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Senior RA, Bagwyn R, Leng D, Killion AK, Jetz W, Wilcove DS. Global shortfalls in documented actions to conserve biodiversity. Nature 2024; 630:387-391. [PMID: 38839953 PMCID: PMC11168922 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07498-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Threatened species are by definition species that are in need of assistance. In the absence of suitable conservation interventions, they are likely to disappear soon1. There is limited understanding of how and where conservation interventions are applied globally, or how well they work2,3. Here, using information from the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List and other global databases, we find that for species at risk from three of the biggest drivers of biodiversity loss-habitat loss, overexploitation for international trade and invasive species4-many appear to lack the appropriate types of conservation interventions. Indeed, although there has been substantial recent expansion of the protected area network, we still find that 91% of threatened species have insufficient representation of their habitats within protected areas. Conservation interventions are not implemented uniformly across different taxa and regions and, even when present, have infrequently led to substantial improvements in the status of species. For 58% of the world's threatened terrestrial species, we find conservation interventions to be notably insufficient or absent. We cannot determine whether such species are truly neglected, or whether efforts to recover them are not included in major conservation databases. If they are indeed neglected, the outlook for many of the world's threatened species is grim without more and better targeted action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Senior
- Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
- Conservation Ecology Group, Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, UK.
| | | | - Danyan Leng
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Center for Biodiversity and Global Change, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Alexander K Killion
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Center for Biodiversity and Global Change, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Walter Jetz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Center for Biodiversity and Global Change, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David S Wilcove
- Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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2
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Zwerts JA, Sterck EHM, Verweij PA, Maisels F, van der Waarde J, Geelen EAM, Tchoumba GB, Donfouet Zebaze HF, van Kuijk M. FSC-certified forest management benefits large mammals compared to non-FSC. Nature 2024; 628:563-568. [PMID: 38600379 PMCID: PMC11023928 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07257-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
More than a quarter of the world's tropical forests are exploited for timber1. Logging impacts biodiversity in these ecosystems, primarily through the creation of forest roads that facilitate hunting for wildlife over extensive areas. Forest management certification schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) are expected to mitigate impacts on biodiversity, but so far very little is known about the effectiveness of FSC certification because of research design challenges, predominantly limited sample sizes2,3. Here we provide this evidence by using 1.3 million camera-trap photos of 55 mammal species in 14 logging concessions in western equatorial Africa. We observed higher mammal encounter rates in FSC-certified than in non-FSC logging concessions. The effect was most pronounced for species weighing more than 10 kg and for species of high conservation priority such as the critically endangered forest elephant and western lowland gorilla. Across the whole mammal community, non-FSC concessions contained proportionally more rodents and other small species than did FSC-certified concessions. The first priority for species protection should be to maintain unlogged forests with effective law enforcement, but for logged forests our findings provide convincing data that FSC-certified forest management is less damaging to the mammal community than is non-FSC forest management. This study provides strong evidence that FSC-certified forest management or equivalently stringent requirements and controlling mechanisms should become the norm for timber extraction to avoid half-empty forests dominated by rodents and other small species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joeri A Zwerts
- Ecology and Biodiversity, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Animal Behaviour & Cognition, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - E H M Sterck
- Animal Behaviour & Cognition, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Pita A Verweij
- Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Fiona Maisels
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Emma A M Geelen
- Animal Behaviour & Cognition, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Marijke van Kuijk
- Ecology and Biodiversity, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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3
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Matias G, Cagnacci F, Rosalino LM. FSC forest certification effects on biodiversity: A global review and meta-analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 908:168296. [PMID: 37926251 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
FSC is a worldwide recognized forest certification scheme, that aims to promote the environmentally responsible management and conservation of the world's forests. Despite its broad application, there is little evidence of its effect on biodiversity. To address this important knowledge gap, here we conducted a systematic review and a hierarchical meta-analysis of the effects of FSC on biodiversity worldwide. Our review yielded 57 studies spanning 2004-2022. Most studies were in the Americas and Europe (31 % and 28 %, respectively), and largely focused on vascular plants (41 %). Half (51 %) of the studies aimed to determine the effect of FSC certification on biodiversity. There were 15 studies with sufficient information for meta-analysis, resulting in 231 effect sizes for mammal, bird, and vascular plant abundance and 10 for vascular plant richness. Overall, there is a neutral effect of certification on taxa abundance, with only a positive effect on mammal assemblages. Responses varied considerably between mammals' traits. Threatened species, individuals with reduced body weight, and omnivorous species benefit from management under the FSC scheme. Vascular plant richness exhibited significantly higher values in FSC-certified areas. Moreover, the abundance of vascular plants also differs among traits, with shrubs and adult trees benefiting from FSC certification. Our systematic review and meta-analysis revealed strong variation in biodiversity responses to FSC, and major geographic and taxonomic knowledge gaps. The overall neutral effect and the divergent responses of taxa and species traits suggest that taxa/species-specific management and improvement of FSC criteria are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonçalo Matias
