles in the occurrence and development of tumors, including tumor immune escape. Due to the diversity of functional domains of TRIM family proteins, they can extensively participate in multiple signaling pathways of tumor immune escape through different substrates. In current research and clinical contexts, immune escape has become an urgent problem. The extensive participation of TRIM family proteins in curing tumors or preventing postoperative recurrence and metastasis makes them promising targets.

AIM OF REVIEW

The aim of the review is to make up for the gap in the current research on TRIM family proteins and tumor immune escape and propose future development directions according to the current progress and problems.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

This up-to-date review summarizes the characteristics and biological functions of TRIM family proteins, discusses the mechanisms of TRIM family proteins involved in tumor immune escape, and highlights the specific mechanism from the level of structure-function-molecule-pathway-phenotype, including mechanisms at the level of protein domains and functions, at the level of molecules and signaling pathways, and at the level of cells and microenvironments. We also discuss the application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immunotherapy, such as possible treatment strategies for combination targeting TRIM family protein drugs and checkpoint inhibitors for improving cancer treatment.

The potential role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of testicular germ cell tumors - A Focus on signaling pathways interplay

Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) are the most common testicular neoplasms in adolescents and young males. Understanding the genetic basis of TGCTs represents a growing need to cope with the increased incidence of these neoplasms. Although the cure rates have been comparatively increased, investigation of mechanisms underlying the incidence, progression, metastasis, recurrence, and therapy resistance is still necessary. Early diagnosis and non-compulsory clinical therapeutic agents without long-term side effects are now required to reduce the cancer burden, especially in the younger age groups. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) control an extensive range of cellular functions and exhibit a pivotal action in the development and spreading of TGCTs. Because of their dysregulation and disruption in function, miRNAs have been linked to the malignant pathophysiology of TGCTs by influencing many cellular functions involved in the disease. These biological processes include increased invasive and proliferative perspective, cell cycle dysregulation, apoptosis disruption, stimulation of angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis, and resistance to certain treatments. Herein, we present an up-to-date review of the biogenesis of miRNAs, miRNA regulatory mechanisms, clinical challenges, and therapeutic interventions of TGCTs, and role of nanoparticles in the treatment of TGCTs.

Cardiac-specific Trim44 knockout in rat attenuates isoproterenol-induced cardiac remodeling via inhibition of AKT/mTOR pathway

When pathological hypertrophy progresses to heart failure (HF), the prognosis is often very poor. Therefore, it is crucial to find new and effective intervention targets. Here, myocardium-specific Trim44 knockout rats were generated using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Cardiac phenotypic observations revealed that Trim44 knockout affected cardiac morphology at baseline. Rats with Trim44 deficiency exhibited resistance to cardiac pathological changes in response to stimulation via isoproterenol (ISO) treatment, including improvement of cardiac remodeling and dysfunction by morphological and functional observations, reduced myocardial fibrosis and reduced expression of molecular markers of cardiac stress. Furthermore, signal transduction validation associated with growth and hypertrophy development in vivo and in vitro demonstrated that Trim44 deficiency inhibited the activation of signaling pathways involved in myocardial hypertrophy, especially response to pathological stress. In conclusion, the present study indicates that Trim44 knockout attenuates ISO-induced pathological cardiac remodeling through blocking the AKT/mTOR/GSK3β/P70S6K signaling pathway. This is the first study to demonstrate the function and importance of Trim44 in the heart at baseline and under pathological stress. Trim44 could be a novel therapeutic target for prevention of cardiac hypertrophy and HF.

Summary: This is the first study to demonstrate the function of Trim44 in the heart at baseline and under pathological stress. Trim44 could be a novel therapeutic target for prevention of cardiac hypertrophy.

SPNE: sample-perturbed network entropy for revealing critical states of complex biological systems

Complex biological systems do not always develop smoothly but occasionally undergo a sharp transition; i.e. there exists a critical transition or tipping point at which a drastic qualitative shift occurs. Hunting for such a critical transition is important to prevent or delay the occurrence of catastrophic consequences, such as disease deterioration. However, the identification of the critical state for complex biological systems is still a challenging problem when using high-dimensional small sample data, especially where only a certain sample is available, which often leads to the failure of most traditional statistical approaches. In this study, a novel quantitative method, sample-perturbed network entropy (SPNE), is developed based on the sample-perturbed directed network to reveal the critical state of complex biological systems at the single-sample level. Specifically, the SPNE approach effectively quantifies the perturbation effect caused by a specific sample on the directed network in terms of network entropy and thus captures the criticality of biological systems. This model-free method was applied to both bulk and single-cell expression data. Our approach was validated by successfully detecting the early warning signals of the critical states for six real datasets, including four tumor datasets from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and two single-cell datasets of cell differentiation. In addition, the functional analyses of signaling biomarkers demonstrated the effectiveness of the analytical and computational results.

TRIM59 attenuates ox-LDL-induced endothelial cell inflammation, apoptosis, and monocyte adhesion through AnxA2

Background

Atherosclerosis (AS), a chronic inflammatory vascular disease, is a cause of heart attack and ischemic stroke. Tripartite motif-containing protein 59 (TRIM59), a member of the tripartite motif family, has been reported to be involved in inflammatory diseases. This study was to investigate the role of TRIM59 in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL)-induced endothelial cells and examine the mechanism of TRIM59.

Methods

To simulate a cellular model of AS in vitro, varying concentrations of ox-LDL (i.e., 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 µg/mL) were used to treat the human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for 24 h. The messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein levels of TRIM59, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1), and annexin 2 (AnxA2) were examined by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot. The transfection efficacy of overexpression (Ov)-TRIM59 and small-interfering RNA-AnxA2 was examined by RT-qPCR and western blot. Cell counting kit-8 assays, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated nick end labeling staining were used to examine viability, LDH expression, inflammation, and apoptosis in HUVECs. The protein levels of B-cell lymphoma 2, Bcl-2-associated X (BAX), cleaved caspase3, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 were assessed by western blot. Additionally, the adhesion of THP-1 to ox-LDL-induced HUVECs was detected using monocyte adhesion assays and the binding of TRIM59 and AnxA2 was verified by co-immunoprecipitation.

Results

This study showed that TRIM59 expression was decreased in the ox-LDL-induced HUVECs while LOX-1 expression was increased. After transfection with Ov-TRIM59, TRIM59 in ox-LDL-induced HUVECs was increased, and TRIM59 overexpression alleviated the viability damage, inflammation, and apoptosis of the ox-LDL-induced HUVECs. In addition, THP-1 adhesion to the ox-LDL-induced HUVECs was also suppressed by TRIM59 overexpression. This study also showed that TRIM59 could bind to AnxA2 and promote AnxA2 expression in ox-LDL-stimulated HUVECs. Moreover, the rescue experiments revealed that TRIM59 suppressed the viability damage, inflammation, apoptosis, and monocyte adhesion of the ox-LDL-induced HUVECs via AnxA2.

Conclusions

TRIM59 protected against ox-LDL-induced AS by binding to AnxA2.

TRIM44 Promotes Endometrial Carcinoma Progression by Activating the FRS2 Signalling Pathway

The Tripartite Motif Containing 44 (TRIM44) is highly expressed in a variety of tumours. However, the TRIM44's role in endometrial carcinoma (EC) progression remains unknown. To investigate the TRIM44's role in the development and metastasis of EC, we detected TRIM44 expression in EC cell lines and surgical specimens from patients with EC using immunohistochemistry, real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting analysis. The biological functions of TRIM44 by loss-of-function analysis in RL95-2 and Ishikawa cells were studied. The effect of TRIM44 on the progression of EC in terms of cell proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion was examined and revealed its underlying mechanism in vitro using EC cell lines and in vivo using mouse xenograft models. The TRIM44's expression was positively correlated with EC progression and poor prognosis. The TRIM44 knockdown reduced the EC cell proliferation and invasion while promoting cell apoptosis. Mechanism experiments showed that the TRIM44 interacts with Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor Substrate 2 (FRS2) and negatively regulates the expression of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4(BMP4), β-catenin, and Transforming Growth Factor Beta Receptor 1(TGF-βR1). Moreover, the effect of TRIM44 overexpression on EC cell proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis is reversed by the FRS2 knockdown. Our study may provide a new perspective on targeting the TRIM44/FRS2 signaling pathway in treating EC, which deserves further investigation.

