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von Hofsten S, Fenton KA, Pedersen HL. Human and Murine Toll-like Receptor-Driven Disease in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5351. [PMID: 38791389 PMCID: PMC11120885 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is linked to the differential roles of toll-like receptors (TLRs), particularly TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9. TLR7 overexpression or gene duplication, as seen with the Y-linked autoimmune accelerator (Yaa) locus or TLR7 agonist imiquimod, correlates with increased SLE severity, and specific TLR7 polymorphisms and gain-of-function variants are associated with enhanced SLE susceptibility and severity. In addition, the X-chromosome location of TLR7 and its escape from X-chromosome inactivation provide a genetic basis for female predominance in SLE. The absence of TLR8 and TLR9 have been shown to exacerbate the detrimental effects of TLR7, leading to upregulated TLR7 activity and increased disease severity in mouse models of SLE. The regulatory functions of TLR8 and TLR9 have been proposed to involve competition for the endosomal trafficking chaperone UNC93B1. However, recent evidence implies more direct, regulatory functions of TLR9 on TLR7 activity. The association between age-associated B cells (ABCs) and autoantibody production positions these cells as potential targets for treatment in SLE, but the lack of specific markers necessitates further research for precise therapeutic intervention. Therapeutically, targeting TLRs is a promising strategy for SLE treatment, with drugs like hydroxychloroquine already in clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah von Hofsten
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Kristin Andreassen Fenton
- Centre of Clinical Research and Education, University Hospital of North Norway, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Hege Lynum Pedersen
- Centre of Clinical Research and Education, University Hospital of North Norway, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway;
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Sun W, Zhu C, Li Y, Wu X, Shi X, Liu W. B cell activation and autoantibody production in autoimmune diseases. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2024:101936. [PMID: 38326197 DOI: 10.1016/j.berh.2024.101936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
B cells are central players in the immune system, responsible for producing antibodies and modulating immune responses. This review explores the intricate relationship between aberrant B cell activation and the development of autoimmune diseases, emphasizing the essential role of B cells in these conditions. We also summarize B cell receptor signaling and Toll-like receptor signaling in B cell activation, as well as their association with autoimmune diseases, shedding light on the molecular mechanisms behind these associations. Additionally, we explore the clinical observations involving B cell activation and their significance in autoimmune disease management. Various clinical studies related to B cell-targeted therapies are also discussed, offering insights into potential avenues for improving treatment strategies. Overall, this review serves as a resource for researchers and clinicians in the field of immunology and autoimmune diseases, providing a general view of B cell signaling and its role in autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Institute for Immunology, China Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, No. 1, Qinghua Yuan, New Biology Bldg, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, 100084, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University and Institute of Clinical Immunology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Can Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Institute for Immunology, China Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, No. 1, Qinghua Yuan, New Biology Bldg, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Yuxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Institute for Immunology, China Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, No. 1, Qinghua Yuan, New Biology Bldg, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Xinfeng Wu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, No. 636, Guanlin Road, 471000, Luoyang, China.
| | - Xiaofei Shi
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, No. 636, Guanlin Road, 471000, Luoyang, China.
| | - Wanli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Institute for Immunology, China Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, No. 1, Qinghua Yuan, New Biology Bldg, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, 100084, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University and Institute of Clinical Immunology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China.
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Liu F, Chen H, Cao C, Liang Y, Zhou Y. The role of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their therapeutic applications in glomerulonephritis. Int Urol Nephrol 2023; 55:2845-2856. [PMID: 37060433 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-023-03592-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
One of the most important features of innate immunity is the presence of a special group of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) called toll-like receptors (TLRs), which recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), resulting in a quick and effective immune response to them. Glomerulonephritis (GN) is one of the most important categories of renal disorders characterized by destructive responses of the immune system to the glomerulus. To date, the association of TLRs as important innate immune system members with GN has been one of the topics that attracted the attention of researchers in this field. However, the exact role of these receptors in the immunopathogenesis of GN has not yet been fully discussed. Therefore, this study aims to overview the role of TLRs in GN and the possibility of using them as a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiyan Liu
- Hemodialysis Room, Nanchang First Hospital, No. 128, Xiangshan North Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huimin Chen
- Hemodialysis Room, Nanchang First Hospital, No. 128, Xiangshan North Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Caixia Cao
- Hemodialysis Room, Nanchang First Hospital, No. 128, Xiangshan North Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yanlin Liang
- Hemodialysis Room, Nanchang First Hospital, No. 128, Xiangshan North Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- Hemodialysis Room, Nanchang First Hospital, No. 128, Xiangshan North Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China.