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes and CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Francesca Cagnacci
- Animal Ecology Unit, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 San Michele all'Adige, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Luís Miguel Rosalino
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes and CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
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4
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Fariss B, DeMello N, Powlen KA, Latimer CE, Masuda Y, Kennedy CM. Catalyzing success in community-based conservation. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2023; 37:e13973. [PMID: 35796041 PMCID: PMC10087706 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
Efforts to devolve rights and engage Indigenous Peoples and local communities in conservation have increased the demand for evidence of the efficacy of community-based conservation (CBC) and insights into what enables its success. We examined the human well-being and environmental outcomes of a diverse set of 128 CBC projects. Over 80% of CBC projects had some positive human well-being or environmental outcomes, although just 32% achieved positive outcomes for both (i.e., combined success). We coded 57 total national-, community-, and project-level variables and controls from this set, performed random forest classification to identify the variables most important to combined success, and calculated accumulated local effects to describe their individual influence on the probability of achieving it. The best predictors of combined success were 17 variables suggestive of various recommendations and opportunities for conservation practitioners related to national contexts, community characteristics, and the implementation of various strategies and interventions informed by existing CBC frameworks. Specifically, CBC projects had higher probabilities of combined success when they occurred in national contexts supportive of local governance, confronted challenges to collective action, promoted economic diversification, and invested in various capacity-building efforts. Our results provide important insights into how to encourage greater success in CBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandie Fariss
- Global Protect Oceans, Lands, and Waters Program, The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
- Global Conservation in Partnership with Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities Program, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA
| | - Nicole DeMello
- Global Conservation in Partnership with Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities Program, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA
| | - Kathryn A Powlen
- Department of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Christopher E Latimer
- Global Protect Oceans, Lands, and Waters Program, The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Yuta Masuda
- Global Science, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA
| | - Christina M Kennedy
- Global Protect Oceans, Lands, and Waters Program, The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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5
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Loveridge R, Marshall AR, Pfeifer M, Rushton S, Nnyiti PP, Fredy L, Sallu SM. Pathways to win-wins or trade-offs? How certified community forests impact forest restoration and human wellbeing. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210080. [PMID: 36373927 PMCID: PMC9661953 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Certified community forests combine local governance with forest certification and aim to serve multiple objectives including forest protection, restoration, human wellbeing and equitable governance. However, the causal pathways by which they impact these objectives remain poorly understood. The ability of protected area impact evaluations to identify complex pathways is limited by a narrow focus on top-down theoretical, quantitative perspectives and inadequate consideration of local context. We used a novel mixed-methods research design that integrates the perspectives of multiple actors to develop a generalized conceptual model of the causal pathways for certified community forests. We tested the model using a combination of statistical matching, structural equation modelling and qualitative analyses for an agroforestry landscape in Tanzania. We found certified community forests positively impacted human wellbeing, equitable governance and forest restoration. Equitable governance had the largest impact on wellbeing, followed by crop yield and forest resource availability. Timber revenues varied widely between villages and the average effect of financial benefits did not impact wellbeing due to the immature stage of the certified timber market. We identified positive interactions and trade-offs between conservation and agriculture. Our findings suggest that no simple solution exists for meeting multiple objectives. However, developing understanding of the pathways linking social and conservation outcomes can help identify opportunities to promote synergies and mitigate negative impacts to reconcile competing objectives. This article is part of the theme issue 'Understanding forest landscape restoration: reinforcing scientific foundations for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Loveridge
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, YO10 5NG, UK,The Biodiversity Consultancy, Cambridge, CB2 1SJ, UK
| | - Andrew R. Marshall
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, YO10 5NG, UK,Forest Research Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD 4655, Australia,Flamingo Land Ltd, Kirby Misperton, North Yorkshire, YO17 6UX, UK
| | - Marion Pfeifer
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, TROPS lab, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Steven Rushton
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, TROPS lab, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Petro P. Nnyiti
- Institute of Adult Education, Dar es Salaam, 57QM+4JF, Tanzania
| | - Lilian Fredy