The composition and antiviral activity of scTRIM59 in Mandarin fish

The tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins play critical roles in viral infection by modulating innate immunity. However, the molecular and antiviral activity of TRIM59 in mandrain fish is not fully understood. In present study, we cloned and sequenced the TRIM59 core sequence and explored its characteristics in Mandarin fish. The Siniperca chuatsi TRIM59 (scTRIM59) showed relatively high expression in immune-related organs. scTRIM59 expression was significantly down-regulated post ISKNV infection in vivo and vitro, but up-regulated at the early stages of SCRV infection in CPB cells. The overexpression of scTRIM59 inhibited ISKNV and SCRV infection, but decreased the expression of IRF3/IRF7-mediated signal genes. However, knockdown of scTRIM59 promoted the ISKNV and SCRV infection, but increased the expression of IRF3/IRF7-mediated signal genes. Those results indicated that scTRIM59 negatively regulated ISKNV, SCRV infection and IRF3/IRF7-mediated signal genes. This study provided new ideas about the function of scTRIM59.

TRIM family contribute to tumorigenesis, cancer development, and drug resistance

The tripartite-motif (TRIM) family represents one of the largest classes of putative single protein RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligases. TRIM family is involved in a variety of cellular signaling transductions and biological processes. TRIM family also contributes to cancer initiation, progress, and therapy resistance, exhibiting oncogenic and tumor-suppressive functions in different human cancer types. Moreover, TRIM family members have great potential to serve as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. In this review, we focus on the specific mechanisms of the participation of TRIM family members in tumorigenesis, and cancer development including interacting with dysregulated signaling pathways such as JAK/STAT, PI3K/AKT, TGF-β, NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, and p53 hub. In addition, many studies have demonstrated that the TRIM family are related to tumor resistance; modulate the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, and guarantee the acquisition of cancer stem cells (CSCs) phenotype. In the end, we havediscussed the potential of TRIM family members for cancer therapeutic targets.

TRIM72 exerts antitumor effects in breast cancer and modulates lactate production and MCT4 promoter activity by interacting with PPP3CA

A hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME) promotes cancer progression, yet its value as a therapeutic target remains underexploited. Tripartite motif-containing 72 (TRIM72) may protect cells against various stresses including hypoxia. Recently, low TRIM72 expression has been implicated in cancer progression. However, the biological role and molecular mechanism of TRIM72 in breast cancer (BC) remain unclear. Herein, we analyzed the TRIM72 expression in BC tissue and cell lines by western blot (WB) and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. We established the overexpression of TRIM72 using plasmids and lentiviral-mediated upregulation, as well as downregulation of protein phosphatase 3 catalytic subunit alpha (PPP3CA) by siRNA. The tumor-suppressive roles of TRIM72 were assessed on BT549 and MDA-MB-231 cells by MTS, Transwell, and flow cytometry assays in vitro and in xenografted tumors in vivo. The molecular mechanism of TRIM72 was investigated by luciferase reporter and co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assay. Lactate production was measured by ELISA under hypoxic environments induced by CoCl2. Moreover, the expression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway-associated proteins was detected by WB in BC cells. Results showed that TRIM72 was downregulated in BC. Overexpression of TRIM72 inhibited tumor proliferation and invasion in vitro and in a xenograft tumor model. Mechanistically, PPP3CA altered the inhibitory effects of TRIM72 on hypoxia-induced lactate production and monocarboxylate transporter 4-promoter activity, as well as the effect of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Our study suggests that TRIM72 modulates the TME and plays tumor-suppressive roles in BC progression. Therefore, TRIM72 may serve as a potential therapeutic target in BC.

LINC00958/miR-627 signal axis regulates the proliferation, migration, and invasion of thyroid papillary carcinoma cells by TRIM44

Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) has attracted much attention due to its high morbidity and severe metastasis. Long noncoding RNA ENST00000504230 (LncRNA ENST00000504230, known as LINC00958) was overexpressed in many cancers and associated with cancer development. However, its underlying mechanism in PTC remains unclear. PTC tissues and corresponding adjacent tissues were collected for measuring the expression of LINC00958 and miR-627. MiR-627 and TRIM44 expressions were measured in in vitro cultured PTC cell lines (B-cpap and IHH4 cells) transfected with sh-LINC00958 or miR-627 mimic using RT-qPCR and western blot. Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and Transwell assays, respectively. Dual-luciferase reporter assay was performed to evaluate the target association between miR-627 and TRIM44. LINC00958 was up-regulated in PTC tissues and cells, while the expression of miR-627 was lowly expressed. Knockdown of LINC00958 inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion by elevating miR-627 expression in PTC cells. TRIM44 was confirmed as a target of miR-627. Overexpression of miR-627 in PTC inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion by down-regulating the expression of TRIM44. LINC00958 promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion in PTC by down-regulating miR-627 and activating TRIM44, indicating the potential therapeutic effect of LINC00958 on PTC.

Silencing of TRIM44 Inhibits Inflammation and Alleviates Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats by Downregulating TLR4-NF-κB Signaling

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation subsequent to traumatic brain injury (TBI) is important for the recovery of patients and is associated with neurodegenerative changes post-TBI. The tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) protein is an E3 ligase involved in the regulation of immune function with no previously known link to TBI. This study explores the connection between TRIM44 and TBI.

METHODS

After induction of TBI in rats by control cortex injury, TRIM44 expressions were determined with quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot, and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-NF-κB signaling was examined by the expression of TLR4, p65 phosphorylation, and the specific NF-κB transcription activity. The effects of TRIM44 knockdown on inflammation, neurological function, and TLR4-NF-κB signaling in TBI rats were revealed by the detection of proinflammatory cytokines and TLR4-NF-κB signaling molecules, modified neurological severity score, brain water content, and Evans blue permeability.

RESULTS

We found that TRIM44 expression was significantly increased following TBI induction along with TLR4-NF-κB activation. Silencing of TRIM44 suppressed proinflammatory cytokine production, improved neurological outcomes, alleviated brain edema, and inhibited TLR4-NF-κB signaling in TBI rats.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that suppressing TRIM44 or modulation of relevant pathways may be a therapeutic strategy for TBI.

Sesamin exerts anti-tumor activity in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via inhibition of TRIM44 and NF-κB signaling

Tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) is known to play an oncogenic role in multiple human cancers, including esophageal cancer. Sesamin possesses potent anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties for various cancers. This study is designed to unravel the biological functions of sesamin and TRIM44 in esophageal cancer. TRIM44 expression in esophageal squamous cell cancer (ESCC) cell lines and tissues was determined by RT-qPCR assay and Western blot. The effects of sesamin and TRIM44 on ESCC cell growth in vivo and in vitro were assessed by the mouse model and CCK-8 assay, respectively. We found that TRIM44 was significantly upregulated in ESCC cell lines and tissues when compared to their counterparts. Sesamin treatment or depletion of TRIM44 markedly reduced ESCC cell proliferation. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway may be involved in sesamin-mediated TRIM44 suppression. Finally, we showed that oral administration of sesamin dramatically inhibited tumor growth or ESCC in nude mice. Our results suggest that sesamin exerts anti-tumor activity in ESCC via inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway, demonstrating its potential for the treatment of esophageal cancer.

