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Azañedo D, Visconti-Lopez FJ, Hernández-Vásquez A. Oral Health Service Use in Older Peruvians Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int Dent J 2024; 74:473-481. [PMID: 38225185 PMCID: PMC11123544 DOI: 10.1016/j.identj.2023.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this work was to analyse inequalities in oral health services utilisation (OHSU) in older Peruvian adults through comparative analysis of the years 2019 and 2021. METHODS We conducted a secondary analysis of data from the 2019 and 2021 Demographic and Health Survey (ENDES). The outcome variable was OHSU by older Peruvian adults in the past year. We used Poisson generalised linear models adjusted for age and sex to assess changes in OHSU by sociodemographic characteristics. The Erreygers concentration index was used to describe the socioeconomic inequalities in OHSU. The contribution of each variable to inequalities was estimated by a decomposition analysis. RESULTS In 2021, OHSU probability amongst older Peruvian adults decreased by 37% compared to 2019. The decline was greatest in those aged 80 or older (51%), the lowest wealth quintile (47%), those with functional limitations (53%), and those whose native language is Quechua or other indigenous languages (47%). Surprisingly, we observed a reduction in OHSU inequalities (difference: -0.1074; P = .003) during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly amongst rural residents (difference: -0.0771; P = .030), the lowest wealth quintile (difference: -0.0764; P = .020), and those with functional limitations (difference: -0.3665; P < .001). Poverty accounted for 73% of the inequality in 2021. CONCLUSIONS The probability of OHSU has significantly decreased likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Paradoxically, we observed a reduction in OHSU inequalities during the pandemic, despite the known socioeconomic impact. However, further research is required to gain deeper understanding of this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Akram Hernández-Vásquez
- Centro de Excelencia en Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales en Salud, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Lima, Peru.
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McElroy B, Walsh E. A happy home? Socio-economic inequalities in depressive symptoms and the role of housing quality in nine European countries. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:2203. [PMID: 37940939 PMCID: PMC10634013 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-17070-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study examines the prevalence of and socio-economic inequalities in depressive symptoms in nine high-income European countries, focusing in particular on the role of housing quality. METHODS Using the European Social Survey, a concentration index of depressive symptoms in each country is estimated. The role of housing quality is assessed by examining the risk factors associated with the concentration index, using the Recentred Influence Function method. To contextualise the housing quality results, other predictors of inequalities in depressive symptoms inequalities are also quantified and discussed. RESULTS Our results indicate that inequalities in depressive symptoms are concentrated among poorer respondents both in each country and in total. Austria and Belgium have the lowest inequalities and France has the highest. No geographic pattern is evident. Housing problems are associated with higher inequalities in six of the nine countries in the sample. While no association is evident for indicators of socio-economic status such as years of education and income, financial strain is significant. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first to estimate the degree of socio-economic inequality in depressive symptoms across European countries. The association between poor housing and poorer inequalities suggests that housing has a role to play lowering depressive symptoms inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan McElroy
- Dept of Economics, Cork University Business School, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Edel Walsh
- Dept of Economics, Cork University Business School, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Ghanbari-Jahromi M, Bastani P, Jalali FS, Delavari S. Factors affecting oral and dental services` utilization among Elderly: a scoping review. BMC Oral Health 2023; 23:597. [PMID: 37635217 PMCID: PMC10464329 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-023-03285-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regular use of oral and dental services by the elderly is one of the important factors in reducing oral and dental diseases. This study aimed to identify the factors affecting oral and dental services` utilization among elderly. METHODS The published articles on the factors affecting oral and dental services` utilization among elderly were found through a scoping search and using related keywords in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science databases within January 2000 - December 2022 according to the PRISMA guidelines. The data were analyzed using the thematic analysis method. RESULTS Among the 2381 articles retrieved from the databases, forty-two were extracted. The factors affecting oral and dental services` utilization among elderly were classified into five main components as follows: access, demographic factors, social factors, health level, and mental factors. The results showed that income, education level, living area, number of teeth, and importance of care were the most frequent in the main components of access, demographic factors, social factors, health level, and mental factors, respectively. CONCLUSION Equitable utilization of oral and dental services is the right of all members of the society, especially the elderly. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the elderly with suitable conditions to utilize such services, which are mostly luxury items. Furthermore, increasing the elderly's awareness and encouraging them to use oral and dental services regularly can help reduce the burden of oral and dental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peivand Bastani
- College of Health and Human Sciences, Faculty of Health, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia
| | - Faride Sadat Jalali
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Sajad Delavari
- Health Human Resources Research Center, School of Health Management and Information Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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Chang Q, Cheng M, Xu M, Du S, Wang X, Feng X, Tai B, Hu D, Lin H, Wang B, Wang C, Zheng S, Liu X, Rong W, Wang W, Dong Y, Si Y. Decomposing socioeconomic inequalities in dental caries among Chinese adults: findings from the 4th national oral health survey. BMC Oral Health 2023; 23:372. [PMID: 37291567 PMCID: PMC10251606 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-023-03037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate socioeconomic inequalities in dental caries among adults (35 years and older) in China and explore the contributions of various factors to these inequalities. METHODS This study included 10,983 adults (3,674 aged 35-44 years, 3,769 aged 55-64 years and 3,540 aged 65-74 years) who participated in the 4th National Oral Health Survey (2015-2016) in China. Dental caries status was evaluated by the decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT) index. Concentration indices (CIs) were applied to quantify the different degrees of socioeconomic-related inequality in DMFT, decayed teeth with crown or root caries (DT), missing teeth due to caries or other reasons (MT), and filled teeth without any primary or secondary caries (FT) among adults of different age groups. Decomposition analyses were conducted to identify the determinants and their associations with inequalities in DMFT. RESULTS The significant negative CI indicated that DMFT for the total sample were concentrated among socioeconomically disadvantaged adults (CI = - 0.06; 95% confidence interval [CI], - 0.073 to - 0.047). The CIs for DMFT for adults aged 55-64 and 65-74 years were - 0.038 (95% CI, - 0.057 to - 0.018) and - 0.039 (95% CI, - 0.056 to - 0.023), respectively, while the CI for DMFT for adults aged 35-44 years was not statistically significant (CI = - 0.002; 95% CI, - 0.022 to 0.018). The concentration indices of DT were negative and concentrated in disadvantaged populations, while FT showed pro-rich inequalities in all age groups. Decomposition analyses showed that age, education level, toothbrushing frequency, income and type of insurance contributed substantially to socioeconomic inequalities, accounting for 47.9%, 29.9%, 24.5%,19.1%, and 15.3%, respectively. CONCLUSION Dental caries was disproportionately concentrated among socioeconomically disadvantaged adults in China. The results of these decomposition analyses are informative for policy-makers attempting to develop targeted health policy recommendations to reduce dental caries inequalities in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Chang
- The Second Dental Center, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Menglin Cheng
- Department of Stomatology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengru Xu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Shuo Du
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Xing Wang
- Chinese Stomatological Association, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Xiping Feng
- Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. of China
| | - Baojun Tai
- School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P.R. of China
| | - Deyu Hu
- West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P.R. of China
| | - Huancai Lin
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yetsen University, Guangzhou, P.R. of China
| | - Bo Wang
- Chinese Stomatological Association, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Chunxiao Wang
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Shuguo Zheng
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Xuenan Liu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Wensheng Rong
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Weijian Wang
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Yanmei Dong
- Department of Cariology and Endodontology, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China
| | - Yan Si
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, P.R. of China.