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, 4MX5+52, Tanzania
| | - Susannah M. Sallu
- School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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6
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Effectiveness and Economic Viability of Forest Certification: A Systematic Review. FORESTS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/f13050798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the face of accelerating forest degradation and deforestation, forest certification emerged in the early 1990s as a voluntary and market-based mechanism to promote environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial, and economically viable management of the world’s forests. A key goal of forest certification is to reduce forest degradation and deforestation while enhancing forest enterprises’ economic viability. However, whether forest certification contributes to meeting such goals is unclear. We conducted a systematic literature review on such impacts, reviewing empirical studies published between 1993 and 2021 regarding the impact of forest certification on forest degradation, deforestation, and economic viability. Drawing on 98 empirical studies, we analyzed these impacts and provide an overview of the studies’ findings in terms of geographical distribution, indicators considered, and the certification schemes assessed. We found that the impact of forest certification on deforestation has been specifically understudied (n = 11) compared to forest degradation (n = 42) and economic viability (n = 45). On deforestation, studies have focused on Africa (45%) and South America (36%); on forest degradation, studies have focused on Europe (40%) and Asia (20%); on economic viability, studies have focused on Asia (33%), Europe (33%) and South America (20%). We found positive-neutral (54%; 46%) impacts on deforestation, positive-neutral-mixed (70%; 21%; 9%) impacts on forest degradation and positive-negative-mixed (50%; 33%; 17%) impacts on economic viability. We did not find clear evidence that impact is linked to a specific region or certification scheme. However, scarce evidence on the impacts of the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), the application of various methods, and site-specific indicators in the individual studies challenge such comparison and hamper the generalization of findings. This systematic review provides an overview of the state-of-the-art research on the effectiveness and economic viability of forest certification, evaluates and discusses the current evidence base, and concludes with future research lines.
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Loveridge R, Sallu SM, Pfeifer M, Oldekop JA, Mgaya M, da Silva DA, Latham J, Platts PJ, Marshall AR. Certified community forests positively impact human wellbeing and conservation effectiveness and improve the performance of nearby national protected areas. Conserv Lett 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/conl.12831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Loveridge
- Department of Environment and Geography University of York Kingsbridge UK
- The Biodiversity Consultancy Cambridge UK
| | | | - Marion Pfeifer
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, TROPS lab Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne UK
| | - Johan A Oldekop
- Global Development Institute The University of Manchester Manchester UK
| | - Mercy Mgaya
- Department of Geography University of Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Tanzania
| | | | | | - Philip J Platts
- Department of Environment and Geography University of York Kingsbridge UK
| | - Andrew R Marshall
- Department of Environment and Geography University of York Kingsbridge UK
- Forest Research Institute University of the Sunshine Coast Australia
- Flamingo Land Ltd., Kirby Misperton North Yorkshire UK
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8
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Rijal S, Techato K, Gyawali S, Stork N, Dangal MR, Sinutok S. Forest Cover Change and Ecosystem Services: A Case Study of Community Forest in Mechinagar and Buddhashanti Landscape (MBL), Nepal. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 67:963-973. [PMID: 33512574 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-021-01430-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The community-based forest management program has been successful in the conservation of forest cover in Nepal. We investigated forest cover change for the Mechinagar and Buddhashanti Landscape (MBL) area within the Jhapa district, Nepal, during 1990-2019 using Landsat images and GIS tools and valuated the major ecosystem services (ES) of Kalika Community-managed Forest (KCF) within the MBL landscape using the economic approach-market price method (revealed price). Land cover analysis of the MBL area indicated that over the study period, there were increases in urban/built-up areas, forest, and tea plantations, and declines in cultivated land, shrub, barren land, water body, and grassland areas. In particular, forest cover increased by 8.6% from 41.5 sq.km to 45.1 sq.km, due to the conversion of 3.9 sq.km cultivated land and 2.4 sq.km shrub into forest cover. KCF, the selected case study area for ES valuation, has been successful in providing noticeable economic benefits from provisioning and cultural services. Of the provisioning services, wood and timber make the largest contribution with an average revenue collection of Nepali Rupees (NRs) 3091.4 thousands followed by non-timber forest products (NRs 883.1 thousands) and firewood (NRs 524.3 thousands), respectively, while ecotourism-based income is also important (NRs 458.4 thousands) and is increasing in later years. As monitoring forest cover in a rapidly changing landscape and evaluating the ES of the community-managed forest cover are imperative for sustainable environmental planning and policy formulation, these research outputs are expected to be a significant benchmark for planners, policy makers, and future researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushila Rijal
- Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, 90110, Thailand
| | - Kuaanan Techato
- Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, 90110, Thailand
- Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand
| | - Saroj Gyawali
- Sustainable Study and Research Institute, Kathmandu-16, Balaju, Nepal
| | - Nigel Stork
- Environmental Future Research Institute, Griffith School of Environment, Nathan Campus, Griffith University, 170, Kessels Road, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Megh Raj Dangal
- School of Arts, Kathmandu University, Hattiban, Lalitpur, Nepal
| | - Sutinee Sinutok
- Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, 90110, Thailand.