TRIM44 links the UPS to SQSTM1/p62-dependent aggrephagy and removing misfolded proteins

Until recently, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and macroautophagy/autophagy were considered to be two independent systems that target proteins for degradation by proteasomes or via lysosomes, respectively. Here, we report that TRIM44 (tripartite motif containing 44) is a novel link that connects the UPS system with the autophagy degradation pathway. Suppressing the UPS degradation pathway leads to TRIM44 upregulation, which further promotes aggregated protein clearance through the binding of K48 ubiquitin chains on proteins. TRIM44 expression activates autophagy via promoting SQSTM1/p62 oligomerization, which rapidly increases the rate of aggregate protein removal. Overall, our data reveal that TRIM44 is a newly identified link between the UPS system and the autophagy pathway. Delineating the cross-talk between these two degradation pathways may reveal new mechanisms of targeting aggregate-prone diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disease.

Abbreviations: 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; ACTB: actin beta; ATG5: autophagy related 5; BB: B-box domain; BECN1: beclin1; BM: bone marrow; CC: coiled-coil domain; CFTR: cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; CON: control; CQ: chloroquine; DOX: doxycycline; DSP: dithiobis(succinimidly propionate); ER: endoplasmic reticulum; FI: fluorescence intensity; FL: full length; HIF1A/HIF-1#x3B1;: hypoxia inducible factor 1 subunit alpha; HSC: hematopoietic stem cells; HTT: huntingtin; KD: knockdown; KD-CON: knockdown construct control; MM: multiple myeloma; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NP-40: nonidet P-40; NFE2L2/NRF2: nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2; OE: overexpression; OE-CON: overexpression construct control; PARP: poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase; SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; Tet-on: tetracycline; TRIM44: tripartite motif containing 44; UPS: ubiquitin-proteasome system; ZF: zinc-finger

TRIM44 mediated p62 deubiquitination enhances DNA damage repair by increasing nuclear FLNA and 53BP1 expression

Cancer cells show increases in protein degradation pathways, including autophagy, during progression to meet the increased protein degradation demand and support cell survival. On the other hand, reduced autophagy activity during aging is associated with a reduced DNA damage response and increased genomic instability. Therefore, it is a puzzling how DNA repair can be increased in cancer cells that are resistant to chemotherapies or during progression when autophagy activity is intact or increased. We discovered that tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) is a pivotal element regulating the DNA damage response in cancer cells with intact autophagy. TRIM44 deubiquitinates p62, an autophagy substrate, which leads to its oligomerization. This prevents p62 localization to the nucleus upon irradiation. Increased cytoplasmic retention of p62 by TRIM44 prevents the degradation of FLNA and 53BP1, which increases DNA damage repair. Together, our data support TRIM44 a potential therapeutic target for therapy-resistant tumor cells with intact autophagy.

Effects of TRIM59 on RAW264.7 macrophage gene expression and function

Macrophages have a variety of functions, such as secreting cytokines, phagocytosis, et al. Tripartite motif containing 59 (TRIM59) protein is highly expressed in tumor cells. It can regulate proliferation of tumor cells and promote tumor progression. Recent studies shown that the expression of TRIM59 was different in macrophages when stimulated by different stimuli, however, the effects of TRIM59 on macrophage gene expression profiles and functions are still unknown. In our study, we constructed RAW264.7 macrophages with high and low expression of TRIM59, and used next generation sequencing to explore the effects of TRIM59 on macrophage gene expression profiles. Results showed that TRIM59 affected an abundant number of genes, and may affect phagocytosis and cell cycles. We also examined the expression of surface molecules, secretion of cytokines, phagocytosis, proliferation, and apoptosis of macrophages, and confirmed that TRIM59 increased the expression of FcγRs CD16/32, CD64 and the secretion of TNF-α and IL-10, promoted phagocytosis and proliferation of RAW264.7 cells, inhibited the expression of complement receptor CD11b and antigen presentation related receptors (MHCII, CD80), but TRIM59 had no significant effect on apoptosis. Our study explored the effect of TRIM59 on the gene expression and function of macrophages comprehensively.

Methylation gene KCNC1 is associated with overall survival in patients with seminoma

The aim of the present study was to explore and verify the potential mechanism of seminoma progression. Data on 132 RNA-seq and 156 methylation sites from stage II/III and I seminoma specimens were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. An initial filter of |fold-change| >2 and false discovery rate <0.05 were used to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) which were associated with differential methylation site genes; these genes were considered potential candidates for further investigation by survival analysis. Potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily C member 1 (KCNC1) expression was verified in seminoma human tissues and three seminoma cell lines. The invasive, proliferative and apoptotic abilities of the human testicular tumor Ntera-2 and normal human testis Hs1.Tes cell lines were assessed following aberrant KCNC1 expression. KCNC1 was identified as a DEG, in which hypermethylation inhibited its expression and it was associated with poor overall survival in patients with seminoma. The present results demonstrated that KCNC1 is negatively correlated with methylation. Due to the abnormal expression of KCNC1 in seminoma cells, it was suggested that KCNC1 could be used as a diagnostic indicator and therapeutic target for the progression of seminoma.

Circular RNA circWDR27 Promotes Papillary Thyroid Cancer Progression by Regulating miR-215-5p/TRIM44 Axis

Purpose

This study was to explore the biological roles and underlying mechanism of circRNA WD repeat domain 27 (circWDR27).

Methods

The expression of circWDR27, microRNA-215-5p (miR-215-5p) and tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and colony formation assays were employed to detect cell proliferation. Flow cytometry was used to determine cell apoptosis and cell cycle distribution. Cell migration and invasion abilities were examined by wound healing and transwell assays. The protein levels of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), MMP9 and TRIM44 were analyzed by Western blot assay. The relationship between miR-215-5p and circWDR27 or TRIM44 was predicted by bioinformatics tools and confirmed using dual-luciferase reporter assay. Mouse xenograft model was established to examine the role of circWDR27 in vivo.

Results

CircWDR27 and TRIM44 were highly expressed while miR-215-5p was lowly expressed in PTC tissues and cells. Knockdown of circWDR27 suppressed cell proliferation and metastasis and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in PTC cells. Moreover, miR-215-5p was a direct target of circWDR27, and its inhibition reversed the suppressive effect of circWDR27 knockdown on PTC cell progression. In addition, miR-215-5p directly targeted TRIM44, and miR-215-5p exerted its anti-cancer role in PTC cells by targeting TRIM44. Furthermore, circWDR27 positively regulated TRIM44 expression by sponging miR-215-5p. Importantly, knockdown of circWDR27 suppressed tumor growth in vivo by upregulating miR-215-5p and downregulating TRIM44.

Conclusion

CircWDR27 accelerates PTC progression via regulating miR-215-5p/TRIM44 axis, providing a potential therapeutic target for PTC.

Current Insights into Interethnic Variability in Testicular Cancers: Population Pharmacogenetics, Clinical Trials, Genetic Basis of Chemotherapy- Induced Toxicities and Molecular Signal Transduction

Testicular cancer is an aggressive malignancy with a rising incidence rate across the globe. Testicular germ cell tumors are the most commonly diagnosed cancers, and surgical removal of the testes is often a radical necessity along with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. While seminomas are receptive to radiotherapy as well as chemotherapy, non-seminomatous germ cell tumors respond to chemotherapy only. Due to the singular nature of testicular cancers with associated orchiectomy and mortality, it is important to study the molecular basis and genetic underpinnings of this group of cancers across male populations globally. In this review, we shed light on the population pharmacogenetics of testicular cancer, pediatric and adult tumors, current clinical trials, genetic determinants of chemotherapy-induced toxicity in testicular cancer, as well as the molecular signal transduction pathways operating in this malignancy. Taken together, our discussions will help in enhancing our understanding of genetic factors in testicular carcinogenesis and chemotherapy-induced toxicity, augment our knowledge of this aggressive cancer at the cellular and molecular level, as well as improve precision medicine approaches to combat this disease.