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Hou Y, Wang L, Luo C, Tang W, Dai R, An Y, Tang X. Clinical characteristics of early-onset paediatric systemic lupus erythematosus in a single centre in China. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2023; 62:3373-3381. [PMID: 36810668 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/kead086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We sought to investigate the sex distribution, clinical presentations, disease outcomes and genetic background of early-onset paediatric SLE (eo-pSLE) in a single centre in China to help enable early diagnosis and timely treatment. METHODS The clinical data of children aged less than 5 years old with SLE (n = 19) from January 2012 to December 2021 were reviewed and analysed. We performed DNA sequencing in 11 out of 19 patients to survey the genetic aetiologies. RESULTS Our study included 6 males and 13 females. The mean age at onset was 3.73 years. The median diagnostic delay was 9 months and was longer in male patients (P = 0.02). Four patients had an SLE-relevant family history. The most common clinical manifestations at diagnosis were fever, rash and hepatosplenomegaly. ANA positivity and low C3 were identified in all children. The renal (94.74%), mucocutaneous (94.74%), haematological (89.47%), respiratory (89.47%), digestive (84.21%), cardiovascular (57.89%) and neuropsychiatric (52.63%) systems were involved to varying degrees. We identified 13 SLE-associated gene mutations in 9 out of 11 patients: TREX1, PIK3CD, LRBA, KRAS, STAT4, C3, ITGAM, CYBB, TLR5, RIPK1, BACH2, CFHR5 and SYK. One male patient showed a 47, XXY chromosomal abnormality. CONCLUSION Early-onset (<5 years) pSLE is characterized by an insidious onset, typical immunological patterns, and the involvement of multiple organs. Immunological screening and genetic testing should be performed as soon as feasible in patients with an early onset of multisystemic autoimmune diseases to confirm the diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yipei Hou
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Chong Luo
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Wenjing Tang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Rongxin Dai
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Yunfei An
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuemei Tang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Paediatrics, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
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Gao HH, Li W, Shou XY, Mao JH. Correlation between Toll-like Receptor Gene Polymorphisms and Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome in Chinese Children. Curr Med Sci 2023:10.1007/s11596-023-2728-3. [PMID: 37115397 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-023-2728-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS) is the most common glomerular disease in children. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been reported to be associated with response to steroid treatment in children with INS. Nevertheless, the correlation between TLR genes and the progression of INS has not yet been clarified. The present study aimed to investigate the association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 with susceptibility to INS as well as the clinical phenotyping of steroid responsiveness in Chinese children with INS. METHODS A total of 183 pediatric inpatients with INS were included and given standard steroid therapy. Based on their clinical response to steroids, the patients were classified into three groups: steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS), steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome (SDNS), and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS). A total of 100 healthy children were employed as controls. The blood genome DNA was extracted from each participant. Six SNPs (rs11536889, rs1927914, rs7869402, rs11536891, rs352140, and rs3804099) in TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 were selected and detected by multiplex polymerase chain reaction with next-generation sequencing to assess TLR gene polymorphisms. RESULTS Among the 183 patients with INS, 89 (48.6%) had SSNS, 73 (39.9%) had SDNS, and 21 (11.5%) had SRNS. No significant difference was found in the genotype distribution between healthy children and patients with INS. However, the genotype and allele frequencies of TLR4 rs7869402 were significantly different between SRNS and SSNS. Compared with patients with the C allele and CC genotype, patients with the T allele and CT genotype had an increased risk of SRNS. CONCLUSION TLR4 rs7869402 affected the steroid response in Chinese children with INS. It might be a predictor for the early detection of SRNS in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Hui Gao
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Xin-Yi Shou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Jian-Hua Mao
- Department of Nephrology, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, 310052, China.
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Wang Y, Xia Y, Chen Y, Xu L, Sun X, Li J, Huang G, Li X, Xie Z, Zhou Z. Association analysis between the TLR9 gene polymorphism rs352140 and type 1 diabetes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1030736. [PMID: 37139337 PMCID: PMC10150994 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1030736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background To a great extent, genetic factors contribute to the susceptibility to type 1 diabetes (T1D) development, and by triggering immune imbalance, Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 is involved in the development of T1D. However, there is a lack of evidence supporting a genetic association between polymorphisms in the TLR9 gene and T1D. Methods In total, 1513 individuals, including T1D patients (n=738) and healthy control individuals (n=775), from the Han Chinese population were recruited for an association analysis of the rs352140 polymorphism of the TLR9 gene and T1D. rs352140 was genotyped by MassARRAY. The allele and genotype distributions of rs352140 in the T1D and healthy groups and those in different T1D subgroups were analyzed by the chi-squared test and binary logistic regression model. The chi-square test and Kruskal-Wallis H test were performed to explore the association between genotype and phenotype in T1D patients. Results The allele and genotype distributions of rs352140 were significantly different in T1D patients and healthy control individuals (p=0.019, p=0.035). Specifically, the T allele and TT genotype of rs352140 conferred a higher risk of T1D (OR=1.194, 95% CI=1.029-1.385, p=0.019, OR=1.535, 95% CI=1.108-2.126, p=0.010). The allele and genotype distributions of rs352140 were not significantly different between childhood-onset and adult-onset T1D and between T1D with a single islet autoantibody and T1D with multiple islet autoantibodies (p=0.603, p=0.743). rs352140 was associated with T1D susceptibility according to the recessive and additive models (p=0.015, p=0.019) but was not associated with T1D susceptibility in the dominant and overdominant models (p=0.117, p=0.928). Moreover, genotype-phenotype association analysis showed that the TT genotype of rs352140 was associated with higher fasting C-peptide levels (p=0.017). Conclusion In the Han Chinese population, the TLR9 polymorphism rs352140 is associated with T1D and is a risk factor for susceptibility to T1D.