- Coastal Oceanography and Climate Change Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand.
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9
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Frascaroli F, Parrinello G, Root-Bernstein M. Linking contemporary river restoration to economics, technology, politics, and society: Perspectives from a historical case study of the Po River Basin, Italy. AMBIO 2021; 50:492-504. [PMID: 32700207 PMCID: PMC7782612 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-020-01363-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
River restoration is a novel paradigm of 'mirescape' (land-and-water-scape) management that developed along with the emergence of aquatic ecology. River restoration can be seen as the application of an ecological perspective to return rivers to nature. However, the river restoration paradigm is also the contemporary iteration of historical phases of mirescape management. We review the long and varied recorded history of the Po River in northern Italy as a case study to illustrate the transformations and common themes of mirescape management. We find, first, that significant changes in mirescape management and river condition only occur in the context of larger social, political, technological and economic transformations. Second, we show how particular cultural understandings, economic interests, technological innovations and political powers have driven particular paradigms of mirescape management. These have tended towards increasing territorial separation of wet and dry. We find, third, that these separations lead not only to increasing economic precariousness for many, but also to increasingly severe disasters. We conclude that river restoration faces social and political challenges to becoming relevant at a mirescape scale, due to its lack of integration with land management, or with current social, political, technological and economic transformations. To act on this conclusion, we suggest philosophically aligned social movements that river restoration could work with to improve impact and uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Frascaroli
- Associazione Lòm Onlus, 03030, Rocca d'Arce, FR, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Meredith Root-Bernstein
- Musée de l'Homme, Paris, France.
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Santiago, Chile.
- Center for Sustainability and Applied Ecology, Santiago, Chile.
- , 28 rue Castagnary, Paris, 75015, France.
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10
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Beckmann A, Sivarajah U, Irani Z. Circular economy versus planetary limits: a Slovak forestry sector case study. JOURNAL OF ENTERPRISE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1108/jeim-03-2020-0110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PurposeCircular economy is presented as an approach to economic growth that is in line with sustainable development. However, the recent literature has highlighted the limits of the concept in terms of environmental sustainability. The study examines the relationship between circular economy and conservation of ecosystems, using a case study on the implications of a circular economy for Slovak forests and forest sector.Design/methodology/approachThis study adopts a qualitative methodology through a focused review of the relevant literature on circular economy and sustainable development and primary data gathered through semi-structured interviews with 15 experts and practitioners in the forest sector, forest conservation and circular economy context, both from within as well as outside of Slovakia.FindingsThe study finds that the forestry sector has an important role to play in a shift to a circular economy in Slovakia, with significant opportunities for improved efficiency as well as substitution of wood for non-renewable resources. There is also growing potential for ecosystem stewardship and restoration. However, the increased application of biomass could crowd out other needs, including for biodiversity. Safeguarding these services depends ultimately on good governance.Originality/valueThe study highlights that circular economy taken in a narrow focus on resource efficiency is insufficient to ensure environmental sustainability but rather needs to be set within the broader environmental and social context.