Rotavirus Induces Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Markers by Transcriptional Suppression of miRNA-29b

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a serious global health problem and has been known to cause millions of infant deaths every year. Rotavirus (RV), a member of the Reoviridae family, still majorly accounts for the AGE in children below 5 years of age in India and worldwide. The involvement of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of RV has been suggested to be of the proviral as well as the anti-viral nature. miRNAs that promote the RV pathogenesis are capable of targeting the cellular components to evade the host anti-viral strategies. On the other hand, miRNAs with anti-rotaviral properties are themselves incapacitated during the progression of the infection. The exploitation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a pro-rotaviral strategy has already been identified. Thus, miRNAs that proficiently target the intermediates of the EMT pathway may serve as anti-viral counterparts in the RV-host interactions. The role of microRNA-29b (miR-29b) in the majority of human cancers has been well demonstrated, but its significance in viral infections is yet to be elaborated. In this study, we have assessed the role of miR-29b in RV-induced EMT and RV replication. Our study on miR-29b provides evidence for the recruitment of RV non-structural protein NSP1 to control the trans-repression of miR-29b in a p53-dependent manner. The trans-repression of miR-29b modulates the EMT pathway by targeting tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) and cyclin E1 (CCNE1). SLUG and SNAIL transcription repressors (downstream of TRIM44 and CCNE1) regulate the expression of E-cadherin, an important marker of the EMT. Also, it is established that ectopic expression of miR-29b not only constrains the EMT pathway but also restricts RV replication. Therefore, miR-29b repression is a crucial event in the RV pathogenesis. Ectopic expression of miR-29b displays potential anti-viral properties against RV propagation.

Zenglv Fumai Granule protects cardiomyocytes against hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced apoptosis via inhibiting TRIM28 expression

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MIR) injury, which occurs following acute myocardial infarction, can cause secondary damage to the heart. Tripartite interaction motif (TRIM) proteins, a class of E3 ubiquitin ligases, have been recognized as critical regulators in MIR injury. Zenglv Fumai Granule (ZFG) is a clinical prescription for the treatment of sick sinus syndrome, a disease that is associated with MIR injury. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of ZFG on MIR injury and to determine whether ZFG exerts its effects via regulation of TRIM proteins. In order to establish an in vitro MIR model, human cardiomyocyte cell line AC16 was cultured under hypoxia for 5 h and then under normal conditions for 1 h. Following hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) treatment, these cells were cultured with different ZFG concentrations. ZFG notably inhibited H/R-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis. The expression levels of four TRIM proteins, TRIM7, TRIM14, TRIM22 and TRIM28, were also detected. These four proteins were significantly upregulated in H/R-injured cardiomyocytes, whereas their expression was inhibited following ZFG treatment. Moreover, TRIM28 knockdown inhibited H/R-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, whereas TRIM28 overexpression promoted apoptosis and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cardiomyocytes. However, the effects of TRIM28 overexpression were limited by the action of ROS inhibitor N-acetyl-L-cysteine. In addition, the mRNA and protein levels of antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase (GPX)1 were significantly downregulated in H/R-injured cardiomyocytes. TRIM28 knockdown restored GPX1 protein levels but had no effect on mRNA expression levels. Co-immunoprecipitation and ubiquitination assays demonstrated that TRIM28 negatively regulated GPX1 via ubiquitination. In sum, the present study revealed that ZFG attenuated H/R-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis by regulating the TRIM28/GPX1/ROS pathway. ZFG and TRIM28 offer potential therapeutic options for the treatment of MIR injury.

TRIM59 Promotes Retinoblastoma Progression by Activating the p38-MAPK Signaling Pathway

Purpose

Retinoblastoma is a malignant tumor of the developing retina that mostly occurs in children. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of tripartite motif-containing protein 59 (TRIM59) on retinoblastoma growth and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

We performed bioinformatic analysis of three datasets (GSE24673, GSE97508, and GSE110811) from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Quantitative reverse-transcription PCR and immunoblotting of three retinoblastoma cell lines were conducted to verify TRIM59 as a differentially expressed gene. Specific siRNAs were used to inhibit TRIM59 expression in the HXO-Rb44 cell line. A lentiviral vector was transfected into the Y79 cell line to overexpress TRIM59. The effects of TRIM59 on retinoblastoma cell proliferation, cell cycling, and apoptosis were explored in vitro using the abovementioned cell lines. The effect of TRIM59 expression on retinoblastoma cell proliferation was evaluated in a mouse xenograft tumor model.

Results

TRIM59 expression in three retinoblastoma cell lines was remarkably elevated compared with normal control. Knocking down TRIM59 expression remarkably suppressed cell proliferation and growth and promoted cell apoptosis in HXO-Rb44 cells, whereas TRIM59 overexpression promoted tumor progression in Y79 cells. Silencing TRIM59 also markedly inhibited in vivo tumor growth in the xenograft model. Mechanistic studies revealed that TRIM59 upregulated phosphorylated p38, p-JNK1/2, p-ERK1/2, and p-c-JUN expression in retinoblastoma cells. Notably, the p38 inhibitor SB203580 attenuated the effects of TRIM59 on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and the G1/S phase transition.

Conclusions

TRIM59 plays an oncogenic role in retinoblastoma and exerts its tumor-promotive function by activating the p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway.

Combined A20 and tripartite motif-containing 44 as poor prognostic factors for breast cancer patients of the Japanese population

We previously reported that a strong immunoreactivity of tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) predicts the poor prognosis of patients with invasive breast cancer, and proposed that TRIM44 activates nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling as a causative mechanism. In the present study, we examined the clinicopathological roles of A20, which is known to be an NF-κB responsive gene, with TRIM44, in an updated cohort. Tissue samples of invasive breast cancer were obtained from 140 Japanese female breast cancer patients who underwent surgical treatment. Immunoreactivities of A20 and TRIM44 were analyzed using specific antibodies for each protein. A positive A20 immunoreactivity was significantly associated with a shorter disease-free survival (P = 0.043) and was positively correlated with TRIM44 immunoreactivity (P = 0.039). Combined use of the immunoreactivities for two proteins revealed that double-positive status for both A20 and TRIM44 immunoreactivities was associated with a shorter disease-free survival (P = 0.012) and was an independent factor for poor prognosis. These results indicate that a combined A20 and TRIM44 immunoreactivity predicted the prognosis of patients with invasive breast cancer. Moreover, the positive correlation between A20 and TRIM44 immunoreactivities suggested that the activation of NF-κB signaling by TRIM44 could occur in clinical breast cancer tissues.

The Novel Target of Colorectal Carcinoma: TRIM44 Regulates Cell Migration and Invasion via Activation of CXCR4/NF-κB Signaling

Tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) has been reported to regulate various biological effects in malignant cancers and matrix Metalloproteinases has been demonstrated to be associated with cancer cell migration and invasion. Nonetheless, the expression and molecular mechanism of TRIM44 in colorectal cancer (CRC) remain rarely known. TRIM44 was overexpressed or knocked down in CRC cells. Subsequently, the effects of TRIM44 on cell migration and invasion as well as underlying molecular mechanisms were detected. Data showed that TRIM44 was highly expressed in CRC cell lines. Downregulation of TRIM44 inhibited the cell viability, migration, and invasion in SW-480 cells. In addition, overexpression of TRIM44 enhanced the expression of NF-κB and CXCR4, and enhanced the binding between NF-κB and CXCR4 promoter region. In summarize, TRIM44 may serve as a potential target for CRC diagnosis and progression.

Expression of tripartite motif-containing 44 and its prognostic and clinicopathological value in human malignancies:a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous researches have reported that tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) is related to the prognosis of multiple human tumors. This study was designed to systematically assess the prognostic value of TRIM44 in human malignancies and summarize its possible tumor-related mechanisms.

METHODS

The available databases were searched for eligible studies that evaluated the clinicopathological and prognostic roles of TRIM44 in patients with malignancies. The hazard ratios (HR) and odds ratios (OR) were combined to assess the predictive role of TRIM44 using Stata/SE 14.1 software.