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Jiang N, Grytten J, Kinge JM. Inequality in access to dental services in a market-based dental care system: A population study from Norway 1975-2018. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2022; 50:548-558. [PMID: 34806803 DOI: 10.1111/cdoe.12709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine income-related inequalities in access to dental services from 1975 to 2018. In Norway, dental care services for adults are privately financed. This may lead to income-related inequalities in access. In the early 1970s, that is, at the beginning of the study period, there were marked inequalities in access to dental services according to personal income. However, from the beginning of the 1970s, there has been a large increase in gross national income per capita in Norway as a result of the growth of the oil and gas industry. This increase in income also meant that people with a low income in 1975 had a rise in their level of income. According to the law of diminishing utility, an increase in income leads to higher consumption of dental services for people with a low level of income compared to people with a high level of income. The study hypothesis is that the inequalities in access to dental services that existed in 1975 became less over time. METHODS Statistics Norway collected samples of cross-sectional health survey data for the following years: 1975, 1985, 1995, 2002, 2008, 2012 and 2018. For each sample, individuals 21 years and older were drawn randomly from the non-institutionalized adult population using a two-stage stratified cluster sample technique. Inequalities were measured using the concentration index. The dependent variable was the use of dental services during the last year, and the key independent variable was equivalized household income. RESULTS The concentration index for inequalities in use of dental services according to income decreased from 0.10 (95% CI = 0.09, 0.11) in 1975 to 0.04 (95% CI = 0.03, 0.05) in 2018. The decrease was particularly large from 2002 to 2012. This was a period with a large growth in gross national income. CONCLUSION People with a low income had a marked increase in their purchasing power from 1975 to 2018. This coincided with an increase in demand for dental care for this low-income group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Jiang
- Department of Community Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jostein Grytten
- Department of Community Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Akershus University Hospital, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Jonas Minet Kinge
- Department of Community Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Du S, Cheng M, Zhang C, Xu M, Wang S, Wang W, Wang X, Feng X, Tai B, Hu D, Lin H, Wang B, Wang C, Zheng S, Liu X, Rong W, Wang W, Xu T, Si Y. Income-related inequality and decomposition of edentulism among aged people in China. BMC Oral Health 2022; 22:215. [PMID: 35641983 PMCID: PMC9153164 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-022-02246-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
The aim of this study was to assess the income-related inequality of edentulism among the aged in China and identify the contributing factors.
Methods
A secondary analysis of data from the 4th National Oral Health Epidemiology Survey in China was conducted, and 65–74 years old were selected for the analysis of income-related inequality of edentulism. The concentration curve, Concentration index (CI) and Erreygers-corrected concentration index (EI) were used to represent inequality and its degree qualitatively and quantitatively, respectively. A decomposition method based on probit model was employed to determine the contributors of inequality, including demographic factors, income status, oral health-related knowledge, attitude and practices and self-perceived general health status.
Results
In China, aged people with edentulism were concentrated in the poor. The CI was − 0.2337 (95% CIs: − 0.3503, − 0.1170). The EI was − 0.0413 (95% CIs: − 0.0619, − 0.0207). The decomposition results showed that income (75.02%) and oral health-related knowledge, attitude and practices (15.52%) were the main contributors to the inequality.
Conclusion
This study showed that pro-poor inequality among the elderly with edentulism existed in China. Corresponding policies against the contributors could be considered to promote the health equality of the elders.