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11
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Haddaway NR, Bethel A, Dicks LV, Koricheva J, Macura B, Petrokofsky G, Pullin AS, Savilaakso S, Stewart GB. Eight problems with literature reviews and how to fix them. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 4:1582-1589. [PMID: 33046871 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-01295-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Traditional approaches to reviewing literature may be susceptible to bias and result in incorrect decisions. This is of particular concern when reviews address policy- and practice-relevant questions. Systematic reviews have been introduced as a more rigorous approach to synthesizing evidence across studies; they rely on a suite of evidence-based methods aimed at maximizing rigour and minimizing susceptibility to bias. Despite the increasing popularity of systematic reviews in the environmental field, evidence synthesis methods continue to be poorly applied in practice, resulting in the publication of syntheses that are highly susceptible to bias. Recognizing the constraints that researchers can sometimes feel when attempting to plan, conduct and publish rigorous and comprehensive evidence syntheses, we aim here to identify major pitfalls in the conduct and reporting of systematic reviews, making use of recent examples from across the field. Adopting a 'critical friend' role in supporting would-be systematic reviews and avoiding individual responses to police use of the 'systematic review' label, we go on to identify methodological solutions to mitigate these pitfalls. We then highlight existing support available to avoid these issues and call on the entire community, including systematic review specialists, to work towards better evidence syntheses for better evidence and better decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal R Haddaway
- Mercator Research Institute on Climate Change and Global Commons, Berlin, Germany. .,Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. .,Africa Centre for Evidence, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Alison Bethel
- College of Medicine and Health, Exeter University, Exeter, UK
| | - Lynn V Dicks
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Julia Koricheva
- Department of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, UK
| | | | | | - Andrew S Pullin
- Collaboration for Environmental Evidence, UK Centre, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
| | - Sini Savilaakso
- Liljus ltd, London, UK.,Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Gavin B Stewart
- Evidence Synthesis Lab, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
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12
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Gusenbauer M, Haddaway NR. What every researcher should know about searching - clarified concepts, search advice, and an agenda to improve finding in academia. Res Synth Methods 2020; 12:136-147. [PMID: 33031639 PMCID: PMC7984042 DOI: 10.1002/jrsm.1457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We researchers have taken searching for information for granted for far too long. The COVID-19 pandemic shows us the boundaries of academic searching capabilities, both in terms of our know-how and of the systems we have. With hundreds of studies published daily on COVID-19, for example, we struggle to find, stay up-to-date, and synthesize information-all hampering evidence-informed decision making. This COVID-19 information crisis is indicative of the broader problem of information overloaded academic research. To improve our finding capabilities, we urgently need to improve how we search and the systems we use. We respond to Klopfenstein and Dampier (Res Syn Meth. 2020) who commented on our 2020 paper and proposed a way of improving PubMed's and Google Scholar's search functionalities. Our response puts their commentary in a larger frame and suggests how we can improve academic searching altogether. We urge that researchers need to understand that search skills require dedicated education and training. Better and more efficient searching requires an initial understanding of the different goals that define the way searching needs to be conducted. We explain the main types of searching that we academics routinely engage in; distinguishing lookup, exploratory, and systematic searching. These three types must be conducted using different search methods (heuristics) and using search systems with specific capabilities. To improve academic searching, we introduce the "Search Triangle" model emphasizing the importance of matching goals, heuristics, and systems. Further, we suggest an urgently needed agenda toward search literacy as the norm in academic research and fit-for-purpose search systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Gusenbauer
- Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Chair for Strategy and Organization, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Neal R Haddaway
- Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change, Berlin, Germany.,Stockholm Environmental Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,Africa Centre for Evidence, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
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13
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Root-Bernstein M. Tacit working models of human behavioural change I: Implementation of conservation projects. AMBIO 2020; 49:1639-1657. [PMID: 32060790 PMCID: PMC7413942 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-019-01298-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The "human dimension" of conservation is increasingly recognised as critical for success. Most conservation research involving people is based not on explicit "theories of change", but tacit local knowledge or folk theories guiding programme design.In this study, I propose a schematization of the local socioecological knowledge and folk theories about the "human dimension" of conservation into tacit working models, comprised of individual factors and systemic factors influencing human behaviour in conservation contexts. These are called the Persuasion, Normative, Involvement and Uniformity tacit working models. I review a set of conservation interventions and programmes, in order to assess which of the implicit working models inform their design. I argue that in order to better understand how a project may arrive at different outcomes, the underlying assumptions about human behaviour and the implicit "theory of change" that went into programme design need to be made explicit. This schema does not evaluate different approaches to conservation, but it can help point out the underlying assumptions that structure interventions and that may be more or less suited to particular situations. This can allow researchers to recognise their own assumptions and test them explicitly, leading to the formulation of more reflective and explicit theories, and improving the quality of both discourse and practice in conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith Root-Bernstein
- UMR Sciences pour l'Action et le Développement, Activités, Produits, Territoires, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78850, Thiverval-Grignon, France.