RESULTS

A total of 1740 patients from thirteen original studies were finally included in this study. The results of the combined analysis showed that over-expression of TRIM44 protein was significantly correlated with shorter overall survival (OS) (HR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.60-2.35) and worse disease-free survival (DFS) (HR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.24-3.65) in cancer patients. Additionally, the combined ORs indicated that elevated expression level of TRIM44 protein was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis (OR = 2.69, 95% CI: 1.71-4.24), distant metastasis (OR = 10.35, 95% CI: 1.01-106.24), poor tumor differentiation (OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.03-3.09), increased depth of tumor invasion (OR = 2.72, 95% CI: 1.73-4.30), advanced clinical stage (OR = 2.75, 95% CI: 2.04-3.71), and recurrence (OR = 2.30, 95% CI: 1.34-3.95). Furthermore, analysis results using Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) showed that the expression level of TRIM44 mRNA was higher in most tumor tissues than in the corresponding normal tissues, and the relationship between TRIM44 mRNA level and prognosis in various malignant tumors also explored in GEPIA and OS analysis webservers.

CONCLUSIONS

TRIM44 may serve as a valuable prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target for patients with malignancies.

TRIM59 inhibits PPM1A through ubiquitination and activates TGF-β/Smad signaling to promote the invasion of ectopic endometrial stromal cells in endometriosis

This study was conducted to define the underlying molecular mechanism of tripartite motif (TRIM) 59-induced invasion of ectopic endometrial stromal cells in endometriosis. Primary endometriosis ectopic endometrial stromal cells and normal endometrial cells were isolated and purified. Western blot was used to detect the expression of TRIM59, protein phosphatase Mg²⁺/Mn²⁺-dependent 1A (PPM1A), smad2/3, and phosphorylated (p)-smad2/3. Lentiviral vector-mediated TRIM59 interference and overexpression were established. Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used to detect cell proliferation, and the Transwell migration assay was used to detect cell invasion. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2), MMP9, smad2/3, and p-smad2/3 expressions were also detected using Western blot analysis; degradation of PPM1A was verified to be through ubiquitination. We found that TRIM59 expression levels in the endometriosis group was significantly higher compared with the normal group (P < 0.05), whereas the expression levels of PPM1A in the endometriosis group were significantly lower (P < 0.05). Endometriosis did not alter smad2/3 (P > 0.05) expression. However, after activating smad2/3 by phosphorylation, the expression of p-smad2/3 in the endometriosis group was significantly higher compared with the normal group (P < 0.05). The content of PPM1A in the TRIM59 overexpression group was significantly lower than that in the control group (P < 0.001), whereas the content of PPM1A in the siTRIM59 group was significantly higher than that in the control group (P < 0.001). In addition, there were no significant differences in the mRNA levels of PPM1A among the five groups, indicating that TRIM59 affects the expression of PPM1A at the posttranslational level (P < 0.05). Overexpression of TRIM59 significantly promoted the ubiquitination of PPM1A. We conclude that TRIM59 inhibits PPM1A through ubiquitination and activates the transforming growth factor-β/Smad pathway to promote the invasion of ectopic endometrial stromal cells in endometriosis.

Endometriosis: A Malignant Fingerprint

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is complex, but identifying the novel biomarkers, inflammatory molecules, and genetic links holds the key to the enhanced detection, prediction and treatment of both endometriosis and endometriosis related malignant neoplasia. Here we review the literature relating to the specific molecular mechanism(s) mediating tumorigenesis arising within endometriosis.

METHODS

Guidance (e.g. Cochrane) and published studies were identified. The Published studies were identified through PubMed using the systematic review methods filter, and the authors' topic knowledge. These data were reviewed to identify key and relevant articles to create a comprehensive review article to explore the molecular fingerprint associated with in endometriosis-driven tumorigenesis.

RESULTS

An important focus is the link between C3aR1, PGR, ER1, SOX-17 and other relevant gene expression profiles and endometriosis-driven tumorigenesis. Further studies should also focus on the combined use of CA-125 with HE-4, and the role for OVA1/MIA as clinically relevant diagnostic biomarkers in the prediction of endometriosis-driven tumorigenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Elucidating endometriosis' molecular fingerprint is to understand the molecular mechanisms that drive the endometriosis-associated malignant phenotype. A better understanding of the predictive roles of these genes and the value of the biomarker proteins will allow for the derivation of unique molecular treatment algorithms to better serve our patients.

TRIM5α self-assembly and compartmentalization of the HIV-1 viral capsid

The tripartite-motif protein, TRIM5α, is an innate immune sensor that potently restricts retrovirus infection by binding to human immunodeficiency virus capsids. Higher-ordered oligomerization of this protein forms hexagonally patterned structures that wrap around the viral capsid, despite an anomalously low affinity for the capsid protein (CA). Several studies suggest TRIM5α oligomerizes into a lattice with a symmetry and spacing that matches the underlying capsid, to compensate for the weak affinity, yet little is known about how these lattices form. Using a combination of computational simulations and electron cryo-tomography imaging, we reveal the dynamical mechanisms by which these lattices self-assemble. Constrained diffusion allows the lattice to reorganize, whereas defects form on highly curved capsid surfaces to alleviate strain and lattice symmetry mismatches. Statistical analysis localizes the TRIM5α binding interface at or near the CypA binding loop of CA. These simulations elucidate the molecular-scale mechanisms of viral capsid cellular compartmentalization by TRIM5α.

Tripartite-motif containing (TRIM) proteins modulate cellular responses to viral infection. Here the authors use molecular dynamics simulations to demonstrate that TRIM5α uses a two-dimensional lattice hopping mechanism to aggregate on the HIV capsid surface and initiate lattice growth.

The Tripartite Nexus: Autophagy, Cancer, and Tripartite Motif-Containing Protein Family Members

Autophagy is a cellular degradative process that has multiple important actions in cancer. Autophagy modulation is under consideration as a promising new approach to cancer therapy. However, complete autophagy dysregulation is likely to have substantial undesirable side effects. Thus, more targeted approaches to autophagy modulation may prove clinically beneficial. One potential avenue to achieving this goal is to focus on the actions of tripartite motif-containing protein family members (TRIMs). TRIMs have key roles in an array of cellular processes, and their dysregulation has been extensively linked to cancer risk and prognosis. As detailed here, emerging data shows that TRIMs can play important yet context-dependent roles in controlling autophagy and in the selective targeting of autophagic substrates. This review covers how the autophagy-related actions of TRIM proteins contribute to cancer and the possibility of targeting TRIM-directed autophagy in cancer therapy.

TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting FRK in renal cell carcinoma

TRIM44 has oncogenic roles in various cancers. However, TRIM44 expression and its function in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are still unknown. Here in this study, we investigated the clinical significance of TRIM44 and its biological function in RCC. TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with clinical M stage, histologic type (clear cell) and presence of lymphatic invasion (P = .047, P = .005, and P = .028, respectively). Moreover, TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with poor prognosis in terms of cancer‐specific survival (P = .019). Gain‐of‐function and loss‐of‐function studies using TRIM44 and siTRIM44 transfection showed that TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and cell migration in two RCC cell lines, Caki1 and 769P. To further investigate the role of TRIM44 in RCC, we performed integrated microarray analysis in Caki1 and 769P cells and explored the data in the Oncomine database. Interestingly, FRK was identified as a promising candidate target gene of TRIM44, which was downregulated in RCC compared with normal renal tissues. We found that cell proliferation was inhibited by TRIM44 knockdown and then recovered by siFRK treatment. Taken together, the present study revealed the association between high expression of TRIM44 and poor prognosis in RCC patients and that TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation by regulating FRK.

miR-192-5p suppresses the progression of lung cancer bone metastasis by targeting TRIM44

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, with 50–70% of patients suffering from bone metastasis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that miRNAs are involved in cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in malignancy, such as lung cancer bone metastasis. In the present study, we demonstrated that reduced miR-192-5p and increased TRIM44 levels were associated with the proliferation, migration and invasion of lung cancer. Furthermore, the potential functions of miR-192-5p were explored in A549 and NCI-H1299 cells. We found that miR-192-5p upregulation suppressed tumour behaviours in lung cancer cells. To further investigate whether miR-192-5p is associated with TRIM44, we used TargetScan software to predict the binding site between miR-192-5p and TRIM44. Luciferase activity assays were performed to verify this prediction. In addition, the significant role of miR-192-5p in negatively regulating TRIM44 expression was manifested by our research group. our results suggest that miR-192-5p inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of lung cancer through TRIM44.