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Wen L, Zhang B, Wu X, Liu R, Fan H, Han L, Zhang Z, Ma X, Chu CQ, Shi X. Toll-like receptors 7 and 9 regulate the proliferation and differentiation of B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1093208. [PMID: 36875095 PMCID: PMC9975558 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1093208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune illness marked by the loss of immune tolerance and the production of autoantibodies against nucleic acids and other nuclear antigens (Ags). B lymphocytes are important in the immunopathogenesis of SLE. Multiple receptors control abnormal B-cell activation in SLE patients, including intrinsic Toll-like receptors (TLRs), B-cell receptors (BCRs), and cytokine receptors. The role of TLRs, notably TLR7 and TLR9, in the pathophysiology of SLE has been extensively explored in recent years. When endogenous or exogenous nucleic acid ligands are recognized by BCRs and internalized into B cells, they bind TLR7 or TLR9 to activate related signalling pathways and thus govern the proliferation and differentiation of B cells. Surprisingly, TLR7 and TLR9 appear to play opposing roles in SLE B cells, and the interaction between them is still poorly understood. In addition, other cells can enhance TLR signalling in B cells of SLE patients by releasing cytokines that accelerate the differentiation of B cells into plasma cells. Therefore, the delineation of how TLR7 and TLR9 regulate the abnormal activation of B cells in SLE may aid the understanding of the mechanisms of SLE and provide directions for TLR-targeted therapies for SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Wen
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Bei Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Xinfeng Wu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Rongzeng Liu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Hua Fan
- Office of Research & Innovation, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Lei Han
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Zhibo Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Xin Ma
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Cong-Qiu Chu
- Division of Arthritis and Rheumatic Diseases, Oregon Health & Science University and VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Xiaofei Shi
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
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Azab MM, Mostafa FM, Khalil M, Salama M, Abdelrahman AA, Ali AA. Association of TLR7 and TLR9 genes polymorphisms in Egyptian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11680. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Differential Expression of Anti-Inflammatory RNA Binding Proteins in Lupus Nephritis. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12101474. [DOI: 10.3390/life12101474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a type of immunological complex glomerulonephritis characterized by chronic renal inflammation which is exacerbated by infiltrating leukocytes and fueled by a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines. A profound understanding of the pathogenesis of LN is necessary to identify the optimal molecular targets. The role of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in post-transcriptional gene regulation in the immune system is being explored in greater depth to better understand how this regulation is implicated in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Tristetraprolin (TTP), Roquin-1/2, and Regnase-1 are 3 RBPs that play a critical role in the regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators by gating the degradation and/or translational silencing of target mRNAs. In this study, we proposed to focus on the differential expression of these RBPs in immune cells and renal biopsies from LN patients, as well as their regulatory impact on a specific target. Herein, we highlight a novel target of anti-inflammatory treatment by revealing the mechanisms underlying RBP expression and the interaction between RBPs and their target RNAs.
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Chen Y, Lin J, Xiao L, Zhang X, Zhao L, Wang M, Li L. Gut microbiota in systemic lupus erythematosus: A fuse and a solution. J Autoimmun 2022; 132:102867. [PMID: 35932662 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2022.102867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Gut commensals help shape and mold host immune system and deeply influence human health. The disease spectrum of mankind that gut microbiome may associate with is ever-growing, but the mechanisms are still enigmas. Characterized by loss of self-tolerance and sustained self-attack, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is labeled with chronic inflammation, production of autoantibodies and multisystem injury, which so far are mostly incurable. Gut microbiota and their metabolites, now known as important environmental triggers of local/systemic immune responses, have been proposed to be involved in SLE development and progression probably through the following mechanisms: translocation beyond their niches; molecular mimicry to cross-activate immune response targeting self-antigens; epitope spreading to expand autoantibodies spectrum; and bystander activation to promote systemic inflammation. Gut microbiota which varies between individuals may also influence the metabolism and bio-transformation of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, thus associated with the efficacy and toxicity of these drugs, adding another explanation for heterogenic therapeutic responses. Modulation of gut microbiota via diet, probiotics/prebiotics, antibiotics/phages, fecal microbiota transplantation, or helminth to restore immune tolerance and homeostasis is expected to be a promising neoadjuvant therapy for SLE. We reviewed the advances in this territory and discussed the application prospect of modulating gut microbiota in controlling SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfei Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, China; Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan, China
| | - Jin Lin
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, China
| | - Lanlan Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, China; Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Clinical Immunology Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, NO.1 Da Hua Road, Dong Dan, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Lidan Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, National Clinical Research Center for Dermatologic and Immunologic Diseases (NCRC-DID), Ministry of Science & Technology, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Rheumatology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Clinical Immunology Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, NO.1 Da Hua Road, Dong Dan, Beijing, 100730, China.
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, China; Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan, China.