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Santiago, Chile.
- Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Santiago, Chile.
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Bomfim B, Silva LCR, Pereira RS, Gatto A, Emmert F, Higuchi N. Litter and soil biogeochemical parameters as indicators of sustainable logging in Central Amazonia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 714:136780. [PMID: 32018968 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
One-fourth of Brazilian Amazonia is managed for timber production, but only a small portion of active logging sites follow sustainable forest management plans (SFMPs). Amazon forests without SFMPs are susceptible to deforestation because such plans integrate the use of forest products and conservation goals by allowing selective wood extraction following regulations aimed at reducing the long-term impact of logging. However, it remains uncertain whether reduced-impact selective logging typical of SFMPs (17-20 m3 ha-1 yr-1 of 38-70 species) changes forest regeneration, carbon (C) stocks, and nutrient cycling. Here, we tested the hypothesis that litter and soil biogeochemical parameters serve as indicators of sustainable logging as forest regeneration, C stocks, and C-to-nutrient ratios in soil and litter become progressively similar to those of primary forests as time elapses after logging. We used a chronosequence spanning nine years since logging to relate litter and soil (at 0-10, 10-30, 30-50 cm depth) C stocks and 12 and 15 biogeochemical parameters, respectively, as well as canopy cover and tree seedling density (10-150 cm tall) in upland evergreen Amazon forests. In one unlogged and four logged stands sampled three, five, seven, and nine years after logging, we compared 15 permanent plots (three replicated 0.5 ha plots per time-since-logging category). We found that five parameters explained >80% of the variation in soil and litter properties among logged and unlogged stands. Litter parameters were more sensitive to logging than soil parameters, as litter C stocks and C-to-nutrient ratios increased systematically after logging. Canopy cover decreased over time and was ~14% lower nine years after logging. Total seedling density did not change consistently over time but was ~54% higher seven years after logging. Our data suggest that the SFMP guidelines have served the purpose of maintaining soil quality and forest regeneration. Litter and soil parameters can be useful indicators of sustainable forest management in upland evergreen forests in Central Amazonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Bomfim
- Environmental Studies Program, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA; Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil.
| | - Lucas C R Silva
- Environmental Studies Program, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Reginaldo S Pereira
- Environmental Studies Program, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Alcides Gatto
- Environmental Studies Program, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Fabiano Emmert
- Instituto de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal Rural do Amazonas, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | - Niro Higuchi
- Laboratório de Manejo Florestal, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa da Amazônia, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
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15
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Protecting environmental and socio-economic values of selectively logged tropical forests in the Anthropocene. ADV ECOL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aecr.2020.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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16
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Margaret Buck Holland
- Department of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
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Santika T, Wilson KA, Budiharta S, Kusworo A, Meijaard E, Law EA, Friedman R, Hutabarat JA, Indrawan TP, St. John FAV, Struebig MJ. Heterogeneous impacts of community forestry on forest conservation and poverty alleviation: Evidence from Indonesia. PEOPLE AND NATURE 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/pan3.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Truly Santika
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Canterbury UK
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- Borneo Futures Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei
| | - Kerrie A. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- Institute for Future Environments Queensland University of Technology Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - Sugeng Budiharta
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- Purwodadi Botanic Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Pasuruan Indonesia
| | - Ahmad Kusworo
- Fauna & Flora International ‐ Indonesia Programme Jakarta Indonesia
- The Nature Conservancy – Indonesia Program Jakarta Indonesia
| | - Erik Meijaard
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- Borneo Futures Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei
| | - Elizabeth A. Law
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) Trondheim Norway
| | - Rachel Friedman
- School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Queensland Brisbane Qld Australia
| | | | - Tito P. Indrawan
- Fauna & Flora International ‐ Indonesia Programme Jakarta Indonesia
| | | | - Matthew J. Struebig
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Canterbury UK