Genetic links between endometriosis and cancers in women

Endometriosis is a chronic disease occurring during the reproductive stage of women. Although there is only limited association between endometriosis and gynecological cancers with regard to clinical features, the molecular basis of the relationship between these diseases is unexplored. We conducted a systematic study by integrating literature-based evidence, gene expression and large-scale cancer genomics data in order to reveal any genetic relationships between endometriosis and cancers in women. We curated 984 endometriosis-related genes from 3270 PubMed articles and then conducted a meta-analysis of the two public gene expression profiles related to endometriosis which identified Differential Expression of Genes (DEGs). Following an overlapping analysis, we identified 39 key endometriosis-related genes common in both literature and DEG analysis. Finally, the functional analysis confirmed that all the 39 genes were associated with the vital processes of tumour formation and cancer progression and that two genes (PGR and ESR1) were common to four cancers of women. From network analysis, we identified a novel linker gene, C3AR1, which had not been implicated previously in endometriosis. The shared genetic mechanisms of endometriosis and cancers in women identified in this study provided possible new avenues of multiple disease management and treatments through early diagnosis.

Prognostic markers in clinical stage I seminoma and nonseminomatous germ cell tumours

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Testicular germ cell tumour (TGCT) is a common malignancy among young men. There is controversy regarding the best approach for patients with clinical stage I disease due to rates of relapse with active surveillance in contrast to overtreatment with adjuvant therapy. The aim of this review is to describe the role of prognostic factors in this setting.

RECENT FINDINGS

Molecular prognostic factors have been described as a possible future aid to clinical and histologic features in the approach of patients with clinical stage I germ cell tumours.

SUMMARY

Prognostic factors currently available are not accurate enough and may lead to overtreatment. However, though active surveillance has shown long-term survival near to 100% in the management of clinical stage I germ cell tumours, there is a significant percentage of patients with occult metastatic disease, who benefit from adjuvant therapy. In light of these data, future research is needed to better define high-risk patients for relapse, taking into account molecular markers recently reported.

E3 Ubiquitin Ligase TRIM Proteins, Cell Cycle and Mitosis

The cell cycle is a series of events by which cellular components are accurately segregated into daughter cells, principally controlled by the oscillating activities of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and their co-activators. In eukaryotes, DNA replication is confined to a discrete synthesis phase while chromosome segregation occurs during mitosis. During mitosis, the chromosomes are pulled into each of the two daughter cells by the coordination of spindle microtubules, kinetochores, centromeres, and chromatin. These four functional units tie chromosomes to the microtubules, send signals to the cells when the attachment is completed and the division can proceed, and withstand the force generated by pulling the chromosomes to either daughter cell. Protein ubiquitination is a post-translational modification that plays a central role in cellular homeostasis. E3 ubiquitin ligases mediate the transfer of ubiquitin to substrate proteins determining their fate. One of the largest subfamilies of E3 ubiquitin ligases is the family of the tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins, whose dysregulation is associated with a variety of cellular processes and directly involved in human diseases and cancer. In this review we summarize the current knowledge and emerging concepts about TRIMs and their contribution to the correct regulation of cell cycle, describing how TRIMs control the cell cycle transition phases and their involvement in the different functional units of the mitotic process, along with implications in cancer progression.

Identification of key genes and pathways in seminoma by bioinformatics analysis

Background: Seminoma accounts for the most part of cases of testicular germ cell tumor, which is the most common malignancy among males between ages 15 and 44 years. Understanding the molecular mechanism of tumorigenesis is important for better clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Purpose: We performed bioinformatics analysis to better understand seminoma at the genetic level and to explore potential candidate genes or molecules for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

Methods: A gene expression profile (GSE8607), containing 40 seminoma samples and three healthy testes samples, was analyzed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with the occurrence of seminoma. Functional annotation was then performed using gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses. Cytoscape with Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes was used to construct a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network of the DEGs and select hub genes. Moreover, validation of expression level and Kaplan–Meier analysis for overall survival were conducted to those hub genes.

Results: A total of 1,636 DEGs were identified between seminoma and healthy samples, including 701 up-regulated in seminoma that were enriched in the regulation of immune responses, defense responses, receptor activity, and signal transducer activity; 935 were down-regulated in seminoma and were associated with reproductive processes, kinase activity, and carbohydrate derivative binding. Five hub genes were selected from the PPI network according to the degree of connectivity: IL6, VEGFA, IL10, CCR5, and CXCR4. Among them, high expression levels of CCR5 and CXCR4 were associated with poor prognosis for seminoma patients. Four modules selected from the PPI network revealed that seminoma was connected with the Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription signaling pathway, chemokine signaling pathway, endocytosis, and cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction.

Conclusion: These identified DEGs and hub genes facilitate our knowledge of the underlying molecular mechanism of seminoma and have the potential to be used as diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets for seminoma.

Testicular germ cell tumor: a comprehensive review

Testicular tumors are the most common tumors in adolescent and young men and germ cell tumors (TGCTs) account for most of all testicular cancers. Increasing incidence of TGCTs among males provides strong motivation to understand its biological and genetic basis. Gains of chromosome arm 12p and aneuploidy are nearly universal in TGCTs, but TGCTs have low point mutation rate. It is thought that TGCTs develop from premalignant intratubular germ cell neoplasia that is believed to arise from the failure of normal maturation of gonocytes during fetal or postnatal development. Progression toward invasive TGCTs (seminoma and nonseminoma) then occurs after puberty. Both inherited genetic factors and environmental risk factors emerge as important contributors to TGCT susceptibility. Genome-wide association studies have so far identified more than 30 risk loci for TGCTs, suggesting that a polygenic model fits better with the genetic landscape of the disease. Despite high cure rates because of its particular sensitivity to platinum-based chemotherapy, exploration of mechanisms underlying the occurrence, progression, metastasis, recurrence, chemotherapeutic resistance, early diagnosis and optional clinical therapeutics without long-term side effects are urgently needed to reduce the cancer burden in this underserved age group. Herein, we present an up-to-date review on clinical challenges, origin and progression, risk factors, TGCT mouse models, serum diagnostic markers, resistance mechanisms, miRNA regulation, and database resources of TGCTs. We appeal that more attention should be paid to the basic research and clinical diagnosis and treatment of TGCTs.

High TRIM44 expression as a valuable biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis in cervical cancer

Tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) has been reported to be up-regulated in multiple aggressive malignant tumors. However, its expression status and clinical significance in cervical cancer remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical significance of TRIM44 expression and the prognosis in patients with cervical cancer (CC). Fresh frozen tissues from 5 samples of CC and 4 normal cervical tissues were analyzed for TRIM44 expression using RT- PCR and Western blot analysis. 122 paraffin-embedded surgical specimens from patients with CC were collected for an immunohistochemistry. TRIM44 expression was found to be significantly up-regulated in cervical cancer specimens compared with adjacent normal tissues (P<0.001). Statistical analysis showed that TRIM44 expression was significantly correlated with the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, histological grade and lymph node metastasis, but not with age, histological type, and tumor size. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis suggested that high TRIM44 expression was associated with poor prognosis. Patients highly expressing TRIM44 have significantly shorter overall survival (OS) (P=0.006) and disease-free survival (DFS) (P=0.002). Furthermore, multivariate Cox analysis showed TRIM44 was an independent risk factor for poor prognosis. Our study demonstrated that TRIM44 expression contributes to the progression of cervical cancer, and could be used as a marker of clinical diagnosis and prognosis of patients with cervical cancer.