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Mei X, Jin H, Zhao M, Lu Q. Association of Immune-Related Genetic and Epigenetic Alterations with Lupus Nephritis. KIDNEY DISEASES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 8:286-296. [PMID: 36157263 PMCID: PMC9386430 DOI: 10.1159/000524937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The familial clustering phenomenon together with environmental influences indicates the presence of a genetic and epigenetic predisposition to systematic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Interestingly, regarding lupus nephritis (LN), the worst complication of SLE, mortality, and morbidity were not consistent with SLE in relation to sexuality and ethnicity. SUMMARY Genetic and epigenetic alterations in LN include genes and noncoding RNAs that are involved in antigen-presenting, complements, immune cell infiltration, interferon pathways, and so on. Once genetic or epigenetic change occurs alone or simultaneously, they will promote the formation of immune complexes with autoantibodies that target various autoantigens, which results in inflammatory cytokines and autoreactive immune cells colonizing renal tissues and contributing to LN. KEY MESSAGES Making additional checks for immunopathology-related heredity and epigenetic factors may lead to a more holistic perspective of LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaole Mei
- Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Translational Research on Immunological Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Unit of Key Technologies of Diagnosis and Treatment for Immune-related Skin Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Hui Jin
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Unit of Key Technologies of Diagnosis and Treatment for Immune-related Skin Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Ming Zhao
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Unit of Key Technologies of Diagnosis and Treatment for Immune-related Skin Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Qianjin Lu
- Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Translational Research on Immunological Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Unit of Key Technologies of Diagnosis and Treatment for Immune-related Skin Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Changsha, China
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Olson LB, Hunter NI, Rempel RE, Sullenger BA. Targeting DAMPs with nucleic acid scavengers to treat lupus. Transl Res 2022; 245:30-40. [PMID: 35245691 PMCID: PMC9167234 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2022.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic and often progressive autoimmune disorder marked clinically by a variable constellation of symptoms including fatigue, rash, joint pains, and kidney damage. The lungs, heart, gastrointestinal system, and brain can also be impacted, and individuals with lupus are at higher risk for atherosclerosis, thrombosis, thyroid disease, and other disorders associated with chronic inflammation . Autoimmune diseases are marked by erroneous immune responses in which the target of the immune response is a "self"-antigen, or autoantigen, driven by the development of antigen-specific B or T cells that have overcome the normal systems of self-tolerance built into the development of B and T cells. SLE is specifically characterized by the production of autoantibodies against nucleic acids and their binding proteins, including anti-double stranded DNA, anti-Smith (an RNA binding protein), and many others . These antibodies bind their nuclear-derived antigens to form immune complexes that cause injury and scarring through direct deposition in tissues and activation of innate immune cells . In over 50% of SLE patients, immune complex aggregation in the kidneys drives intrarenal inflammation and injury and leads to lupus nephritis, a progressive destruction of the glomeruli that is one of the most common causes of lupus-related death . To counter this pathology increasing attention has turned to developing approaches to reduce the development and continued generation of such autoantibodies. In particular, the molecular and cellular events that lead to long term, continuous activation of such autoimmune responses have become the focus of new therapeutic strategies to limit renal and other pathologies in lupus patients. The focus of this review is to consider how the innate immune system is involved in the development and progression of lupus nephritis and how a novel approach to inhibit innate immune activation by neutralizing the activators of this response, called Damage Associated Molecular Patterns, may represent a promising approach to treat this and other autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyra B Olson
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Nicole I Hunter
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Rachel E Rempel
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Bruce A Sullenger
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
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13
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Wujcicka WI, Kacerovsky M, Krygier A, Krekora M, Kaczmarek P, Grzesiak M. Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms from Angiogenesis-Related Genes, ANGPT2, TLR2 and TLR9, with Spontaneous Preterm Labor. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:2939-2955. [PMID: 35877427 PMCID: PMC9322696 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44070203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we hypothesized that the changes localized at angiopoietin-2 (ANGPT2), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF2), fms-related tyrosine kinase 1 (FLT1) and toll-like receptor (TLR) 2, TLR6 and TLR9 genes were associated with spontaneous preterm labor (PTL), as well as with possible genetic alterations on PTL-related coagulation. This case-control genetic association study aimed to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for the aforementioned genes, which are correlated with genetic risk or protection against PTL in Polish women. The study was conducted in 320 patients treated between 2016 and 2020, including 160 women with PTL and 160 term controls in labor. We found that ANGPT2 rs3020221 AA homozygotes were significantly less common in PTL cases than in controls, especially after adjusting for activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and platelet (PLT) parameters. TC heterozygotes for TLR2 rs3804099 were associated with PTL after correcting for anemia, vaginal bleeding, and history of threatened miscarriage or PTL. TC and CC genotypes in TLR9 rs187084 were significantly less common in women with PTL, compared to the controls, after adjusting for bleeding and gestational diabetes. For the first time, it was shown that three polymorphisms-ANGPT2 rs3020221, TLR2 rs3804099 and TLR9 rs187084 -were significantly associated with PTL, adjusted by pregnancy development influencing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wioletta Izabela Wujcicka
- Scientific Laboratory of the Center of Medical Laboratory Diagnostics and Screening, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital-Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +48-42-271-15-20; Fax: +48-42-271-15-10
| | - Marian Kacerovsky
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Charles University, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic;
- Biomedical Research Center, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Adrian Krygier
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, Medical University of Lodz, 90-151 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Michał Krekora
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital-Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland;
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical University of Lodz, 93-338 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Piotr Kaczmarek
- Department of Gynecology, Reproduction and Fetal Therapy, and Diagnostics and Treatment of Infertility, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital-Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Mariusz Grzesiak
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical University of Lodz, 93-338 Lodz, Poland;
- Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital-Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
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14
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Gharbia OM, Bassiouni SAR, Zaki MES, El-Beah SM, El-Desoky MM, Elmansoury EA, Abdelsalam M. Toll-like receptor 5 and Toll-like receptor 9 single nucleotide polymorphisms and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus and nephritis in Egyptian patients. EGYPTIAN RHEUMATOLOGY AND REHABILITATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1186/s43166-021-00093-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Toll-like (TLRs) play a crucial role in both adaptive and innate immunity. The aim of the present study was to assess the association of TLR5-rs5744168, TLR9-rs187084, and TLR9-rs352140 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and lupus nephritis (LN) in Egyptian patients.