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Kleinschroth F, Garcia C, Ghazoul J. Reconciling certification and intact forest landscape conservation. AMBIO 2019; 48:153-159. [PMID: 29845575 PMCID: PMC6346600 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-018-1063-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In 2014, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) added a new criterion to its principles that requires protection of intact forest landscapes (IFLs). An IFL is an extensive area of forest that lacks roads and other signs of human activity as detected through remote sensing. In the Congo basin, our analysis of road networks in formally approved concessionary logging areas revealed greater loss of IFL in certified than in noncertified concessions. In areas of informal (i.e., nonregulated) extraction, road networks are known to be less detectable by remote sensing. Under the current definition of IFL, companies certified under FSC standards are likely to be penalized relative to the noncertified as well as the informal logging sector on account of their planned road networks, despite an otherwise better standard of forest management. This could ultimately undermine certification and its wider adoption, with implications for the future of sustainable forest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Kleinschroth
- Ecosystem Management, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitätstrasse 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Claude Garcia
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH Zurich, Universitätstrasse 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
- CIRAD, UPR Forêts et Sociétés, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jaboury Ghazoul
- Ecosystem Management, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitätstrasse 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
- Prince Bernhard Chair of International Nature Conservation, Ecology and Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Estrada A, Garber PA, Mittermeier RA, Wich S, Gouveia S, Dobrovolski R, Nekaris K, Nijman V, Rylands AB, Maisels F, Williamson EA, Bicca-Marques J, Fuentes A, Jerusalinsky L, Johnson S, Rodrigues de Melo F, Oliveira L, Schwitzer C, Roos C, Cheyne SM, Martins Kierulff MC, Raharivololona B, Talebi M, Ratsimbazafy J, Supriatna J, Boonratana R, Wedana M, Setiawan A. Primates in peril: the significance of Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for global primate conservation. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4869. [PMID: 29922508 PMCID: PMC6005167 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Primates occur in 90 countries, but four-Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)-harbor 65% of the world's primate species (439) and 60% of these primates are Threatened, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017-3). Considering their importance for global primate conservation, we examine the anthropogenic pressures each country is facing that place their primate populations at risk. Habitat loss and fragmentation are main threats to primates in Brazil, Madagascar, and Indonesia. However, in DRC hunting for the commercial bushmeat trade is the primary threat. Encroachment on primate habitats driven by local and global market demands for food and non-food commodities hunting, illegal trade, the proliferation of invasive species, and human and domestic-animal borne infectious diseases cause habitat loss, population declines, and extirpation. Modeling agricultural expansion in the 21st century for the four countries under a worst-case-scenario, showed a primate range contraction of 78% for Brazil, 72% for Indonesia, 62% for Madagascar, and 32% for DRC. These pressures unfold in the context of expanding human populations with low levels of development. Weak governance across these four countries may limit effective primate conservation planning. We examine landscape and local approaches to effective primate conservation policies and assess the distribution of protected areas and primates in each country. Primates in Brazil and Madagascar have 38% of their range inside protected areas, 17% in Indonesia and 14% in DRC, suggesting that the great majority of primate populations remain vulnerable. We list the key challenges faced by the four countries to avert primate extinctions now and in the future. In the short term, effective law enforcement to stop illegal hunting and illegal forest destruction is absolutely key. Long-term success can only be achieved by focusing local and global public awareness, and actively engaging with international organizations, multinational businesses and consumer nations to reduce unsustainable demands on the environment. Finally, the four primate range countries need to ensure that integrated, sustainable land-use planning for economic development includes the maintenance of biodiversity and intact, functional natural ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Estrada
- Institute of Biology, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Paul A. Garber
- Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Serge Wich
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology and Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, Liverpool John Moores University and University of Amsterdam, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sidney Gouveia
- Department of Ecology, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | | | - K.A.I. Nekaris
- Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Fiona Maisels
- Global Conservation Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, NY, USA
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK
| | | | | | - Agustin Fuentes
- Department of Anthropology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Leandro Jerusalinsky
- Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Steig Johnson
- Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Fabiano Rodrigues de Melo
- Universidade Federal de Goiás and Dept. Eng. Florestal, Campus UFV, UFV, Viçosa, Brazil, Jataí Viçosa, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Oliveira
- Departamento de Ciências, Faculdade de Formação de Professores, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (DCIEN/FFP/UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Christian Roos
- Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Susan M. Cheyne
- Borneo Nature Foundation, Palangka Raya, Indonesia
- Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Maria Cecilia Martins Kierulff
- Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Instituto Pri-Matas and Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Brigitte Raharivololona
- Mention Anthropobiologie et Développement Durable, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Mauricio Talebi
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jonah Ratsimbazafy
- Groupe d’étude et de recherche sur les primates (Gerp), Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Jatna Supriatna
- Graduate Program in Conservation Biology, Department of Biology FMIPA, University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
| | - Ramesh Boonratana
- Mahidol University International College, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Made Wedana
- The Aspinall Foundation–Indonesia Program, Bandung West Java, Indonesia
| | - Arif Setiawan
- SwaraOwa, Coffee and Primate Conservation Project, Java, Central Java, Indonesia
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Spatial and temporal behavioural responses of wild cattle to tropical forest degradation. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195444. [PMID: 29649279 PMCID: PMC5896964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying the consequences of tropical forest degradation is essential to mitigate its effects upon forest fauna. Large forest-dwelling mammals are often highly sensitive to environmental perturbation through processes such as fragmentation, simplification of habitat structure, and abiotic changes including increased temperatures where the canopy is cleared. Whilst previous work has focused upon species richness and rarity in logged forest, few look at spatial and temporal behavioural responses to forest degradation. Using camera traps, we explored the relationships between diel activity, behavioural expression, habitat use and ambient temperature to understand how the wild free-ranging Bornean banteng (Bos javanicus lowi) respond to logging and regeneration. Three secondary forests in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo were studied, varying in the time since last logging (6–23 years). A combination of generalised linear mixed models and generalised linear models were constructed using >36,000 trap-nights. Temperature had no significant effect on activity, however it varied markedly between forests, with the period of intense heat shortening as forest regeneration increased over the years. Bantengs regulated activity, with a reduction during the wet season in the most degraded forest (z = -2.6, Std. Error = 0.13, p = 0.01), and reductions during midday hours in forest with limited regeneration, however after >20 years of regrowth, activity was more consistent throughout the day. Foraging and use of open canopy areas dominated the activity budget when regeneration was limited. As regeneration advanced, this was replaced by greater investment in travelling and using a closed canopy. Forest degradation modifies the ambient temperature, and positively influences flooding and habitat availability during the wet season. Retention of a mosaic of mature forest patches within commercial forests could minimise these effects and also provide refuge, which is key to heat dissipation and the prevention of thermal stress, whilst retention of degraded forest could provide forage.
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Burivalova Z, Towsey M, Boucher T, Truskinger A, Apelis C, Roe P, Game ET. Using soundscapes to detect variable degrees of human influence on tropical forests in Papua New Guinea. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2018; 32:205-215. [PMID: 28612939 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
There is global concern about tropical forest degradation, in part, because of the associated loss of biodiversity. Communities and indigenous people play a fundamental role in tropical forest management and are often efficient at preventing forest degradation. However, monitoring changes in biodiversity due to degradation, especially at a scale appropriate to local tropical forest management, is plagued by difficulties, including the need for expert training, inconsistencies across observers, and lack of baseline or reference data. We used a new biodiversity remote-sensing technology, the recording of soundscapes, to test whether the acoustic saturation of a tropical forest in Papua New Guinea decreases as land-use intensity by the communities that manage the forest increases. We sampled soundscapes continuously for 24 hours at 34 sites in different land-use zones of 3 communities. Land-use zones where forest cover was fully retained had significantly higher soundscape saturation during peak acoustic activity times (i.e., dawn and dusk chorus) compared with land-use types with fragmented forest cover. We conclude that, in Papua New Guinea, the relatively simple measure of soundscape saturation may provide a cheap, objective, reproducible, and effective tool for monitoring tropical forest deviation from an intact state, particularly if it is used to detect the presence of intact dawn and dusk choruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Burivalova
- Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, 406 Robertson Hall, Princeton, NJ 08540, U.S.A
| | - Michael Towsey
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Science School, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Tim Boucher
- The Nature Conservancy, 4245 Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA 22203, U.S.A
| | - Anthony Truskinger
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Science School, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Cosmas Apelis
- The Nature Conservancy, Boroko, National Capital District, Papua New Guinea
| | - Paul Roe
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Science School, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Edward T Game
- The Nature Conservancy, South Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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