Knockdown of tripartite motif 59 (TRIM59) inhibits proliferation in cholangiocarcinoma via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway

AIM

We analysed multiple microarray datasets in the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) DataSets for messenger RNAs (mRNAs) whose expression is apparently increased in human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) samples, compared with that in the adjacent normal biliary epithelial tissue. The results revealed that the expression of tripartite motif-containing 59 (TRIM59) was significantly increased in the CCA tissue samples. TRIM59 is a member of the tripartite motif (TRIM) protein family, which contains a highly conserved N-terminal-an interesting new gene (RING) domain regulating transcriptional factors and tumorigenesis. In the present study, we investigated the effects of TRIM59 expression on tumour growth in CCA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After analyzing the microarray datasets from the TCGA database and GEO DataSets, we screened out 291 target genes, which are significantly overexpressed in CCA tissues, and TRIM59 was one of them. The quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry were performed to determine the expression of TRIM59 in CCA tissues (n = 65) and cell lines. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was conducted to assess the prognosis of TRIM59 in patients with CCA. A specific siRNA (siRNA-1008) was used to inhibit the expression of TRIM59 in HCCC9810 and HUCCT1 cell lines. The effects of TRIM59 silencing on cell proliferation were assessed by the CCK-8, colony-formation, and EDU incorporation assays. Furthermore, the effects of TRIM59 knockdown on cell apoptosis and cell cycle were determined by flow cytometry. The in vivo effects were evaluated using a mouse tumorigenic model. Western blotting was also performed to verify the relationship between knockdown of TRIM59 and activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

RESULTS

TRIM59 was highly expressed in CCA tissues. The knockdown of TRIM59 obviously reduced the proliferation and colony formation abilities of CCA cells in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the cell apoptosis analysis results showed that TRIM59 silencing apparently promoted CCA cell apoptosis by the mitochondrial pathway. Our preliminary results indicate that the down-regulation of TRIM59 levels might restrict the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that TRIM59 is up-regulated in CCA tissues and cell lines and promoted CCA cell proliferation, possibly by affecting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway.

MiR-101-3p inhibits EMT to attenuate proliferation and metastasis in glioblastoma by targeting TRIM44

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant tumor originating in the brain parenchyma. The invasive and infiltrative properties of glioblastoma result in poor clinical prognosis to conventional therapies. Emerging reports on microRNAs as important regulators during the process of EMT provide new insights into treating glioblastoma through new targets. However, underlying molecular mechanism of the regulation of miR-101-3p in glioblastoma remains unclear.

METHODS

Level of miR-101-3p was determined in GBM cell lines by qRT-PCR. MTT, colony formation and transwell assays were utilized to evaluate functions of overexpression of miR-101-3p/knock down of TRIM44 on proliferation, migration and invasion in GBM cells. Direct interaction between miR-101-3p and TRIM44 was validated using dual luciferase reporter system and impacts of overexpression of miR-101-3p/knock down of TRIM44 on regulation of EMT markers were assessed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

MiR-101-3p was validated to be repressed expressed in glioblastoma cancer cell lines. Both overexpression of miR-101-3p and knock down of TRIM44 attenuated proliferation, migration and invasion of glioblastoma cell lines in vitro. TRIM44 was shown to promote EMT in GBM progress and reverse inhibitory function of miR-101-3p. MiR-101-3p was found to suppress the expression of TRIM44 via directly targeting its 3'UTR.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested miR-101-3p regulated proliferation and migration of glioblastoma cells through attenuating TRIM44 induced EMT via direct targeting 3'UTR of TRIM44, which provided preliminary study of potential therapeutic target in future GBM treatment.

Correlation between tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein expression and the prognosis of postoperative patients exhibiting skin squamous cell carcinoma

Tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) plays an important role in the development and progression of some human cancers; however, its role in skin squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate TRIM44 expression and clinicopathological significance of TRIM44 in SCC.Immunohistochemistry (IHC) technique, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot were performed to evaluate differences in TRIM44 protein expression in SCC and normal skin tissues.IHC showed that the positive rate of TRIM44 staining in SCC tissues 26.00% (9/30), while the positive rate of normal control group was 83.33% (25/30). The positive rate of TRIM44 staining in SCC tissues is significantly lower than normal skin tissue (P <.01). RT-PCR showed that the positive rates of TRIM44 mRNA expression in SCC tissues were 16.67% (5/30), but the positive rate of normal control group was 86.67% (26/30). TRIM44 mRNA expression in SCC group was significantly lower than that in the normal group (P <.01). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that low expression was associated with poor overall survival in SCC patients (P =.004). Multi-factor survival analysis indicated that both low TRIM44 expression and tumor stage were independent factors affecting the overall survival of patients with SCC (P =.038 and P =.001, respectively). Low expression of TRIM44 in SCC was associated with staging (P =.009 and P =.008, respectively) and metastasis (P =.003 and P =.004, respectively).The levels of TRIM44 protein and TRIM44 mRNA in SCC are both lowly expressed which is strongly associated with tumor staging, metastasis, and poor survival. And it also is an independent factor affecting the overall survival of patients with SCC.

Androgen-responsive tripartite motif 36 enhances tumor-suppressive effect by regulating apoptosis-related pathway in prostate cancer

Tripartite motif 36 (TRIM36) belongs to the TRIM family, most members of which are involved in ubiquitination and degradation of target proteins by functioning as E3 ubiquitin ligases. The function of TRIM36 has not been well documented, therefore, we investigated the clinical significance and function of TRIM36 in human prostate cancer (PC). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that TRIM36 immunoreactivity was an independent predictor of cancer‐specific survival of PC patients. Gain‐of‐function study revealed that overexpression of TRIM36 suppressed cell proliferation and migration of LNCaP, 22Rv1, and DU145 cells. Moreover, TRIM36 knockdown using siRNA suppressed apoptosis and promoted cell proliferation and migration in LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. Furthermore, our microarray analysis revealed that the apoptosis‐related pathway was significantly upregulated by TRIM36 overexpression. The TUNEL assay showed that apoptosis promoted by docetaxel treatment was alleviated in siTRIM36‐treated LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that high expression of TRIM36 is associated with favorable prognosis and that TRIM36 plays a tumor‐suppressive role by inhibiting cell proliferation and migration as well as promoting apoptosis in PC.

Expression of the human TRIM14 and its mutant form (P207L) promotes apoptosis in transgenic loaches

The tripartite-motif (TRIM)14 protein, one of the TRIM family members, was shown to participate in the antiviral and antibacterial defence. Besides, it appears to play an essential role in the processes of oncogenesis. In some types of human tumour cells, TRIM14 has been shown to inhibit apoptosis, while in others-the overexpression of TRIM14 promotes apoptosis. However, whether TRIM14 mediates apoptosis in the normal cells remains unknown. In the present study, we investigated the possible participation of the human TRIM14 gene and its mutant form (620C > T) in the induction of apoptosis in the transgenic larvae loach Misgurnus fossilis L. We observed that the expression of both forms of TRIM14 gene was accompanied by the increase of the frequency of pyknotic nuclei in fish embryos compared to control groups. Accordingly, using the TUNEL assay, the enhanced apoptosis was revealed upon expression of both forms of TRIM14 gene. The transcription of proapoptotic genes (bax, tp53, and casp9) was significantly increased in transgenic loaches expressing human wild-type TRIM14, but remained unchanged upon expression of its mutant form. In addition, the transcription of c-myc was upregulated in transgenic loaches expressing both forms. Thus, it can be assumed that during embryonic development TRIM14 has a proapoptotic effect on the cells via the activation of c-myc, tp53, and bax genes. Apparently, the mutant TRIM14 directs apoptosis via c-myc by p53-independent mechanism.