Results
The C allele and homozygous CC genotype of the TLR9-rs352140 in co-dominant and recessive models were more prevalent in SLE patients than controls (P = 0.047, P = 0.017, and P = 0.005 respectively). In contrast, allelic and genotyping distribution of TLR5-rs5744168 and TLR9-rs187084 SNPs showed no association with the risk of SLE. The T allele of the TLR5-rs5744168 was more prevalent in LN patients than controls (P = 0.021). The homozygous TT genotype of TLR5-rs5744168 SNP was more prevalent in LN patients in the co-dominant and the recessive models than controls (P = 0.036 and P = 0.011 respectively). The C allele of the TLR9-rs352140 was more prevalent in LN patients than controls (P = 0.015). The homozygous CC genotype of the TLR9-rs352140 SNP was more prevalent in LN than controls in co-dominant and recessive models (P = 0.002 and P < 0.001). In the recessive model of the TLR5-rs5744168 SNP, the TT genotype was found in 3.2% of the SLE patients while none of the SLE patients without LN or controls had TT genotype (P = 0.036). Also, in the recessive model of the TLR9-rs352140 SNP, the CC genotype was significantly more frequent in SLE patients with LN than without LN (44.4% vs 29.9%, P = 0.045).
Conclusion
Our results support the potential role of TLR5-rs5744168 SNP and TLR9-rs3532140 SNP not only in increasing the risk for development of SLE, but also in increasing the risk of LN in SLE patients among the Egyptian population.
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Abstract
Elderly individuals with chronic disorders tend to develop inflammaging, a condition associated with elevated levels of blood inflammatory markers, and increased susceptibility to chronic disease progression. Native and adaptive immunity are both involved in immune system senescence, kidney fibrosis and aging. The innate immune system is characterized by a limited number of receptors, constantly challenged by self and non-self stimuli. Circulating and kidney resident myeloid and lymphoid cells are all equipped with pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Recent reports on PRRs show kidney overexpression of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in inflammaging autoimmune renal diseases, vasculitis, acute kidney injury and kidney transplant rejection. TLR upregulation leads to proinflammatory cytokine induction, fibrosis, and chronic kidney disease progression. TLR2 blockade in a murine model of renal ischemia reperfusion injury prevented the escape of natural killer cells and neutrophils by inflammaging kidney injury. Tumor necrosis factor-α blockade in endothelial cells with senescence-associated secretory phenotype significantly reduced interleukin-6 release. These findings should encourage experimental and translational clinical trials aimed at modulating renal inflammaging by native immunity blockade.
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16
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Aranda-Uribe IS, López-Vázquez JC, Barbosa-Cobos RE, Ramírez-Bello J. TLR4 and TLR9 polymorphisms are not associated with either rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus in Mexican patients. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:3561-3565. [PMID: 33939072 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06371-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated signaling pathways induce a proinflammatory microenvironment to eradicate pathogens. However, in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), TLRs can promote chronic inflammation. It has been shown that some TLR4 and TLR9 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are risk factors for RA and SLE, but these findings have not been replicated in all populations; thus, results are inconclusive. We evaluated the TLR4 Asp299Gly, Thr399Ile, - 1892G/A SNPs, and the TLR9 Pro545Pro SNP to assess potential associations with RA and SLE in Mexican patients. This study included 474 patients with RA, 283 patients with SLE, and 424 healthy controls. We used a 5' nuclease allelic discrimination assay to genotype individuals for the four TLR4 and TLR9 polymorphisms. We found that the genotype or allelic frequencies of the TLR4 Asp299Gly, Thr399Ile, - 1892G/A, and TLR9 Pro545Pro polymorphisms were similar between patients and controls. We found no association under different genetic models. A haplotype analysis of TLR4 showed no association with either RA or SLE. We found no significant differences in the allelic or genotypic frequencies of TLR4 Asp299Gly, Thr399IIe, - 1892G/A, or TLR9 Pro545Pro between patients and controls. These findings suggested that these variants are not risk factors for RA or SLE in Mexican patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Sammir Aranda-Uribe
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Juárez de México, Av. Instituto, Politécnico Nacional No. 5160, DelegaciónGustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07760, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos López-Vázquez
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Juárez de México, Av. Instituto, Politécnico Nacional No. 5160, DelegaciónGustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07760, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Julian Ramírez-Bello
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Juárez de México, Av. Instituto, Politécnico Nacional No. 5160, DelegaciónGustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07760, Mexico City, Mexico.
