1
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Laporte H, Eggermont S. Watching Televised Counter-Stereotypes Alone or with Mom: Studying the Effects on Preadolescents' Gender Attitudes and Beliefs. JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2024:1-21. [PMID: 39158489 DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2024.2392702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Despite the dominant presence of traditional gender portrayals on television, there is a growing effort to incorporate more diverse gender representations, including in youth television series. The impact of such counter-stereotypical portrayals on preadolescents' gender attitudes and beliefs remains largely unexplored. This mixed-design experimental study among 75 mother-child dyads (Mage child = 10.69, SD = 1.37) examined the effects of watching an episode of an entertainment television program that positively portrays a transgender character, either alone or with the mother. The findings indicated that watching the episode lowered preadolescents' gender essentialism, but did not increase acceptability of and willingness to befriend gender-nonconforming peers. Maternal presence did not further impact the findings. Perceived similarity to and liking of the transgender character did not act as moderators, but had a direct impact on preadolescents' gender attitudes and beliefs. In conclusion, the results suggest that exposure to counter-stereotypes in entertainment television can influence components of preadolescents' gender attitudes and beliefs. Gender-diverse television characters who are perceived as highly similar and likeable appear to be particularly influential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene Laporte
- Media Psychology Lab, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Steven Eggermont
- Media Psychology Lab, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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2
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Godwin EG, Moore LM, Sansfaçon AP, Nishman MM, Rosal MC, Katz-Wise SL. Experiences of cisgender youth with a transgender and/or nonbinary sibling. FAMILY PROCESS 2024; 63:1025-1045. [PMID: 38171537 DOI: 10.1111/famp.12957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
While recent research has begun to address the effects of family support on transgender and/or nonbinary youth (TNY), almost no studies have directly examined how cisgender siblings in families with TNY navigate their sibling's gender disclosure and affirmation within both their families and their larger communities. We conducted an exploratory secondary analysis of in-person, semi-structured interviews with 15 adolescent and young adult siblings (age 13-24 years) of TNY from the northeastern United States from the baseline wave of the community-based, longitudinal, mixed methods Trans Teen and Family Narratives Project. Interview transcripts were analyzed using immersion/crystallization and template organizing approaches. Analyses yielded three main themes: gender-related beliefs and knowledge, peri- and post-disclosure family dynamics, and assessing responses to their sibling. Subthemes included anticipation of their sibling's TN identity, expectations post-disclosure, participants' level of involvement in gender-related family processes, perceptions of changes in family relationships, concern for their sibling (including a high degree of attunement to gender-affirming name and pronoun usage), and concern for themselves. Findings from this study suggest the need to engage directly with siblings of TNY to further elucidate their intrapersonal, intra-familial, and extra-familial experiences related to having a TN sibling and determine their unique support needs. Implications for families, clinicians, and communities are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli G Godwin
- Division of Adolescent/Young Adult Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lb M Moore
- Division of Adolescent/Young Adult Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Annie Pullen Sansfaçon
- School of Social Work and the Centre for Public Health Research, University of Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Milagros C Rosal
- Division of Preventive and Behavioral Medicine, Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sabra L Katz-Wise
- Division of Adolescent/Young Adult Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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3
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Alonso DJ, Jordan AE, Gülgöz S. Children's attitudes about transgender identity disclosure and concealment. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38761022 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Supportive peers are crucial for transgender children's well-being. Transgender children who live in their affirmed gender face decisions surrounding concealment and disclosure of their transgender identity. We sought to understand how cisgender (N = 115) and gender-diverse children (N = 127), and siblings of gender-diverse children (N = 63) think about transition disclosure and concealment. All groups viewed transition disclosure and concealment positively. However, gender-diverse children showed greater acceptance of transition concealment and had stronger liking of transition concealers (relative to non-transition concealers). Additionally, children generally expected transgender peers to be selective about who they disclose to, valuing trustworthiness and diverse friend groups in such decisions. Our findings suggest that regardless of gender identity, children are sensitive to the potential costs of disclosure and may support trans children however they choose to navigate these decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Selin Gülgöz
- Fordham University, New York City, New York, USA
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4
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Gülgöz S, Alonso DJ, Olson KR, Martin CL. Memory biases for gender-typed images in a gender-diverse group of children. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024:10.1111/bjdp.12490. [PMID: 38676425 PMCID: PMC11512685 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Self-socialization accounts of gender development suggest that children attend more to people of their own gender, activities associated with their own gender and stereotype-consistent examples in their environment. Evidence comes from research showing children's memory biases for such stimuli. This study sought to replicate these memory biases in 367 6- to 11-year-old transgender, cisgender and nonbinary children. Children were shown stereotype-consistent and counter-stereotypical images related to feminine- and masculine-typed activities performed by girls/women or boys/men. Results showed that transgender and cisgender children showed better recall for activities related to their own gender than the other gender. Neither group showed better recall for own-gender characters, and transgender children better recalled other-gender characters. None of the three groups better recalled stereotype-consistent than counter-stereotypical images in probed recall, although all groups showed better recall for counter-stereotypical than stereotype-consistent images in free recall. These findings provide partial support for self-socialization accounts of gender development.