TRIM44 promotes human esophageal cancer progression via the AKT/mTOR pathway

Aberrant expression of TRIM‐containing protein 44 (TRIM44) acts as a promoter in multiple cancers. Here, we investigated the biological functions and clinical significance of TRIM44 in human esophageal cancer (HEC). TRIM44 expression was significantly higher in HEC tissues than corresponding normal tissues at both the mRNA (2.42 ± 0.52 vs 0.99 ± 0.25) and protein (1.01 ± 0.27 vs 0.30 ± 0.13) levels. Patients with high TRIM44 expression showed poor differentiation (P = 1.39 × 10⁻⁵), advanced TNM stage (P = 3.87 × 10⁻⁴) and, most importantly, significantly poorer prognosis (P = 2.80 × 10⁻⁵). TRIM44 played a crucial role in epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). A significant correlation was observed between TRIM44 and Ki67 expression. We demonstrated that TRIM44 markedly enhanced HEC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Additionally, TRIM44 was involved in the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and its downstream targets, such as STAT3 phosphorylation. Thus, elevated TRIM44 expression promotes HEC development by EMT via the AKT/mTOR pathway, and TRIM44 may be a novel prognostic indicator for HEC patients after curative resection.

TRIM44 promotes quiescent multiple myeloma cell occupancy and survival in the osteoblastic niche via HIF-1α stabilization

Despite progress in the treatment of MM, including the use of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation, a considerable proportion of patients are refractory to all therapies. This resistance is related to the molecular genetic heterogeneity in MM cells as well as to the contributions from the BM, which is one of the key determinants of treatment outcome. Our previous studies using fluorescent tracers revealed that MM heterogeneity is correlated with the presence of quiescent stem-like cancer cells, which prefer to reside within the osteoblastic niche of the BM. In this report, we identified a novel protein, tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44), which is overexpressed in the osteoblastic niche of the BM, enabling MM cells to compete with HSCs for niche support. TRIM44 expression in MM cells promoted cell quiescence but increased bone destruction in xenograft mice, similar to what is observed in MM patients. TRIM44 functions as a deubiquitinase for hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), which stabilizes HIF-1α expression during hypoxia and normoxia. Stabilized HIF-1α stimulates MM cell growth and survival during hypoxia. Our work is the first report to reveal signaling in quiescent MM cells and the functions of TRIM44.

TRIM32 promotes cell proliferation and invasion by activating β-catenin signalling in gastric cancer

The tripartite motif (TRIM) family comprises more than 70 members involved in the regulation of many cellular pathways. TRIM32 acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase and has been reported to participate in many human cancers. Here, we aimed to investigate the role of TRIM32 in gastric cancer (GC) and the clinical implications. High expression of TRIM32 was observed in GC tissues and cell lines, and was significantly associated with poor prognosis. Knockdown TRIM32 expression remarkably suppressed the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GC cells in vitro and tumour growth in vivo, whereas overexpression of TRIM32 yielded the opposite results. Western blotting and quantitative reverse‐transcription PCR (qRT‐PCR) analyses revealed that up‐regulation of TRIM32 significantly enhanced expression of β‐catenin protein and of its downstream targets TCF1, cyclin D1, Axin2 and MMP7 mRNAs. Moreover, we found that the mechanism behind the TRIM32‐promoted GC progression was related to the β‐catenin signalling pathway. Collectively, these data suggest that TRIM32 promotes GC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by activating the β‐catenin signalling pathway.

Overexpression of TRIM44 is an independent marker for predicting poor prognosis in epithelial ovarian cancer

Tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) has been demonstrated to be important in tumor metastasis and progression. However, the expression pattern and prognostic value of the expression of TRIM44 in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) remain to be fully elucidated. In the present study, the aim was to investigate the expression and clinical role of TRIM44 in EOC. A total of 109 patients, who underwent primary surgery with the goal of maximal tumor resection followed by standard combination chemotherapy with carboplatin and paclitaxel, were analyzed in the present study. The expression level of TRIM44 was determined by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry in 109 ECO tissues. It was found that the expression of TRIM44 was low in normal tissues and high in EOC tissues. Univariate survival analysis showed that the overexpression of TRIM44 was significantly associated with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage and lymph node metastasis (P<0.05). Kaplan-Meier analysis suggested that there was a significant difference in overall survival and disease-free survival rates between patients with a high expression of TRIM44 and patients with a low expression of TRIM44. Patients with a high expression level of TRIM44 exhibited poorer overall survival and disease-free survival rates, compared with patients expressing a low level of TRIM44 (P<0.001). In addition, the results of the multivariate analysis revealed that the predictive value of the expression of TRIM44 was independent of other clinicopathological factors for predicting prognosis. These findings demonstrated that a high expression of TRIM44 was associated with the progression and prognosis of EOC.

TRIM44, a crucial target of miR-410, functions as a potential oncogene in osteosarcoma

Purpose

Mounting evidence highlights the essential role of TRIM44 in tumor initiation and malignant progression in several cancers; however, the function of TRIM44 in osteosarcoma (OS) remains unknown. In this study, we aim to investigate the role of TRIM44 and reveal its regulation by deregulated miRNAs in OS.

Materials and methods

The expression profiles of TRIM44 were examined by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, and qRT-PCR. The biological functions of TRIM44 were investigated through siRNA-mediated knockdown experiments. The regulation of TRIM44 by miR-410 was confirmed by Western blotting, dual luciferase reporter assays, and rescue experiments.

Results

TRIM44 was upregulated in OS tissues and cell lines, and its overexpression was positively correlated with TNM stage, metastasis, and recurrence. Knockdown of TRIM44 in OS cells suppressed cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition. In addition, we identified TRIM44 as a novel target gene of miR-410 and miR-410 was remarkably downregulated in OS. Moreover, overexpression of miR-410 suppressed proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition of OS cells by directly targeting TRIM44 expression. Furthermore, reintroduction of TRIM44 partially reversed miR-410-induced inhibitory effects on OS cells.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings indicate that the miR-410/TRIM44 link is critical in the control of OS progression.

A systematic view on E3 ligase Ring TRIMmers with a focus on cardiac function and disease

Ubiquitination, a post-translational modification via ubiquitin-proteasome-system, is one of the vital cellular processes involved in intracellular signaling, cell death, transcriptional control, etc. Importantly, it prevents the aggregation of non-functional, misfolded or unfolded, potentially toxic proteins to maintain cellular protein homeostasis. Ubiquitination is accomplished by the concerted action of three enzymatic steps involving E1 activating enzymes, E2 conjugating enzymes, and E3 ligases. Tripartite motif-containing (TRIM) proteins are one of the integral members of E3 ubiquitin ligases in metazoans modulating essential cellular pathways. For long, MuRFs (Muscle ring finger proteins) were the most extensively studied TRIMs for their cardiac function. Recent research advances in the field and our analysis presented here, however, demonstrated broader and ever increasing involvement of additional TRIM E3 ligases in the pathophysiology of heart. In this review, we summarize the known cardiac E3 ligases and their targets, and discuss their role and importance in cardiac proteostasis, pathophysiology and potential therapeutic implications with specific focus on TRIM E3 ligases.

High TRIM44 expression in endometrial carcinoma is associated with a poorer patient outcome

BACKGROUND

Tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) has been recently identified as a novel oncogene that is overexpressed in several types of human cancers; however, its role in endometrial cancer (EC) remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the TRIM44 protein expression and clinicopathological significance of TRIM44 in EC.

METHODS

Paraffin-embedded surgical specimens were collected from 143 patients with EC for the immunohistochemical analysis of TRIM44 expression. Western blotting was performed to evaluate differences in TRIM44 protein expression in EC and normal endometrial tissues.

RESULTS

TRIM44 expression was low in normal tissues and high in EC tissues (P < 0.001). TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with the Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, histological grade, depth of myometrial invasion and lymph node metastasis (P < 0.05). Moreover, TRIM44 expression was an independent prognostic factor for both overall survival and disease-free survival in patients with EC (both P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides evidence that TRIM44 predicts the risk of development and prognosis of EC, highlighting its potential application as a therapeutic target for this malignancy.