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17
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Ding X, Ren Y, He X. IFN-I Mediates Lupus Nephritis From the Beginning to Renal Fibrosis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:676082. [PMID: 33959133 PMCID: PMC8093624 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.676082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality. The abundant cell-free nucleic (DNA/RNA) in SLE patients, especially dsDNA, is a key substance in the pathogenesis of SLE and LN. The deposition of DNA/RNA-immune complexes (DNA/RNA-ICs) in the glomerulus causes a series of inflammatory reactions that lead to resident renal cell disturbance and eventually renal fibrosis. Cell-free DNA/RNA is the most effective inducer of type I interferons (IFN-I). Resident renal cells (rather than infiltrating immune cells) are the main source of IFN-I in the kidney. IFN-I in turn damages resident renal cells. Not only are resident renal cells victims, but also participants in this immunity war. However, the mechanism for generation of IFN-I in resident renal cells and the pathological mechanism of IFN-I promoting renal fibrosis have not been fully elucidated. This paper reviews the latest epidemiology of LN and its development process, discusses the mechanism for generation of IFN-I in resident renal cells and the role of IFN-I in the pathogenesis of LN, and may open a new perspective for the treatment of LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewei Ding
- Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Laboratory of Pediatric Nephrology, Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yi Ren
- Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Laboratory of Pediatric Nephrology, Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Pediatric Internal Medicine Department, Haikou Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Haikou, China
| | - Xiaojie He
- Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Laboratory of Pediatric Nephrology, Institute of Pediatrics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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18
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McSweeney KR, Gadanec LK, Qaradakhi T, Ali BA, Zulli A, Apostolopoulos V. Mechanisms of Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury: Pathological Mechanisms, Pharmacological Interventions, and Genetic Mitigations. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1572. [PMID: 33805488 PMCID: PMC8036620 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Administration of the chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin leads to acute kidney injury (AKI). Cisplatin-induced AKI (CIAKI) has a complex pathophysiological map, which has been linked to cellular uptake and efflux, apoptosis, vascular injury, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inflammation. Despite research efforts, pharmaceutical interventions, and clinical trials spanning over several decades, a consistent and stable pharmacological treatment option to reduce AKI in patients receiving cisplatin remains unavailable. This has been predominately linked to the incomplete understanding of CIAKI pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms involved. Herein, we detail the extensively known pathophysiology of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity that manifests and the variety of pharmacological and genetic alteration studies that target them.
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19
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Liu M, Zen K. Toll-Like Receptors Regulate the Development and Progression of Renal Diseases. KIDNEY DISEASES 2021; 7:14-23. [PMID: 33614730 DOI: 10.1159/000511947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Stimulated by both microbial and endogenous ligands, toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in the development and progression of renal diseases. Summary As a highly conserved large family, TLRs have 11 members in humans (TLR1∼TLR11) and 13 members in mouse (TLR1∼TLR13). It has been widely reported that TLR2 and TLR4 signaling, activated by both exogenous and endogenous ligands, promote disease progression in both renal ischemia-reperfusion injury and diabetic nephropathy. TLR4 also vitally functions in CKD and infection-associated renal diseases such as pyelonephritis induced by urinary tract infection. Stimulation of intracellular TLR7/8 and TLR9 by host-derived nucleic acids also plays a key role in systemic lupus erythematosus. Given that certain microRNAs with GU-rich sequence have recently been found to be able to serve as TLR7/8 ligands, these microRNAs may initiate pro-inflammatory signal via activating TLR signal. Moreover, as microRNAs can be transferred across different organs via cell-secreted exosomes or protein-RNA complex, the TLR signaling activated by the miRNAs released by other injured organs may also result in renal dysfunction. Key Messages In this review, we sum up the recent progress in the role of TLRs in various forms of glomerulonephritis and discuss the possible prevention or therapeutic strategies for clinic treatment to renal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Liu
- School of Life Science and Technology, Chinese Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ke Zen
- School of Life Science and Technology, Chinese Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.,School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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20
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Ren Q, Cheng L, Yi J, Ma L, Pan J, Gou SJ, Fu P. Toll-like Receptors as Potential Therapeutic Targets in Kidney Diseases. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:5829-5854. [PMID: 31161985 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666190603110907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) are members of pattern recognition receptors and serve a pivotal role in host immunity. TLRs response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns encoded by pathogens or damage-associated molecular patterns released by dying cells, initiating an inflammatory cascade, where both beneficial and detrimental effects can be exerted. Accumulated evidence has revealed that TLRs are closely associated with various kidney diseases but their roles are still not well understood. This review updated evidence on the roles of TLRs in the pathogenesis of kidney diseases including urinary tract infection, glomerulonephritis, acute kidney injury, transplant allograft dysfunction and chronic kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Ren
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Lu Cheng
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jing Yi
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Liang Ma
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jing Pan
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Shen-Ju Gou
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Ping Fu
- Kidney Research Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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21
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Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by multiple system involvement and positive serum autoantibodies. Lupus nephritis (LN) is the most common and serious complication of SLE, and it is the main cause of death in patients with SLE. Abnormalities in the immune system lead to LN and involve a variety of cells (T cells, B cells, macrophages, NK cells, etc.), cytokines (interleukin, tumor necrosis factor α, etc.) and their related pathways. Previous studies have shown that the interactions of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors contribute to the pathogenesis and development of LN. In recent years, one genome-wide association study (GWAS) and a number of gene association studies have explored the susceptibility genes of LN, including immunization-, inflammation-, adhesion- and other pathway-related genes. These genes participate in or suggest the pathogenesis and progression of LN. In this review, we summarize the genetic susceptibility of LN and discuss the possible mechanism underlying the susceptibility genes of LN.