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Greater inequalities in dental caries treatment than in caries experience: a concentration index decomposition approach. BMC Oral Health 2021; 21:564. [PMID: 34749711 PMCID: PMC8573976 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-021-01935-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the current study was to (a) measure the socioeconomic inequalities in oral health and examine whether the inequalities are greater in disease experience or in its treatment and to (b) decompose the factors that influence oral health inequalities among the adults of Guangdong Province. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 35- to 44-year-old and 65- to 74-year-old adults in Guangdong Province. All participants underwent oral health examinations and answered questionnaires about their oral health. We measured the concentration indices of the DMFT and its separate components, namely, decayed teeth (DT), missing teeth (MT), and filled teeth (FT), to explore the inequalities in oral health status; then, we analysed its decomposition to interpret the factors that influence the inequalities. Results The results showed that significant inequality was concentrated on FT (CI = 0.24, 95% CI = 0.14/0.33, SE = 0.05). The concentration indices for the DMFT (CI = 0.02, 95% CI = 0.02/0.06, SE = 0.02) and MT (CI = 0.02, 95% CI 0.03/0.08, SE = 0.03) were small and close to zero, while the concentration for DT (CI = − 0.04, 95% CI = − 0.01/0.02, SE = 0.03) was not statistically significant. The results from the decomposition analysis suggested that a substantial proportion of the inequality was explained by household income, high education level, regular oral examination and type of insurance (5.1%, 12.4%, 43.2%, − 39.6% (Urban Employee Basic Medical Insurance System) and 34.5% (New-Type Rural Medical Collaboration System), respectively). Conclusions The results indicated greater inequalities in dental caries than in caries experience. Among the included factors, household income, high education level, and regular oral health examinations had the greatest impact on the inequalities in the number of FT. In addition, the current medical insurance systems, including the Urban Employee Basic Medical Insurance System, Urban Resident Basic Medical Insurance System, and the New-Type Rural Medical Collaboration System, have not been effectively used in oral treatment. Policy-making and the implementation of interventions for tackling socioeconomic oral health inequalities should focus on reducing the burden of treatment and providing greater access to dental care for low-income groups. Welfare policies are skewed towards rural areas and low-income people.
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Chang Q, Gao X, Xu M, Zhang C, Du S, Wang X, Feng X, Tai B, Hu D, Lin H, Wang B, Wang C, Zheng S, Liu X, Rong W, Wang W, Xu T, Si Y. Socioeconomic-related inequality in dental care utilization among preschool children in China. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2021; 49:505-512. [PMID: 34288037 DOI: 10.1111/cdoe.12681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate socioeconomic-related inequality in dental care service utilization in the past 12 months among Chinese preschool children and to explore the contribution of various factors to this inequality. METHOD A total of 40 305 children aged 3-5 years from 372 kindergartens who participated in the Fourth National Oral Health Survey in China were included in the final analysis. The method of data weighting in complex sampling was adopted to make the samples more representative. Erreygers-corrected concentration index (EI) was used to measure socioeconomic-related inequality in dental care service utilization. The horizontal inequality index (HI) was employed to analyse horizontal inequality. Decomposition analyses were conducted to explore the contributions of income level, need variables (dmft, caregiver-evaluated oral health status and toothache experience) and nonneed variables (caregiver education level, residential location, age, and sex) to the inequality of health service utilization. RESULT The utilization of oral health services within the past 12 months among the high-, middle- and low-income groups was 17.4% (95% CI: 15.6-19.3), 13.6% (95% CI: 12.2-15.1) and 9.4% (95% CI: 8.1-11.0) respectively. The concentration curve was below the line of equality, and the EI and HI were 0.072 and 0.078, respectively, indicating that dental care utilization in children aged 3-5 years was concentrated in those who were better off. The contribution of the need variables to socioeconomic-related inequality in dental services was minimal, and most dental care utilization inequality could be explained by household income, caregiver education attainment and urban-rural disparities, accounting for 32.0%, 49.4% and 20.4% respectively. CONCLUSION This study reveals the existence of pro-rich inequality in dental care utilization among preschool children in China. The decomposition analysis suggests that income, caregiver education background and urban-rural disparities are the main factors contributing to this outcome. Equity-oriented policies and programmes are needed to achieve equitable dental care utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Chang
- Department of Second Clinical Division, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoli Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengru Xu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Chunzi Zhang
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Shuo Du
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Wang
- Chinese Stomatological Association, Beijing, China
| | - Xiping Feng
- Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Baojun Tai
- School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Deyu Hu
- West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Huancai Lin
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yetsen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Chinese Stomatological Association, Beijing, China
| | - Chunxiao Wang
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Shuguo Zheng
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Xuenan Liu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Wensheng Rong
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Weijian Wang
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Xu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Si
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
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