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22
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Song K, Liu L, Zhang X, Chen X. An update on genetic susceptibility in lupus nephritis. Clin Immunol 2019; 210:108272. [PMID: 31683055 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2019.108272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by multiple system involvement and positive serum autoantibodies. Lupus nephritis (LN) is the most common and serious complication of SLE, and it is the main cause of death in patients with SLE. Abnormalities in the immune system lead to LN and involve a variety of cells (T cells, B cells, macrophages, NK cells, etc.), cytokines (interleukin, tumor necrosis factor α, etc.) and their related pathways. Previous studies have shown that the interactions of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors contribute to the pathogenesis and development of LN. In recent years, one genome-wide association study (GWAS) and a number of gene association studies have explored the susceptibility genes of LN, including immunization-, inflammation-, adhesion- and other pathway-related genes. These genes participate in or suggest the pathogenesis and progression of LN. In this review, we summarize the genetic susceptibility of LN and discuss the possible mechanism underlying the susceptibility genes of LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangkang Song
- Department of Nephrology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Chinese PLA Institute of Nephrology, State Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Kidney Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Institute of Dermatology and Department of Dermatology at No.1 Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Dermatology, Ministry of Education (Anhui Medical University), Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xuejun Zhang
- Institute of Dermatology and Department of Dermatology at No.1 Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Dermatology, Ministry of Education (Anhui Medical University), Hefei, Anhui, China; Institute of Dermatology and Department of Dermatology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangmei Chen
- Department of Nephrology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Chinese PLA Institute of Nephrology, State Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Kidney Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, China.
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23
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Herrada AA, Escobedo N, Iruretagoyena M, Valenzuela RA, Burgos PI, Cuitino L, Llanos C. Innate Immune Cells' Contribution to Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Front Immunol 2019; 10:772. [PMID: 31037070 PMCID: PMC6476281 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against nuclear antigens, immune complex deposition, and tissue damage in the kidneys, skin, heart and lung. Because of the pathogenic role of antinuclear antibodies and autoreactive T cells in SLE, extensive efforts have been made to demonstrate how B cells act as antibody-producing or as antigen-presenting cells that can prime autoreactive T cell activation. With the discovery of new innate immune cells and inflammatory mediators, innate immunity is emerging as a key player in disease pathologies. Recent work over the last decade has highlighted the importance of innate immune cells and molecules in promoting and potentiating SLE. In this review, we discuss recent evidence of the involvement of different innate immune cells and pathways in the pathogenesis of SLE. We also discuss new therapeutics targets directed against innate immune components as potential novel therapies in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés A Herrada
- Lymphatic and Inflammation Research Laboratory, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile
| | - Noelia Escobedo
- Lymphatic and Inflammation Research Laboratory, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile
| | - Mirentxu Iruretagoyena
- Departamento de Inmunología Clínica y Reumatología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rodrigo A Valenzuela
- Laboratorio de Enfermedades Autoinmunes Oculares y Sistémicas, Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Paula I Burgos
- Departamento de Inmunología Clínica y Reumatología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Loreto Cuitino
- Laboratorio de Enfermedades Autoinmunes Oculares y Sistémicas, Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Servicio de Oftalmología, Hospital Clínico Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolina Llanos
- Departamento de Inmunología Clínica y Reumatología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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24
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Toubi E, Vadasz Z. Innate immune-responses and their role in driving autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev 2019; 18:306-311. [PMID: 30639645 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases were always considered to be driven mainly by adaptive immune responses, namely by auto-reactive B and T cell over-activity. The continuous stimulation of dendritic cells by autoantigens increases B cell activity, driving auto-reactive B cells to increase the production of autoantibodies and of pro-inflammatory cytokines. On the other hand, a subset of dendritic cells is established being of tolerogenic properties thus becoming important in maintaining self-tolerance. However, early innate immune responses are continuously appreciated to be highly important in the development of immune-mediated inflammation in general and autoimmunity in particular. The innate immune system is a complex network of structured cells/proteins such as antigen presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells), the complement cascade, and many receptors/cytokines/proteins. Of these, one may mention the high expression of toll-like receptors 7 and 9 in antigen presenting cells, and B cells of systemic lupus erythematosus patients contributing to the expansion of auto-reactive B cells. C-reactive protein (CRP) and C1q are crucially important for efficient uptake of apoptotic cells. However, CRP is appreciated to have a role in maintaining anti-inflammatory responses and in altering autoimmunity. Natural killer cells (NK) are responsible for cytotoxicity responses but some of them (mainly CD56high), are important in maintaining peripheral self-tolerance, thus considered to be immune-regulatory cells. In this review we will cover most of the new data on innate immune system and discuss its importance in the development of autoimmunity. New treatments were developed following our better understanding of these pathways, the targeting of which, opened new therapeutic avenues in treating autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Toubi
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Bnai-Zion Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Zahava Vadasz
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Bnai-Zion Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel.
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25
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Vogelzang A, Guerrini MM, Minato N, Fagarasan S. Microbiota - an amplifier of autoimmunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2018; 55:15-21. [PMID: 30248521 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Many studies describe dysbiosis as a change in the microbiota that accompanies autoimmune illnesses, but little is known about whether these changes are a cause or consequence of an altered immune state. The immune system actively shapes the composition of the microbiota, with divergent outcomes in healthy or autoimmune-prone individuals. The gut microbiota in turn acts as an acquired endocrine organ, influencing the physiology of the host via release of nutrients and chemical messengers. Dysbiosis arising from abnormal immune function can initiate or amplify autoimmunity through multiple mechanisms. We examine how the bidirectional relationship between resident microbes and the immune system contributes to autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Vogelzang
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Tsurumi Ward, Suehirocho, 1 Chome-7-22, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Matteo M Guerrini
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Tsurumi Ward, Suehirocho, 1 Chome-7-22, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Nagahiro Minato
- Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Sakyo Ward, Yoshida-Konoe, Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Sidonia Fagarasan
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Tsurumi Ward, Suehirocho, 1 Chome-7-22, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, 230-0045, Japan.
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Wang R, Zeng Y, Qin H, Lu Y, Huang H, Lei M, Tan T, Huang Y, Luo H, Lan Y, Wei Y. Association of interleukin 22 gene polymorphisms and serum IL-22 level with risk of systemic lupus erythematosus in a Chinese population. Clin Exp Immunol 2018; 193:143-151. [PMID: 29603203 PMCID: PMC6046499 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the association between the single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the interleukin 22 (IL-22) gene and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in a Chinese population. Three IL-22 SNPs (rs2227485, rs2227513 and rs2227491) were genotyped using SNaPshot SNP genotyping assays and identified by sequencing in 314 SLE patients and 411 healthy controls. The IL-22 level of serum was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Data were analysed by spss version 17.0 software. We found that rs2227513 was associated with an increased risk of SLE [AG versus AA: adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2·24, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1·22-4·12, P = 0·010; G versus· A: adjusted OR = 2·18, 95% CI = 1·20-3·97, P = 0·011]. Further analysis in patients with SLE showed that the AG genotype and G allele were associated with an increased risk of renal disorder in SLE (G versus A: aOR = 3·09, 95% CI = 1·30-7·33, P = 0·011; AG versus· AA: aOR = 3·25, 95% CI = 1·35-7·85, P = 0·009). In addition, the concentration of IL-22 was significantly lower in the rs2227513 AG genotype compared with AA genotype (P = 0·028). These results suggest that rs2227513 polymorphism might contribute to SLE susceptibility, probably by decreasing the expression of IL-22.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Wang
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - Y.‐L. Zeng
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - H.‐M. Qin
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - Y.‐L. Lu
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - H.‐T. Huang
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - M. Lei
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - T. Tan
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - Y.‐Y. Huang
- Clinical Medical School, Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - H.‐C. Luo
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - Y. Lan
- Department of Dermatologythe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
| | - Y.‐S. Wei
- Department of Laboratory Medicinethe Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for NationalitiesBaiseGuangxiChina
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Martínez-García EA, Zavala-Cerna MG, Lujano-Benítez AV, Sánchez-Hernández PE, Martín-Márquez BT, Sandoval-García F, Vázquez-Del Mercado M. Potential Chronotherapeutic Optimization of Antimalarials in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Is Toll-Like Receptor 9 Expression Dependent on the Circadian Cycle in Humans? Front Immunol 2018; 9:1497. [PMID: 30034390 PMCID: PMC6043638 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) belongs to the group of endosomal receptors of the innate immune system with the ability to recognize hypomethylated CpG sequences from DNA. There is scarce information about TLR9 expression and its association with the circadian cycle (CC). Different patterns of TLR9 expression are regulated by the CC in mice, with an elevated expression at Zeitgeber time 19 (1:00 a.m.); nevertheless, we still need to corroborate this in humans. In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the inhibitory effect of chloroquine (CQ) on TLR9 is limited. TLR9 activation has been associated with the presence of some autoantibodies: anti-Sm/RNP, anti-histone, anti-Ro, anti-La, and anti-double-stranded DNA. Treatment with CQ for SLE has been proven to be useful, in part by interfering with HLA-antigen coupling and with TLR9 ligand recognition. Studies have shown that TLR9 inhibitors such as antimalarial drugs are able to mask TLR9-binding sites on nucleic acids. The data presented here provide the basic information that could be useful for other clinical researchers to design studies that will have an impact in achieving a chronotherapeutic effect by defining the ideal time for CQ administration in SLE patients, consequently reducing the pathological effects that follow the activation of TLR9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Aurora Martínez-García
- Instituto de Investigación en Reumatología y del Sistema Músculo Esquelético, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- Departamento de Fisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- UDG-CA-703, Inmunología y Reumatología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Maria Guadalupe Zavala-Cerna
- Immunology Research Laboratory, Programa Internacional de Medicina, Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Andrea Verónica Lujano-Benítez
- Instituto de Investigación en Reumatología y del Sistema Músculo Esquelético, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Pedro Ernesto Sánchez-Hernández
- Departamento de Fisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Beatriz Teresita Martín-Márquez
- Instituto de Investigación en Reumatología y del Sistema Músculo Esquelético, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- UDG-CA-703, Inmunología y Reumatología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Flavio Sandoval-García
- Instituto de Investigación en Reumatología y del Sistema Músculo Esquelético, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- Departamento de Clínicas Médicas, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- UDG CA-701, Inmunometabolismo en Enfermedades Emergentes (GIIEE), Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Mónica Vázquez-Del Mercado
- Instituto de Investigación en Reumatología y del Sistema Músculo Esquelético, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- UDG-CA-703, Inmunología y Reumatología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
- Hospital Civil de Guadalajara “Juan I. Menchaca”, Servicio de Reumatología, Programa Nacional de Posgrados de Calidad (PNPC), Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Guadalajara, Mexico
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Abstract
The pathogenesis of systemic autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is based on the loss of self-tolerance against ubiquitous autoantigens involving all mechanisms of adaptive immunity. However, data accumulating over the last decade imply an important role also for numerous elements of innate immunity, namely the Toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis of SLE. Here we discuss their role in the most common organ complication of SLE, i.e. lupus nephritis. We summarize experimental and clinical data on the expression and functional contribution of the Toll-like receptors in immune complex glomerulonephritis, and intrarenal inflammation. Based on these discoveries Toll-like receptors are evolving as therapeutic targets for the treatment of SLE and lupus nephritis.
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