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5
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Maus J, Aleksić G. Kindergarten Children’s Attitudes Towards Homosexuality: The Influence of Puppet Theatre on the Topic of Diversity in a Group of Kindergarten Children. HUMAN ARENAS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s42087-022-00320-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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6
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deMayo BE, Jordan AE, Olson KR. Gender Development in Gender Diverse Children. ANNUAL REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 4:207-229. [PMID: 37638126 PMCID: PMC10457095 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121020-034014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Within "mainstream" developmental science, gender researchers largely study the developmental trajectory of children considered to be "gender-typical", while research housed primarily in psychiatry and clinical psychology often documents the trajectories of gender diverse children. This article aims to bridge the studies of gender diversity and "mainstream" gender development. First, we review literature on the development of four commonly studied subgroups of gender diverse children - children referred to medical clinics because of their gender identity and expression, transgender children, female children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and tomboys - highlighting how these gender trajectories do or do not align with modal developmental patterns. We then describe social, cognitive, and biological determinants of gender in light of their implications for understanding diverse gender development. Finally, we note methodological suggestions for future research, with an eye toward better integrating research on gender diversity into "mainstream" gender development research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin E deMayo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Ashley E Jordan
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Kristina R Olson
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
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7
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SHCHERBAN TETIANA, BRETSKO ІRYNA, VARGA VIKTORIYA. Formation of Stereotypes of Human Behaviour under the Influence of Childhood Fears. SCIENTIFIC BULLETIN OF MUKACHEVO STATE UNIVERSITY SERIES “PEDAGOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY” 2022. [DOI: 10.52534/msu-pp.8(4).2022.9-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The relevance of the study is due to the presence of a relationship that occurs between the emotional and intellectual development of the individual. Negative changes in the process of emotional development of a person lead to the fact that they are unable to use other structures, in particular, intelligence, and therefore develop harmoniously. As a basic emotion, fear is an integral part of the emotional field, as is the emotion of joy, sadness, and anger. Fear performs a protective function, but it also destroys the individual if it is irrational. The emotion of fear, arising in childhood, can be fixed and transformed into more acute manifestations, that is, into phobic disorders. Personality is formed under the influence of society, so a very important role in its development is played by models of upbringing in the family and those attitudes and prescriptions that a person learns from childhood. In adulthood, these patterns are manifested in the form of stereotypical behaviour, which substantially affects a person’s quality of life. Therefore, it is important to clarify how childhood fears can affect the individual in adulthood. The purpose of this study is to establish a link between childhood fears and stereotypical behaviour. A number of methods and techniques were used to achieve this goal, including theoretical (analysis, synthesis, generalisation) and practical (D. McLain’s general tolerance for uncertainty scale; tolerance-intolerance of ambiguity questionnaire by T.V. Kornilova; questionnaire of childhood fears). The results of the study show that in the case when a person cannot safely live through fears as a child, they have an impact on the psychological well-being of the individual, which encourages the formation of psychological problems. It is proved that as a result of gender stereotypes in education, male and female fears formed in childhood differ markedly. Therewith, it is noted that certain stereotypes have a positive meaning in a person’s life if they do not suppress their psychological development. The research materials will be useful for practical psychologists in the education and social fields, and teachers
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8
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Riggs AE, Kinard D, Long M. Children’s Evaluations of Gender Non-Conforming Peers. SEX ROLES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01322-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Riskind RG, Tornello SL. “I Think It’s Too Early to Know”: Gender Identity Labels and Gender Expression of Young Children With Nonbinary or Binary Transgender Parents. Front Psychol 2022; 13:916088. [PMID: 36059766 PMCID: PMC9430650 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.916088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about gender expression among children with transgender parents. In the United States, we surveyed 64 nonbinary or binary transgender parents of children aged 18 to 71 months. Most parents reported a marginalized sexual identity and a White racial identity. Many declined to label their child’s gender identity, and this was particularly true among those with younger children. Scores indicated that, on average, children’s play was conventionally gendered. However, scores indicated significantly more gender-expansive play in the present sample than in normed samples, particularly among children assigned male at birth. Findings support transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016) and illustrate differences among families with nonbinary and binary transgender parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel G. Riskind
- Department of Psychology, Guilford College, Greensboro, NC, United States
- *Correspondence: Rachel G. Riskind,
| | - Samantha L. Tornello
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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10
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deMayo B, Kahn-Samuelson S, Olson KR. Endorsement of gender stereotypes in gender diverse and cisgender adolescents and their parents. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0269784. [PMID: 35700172 PMCID: PMC9197027 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous work has documented adolescents' gender stereotype endorsement, or the extent to which one believes men or women should embody distinct traits. However, understanding of gender stereotype endorsement in gender diverse adolescents-those who identify as transgender, nonbinary, and/or gender nonconforming-is limited. Gender diverse adolescents' experiences with gender raise the question of whether they endorse gender stereotypes with the same frequency as cisgender adolescents. In this study, we investigated three primary research questions: (1) if gender diverse (N = 144) and cisgender (N = 174) adolescents (13-17 years) and their parents (N = 143 parents of gender diverse adolescents, N = 160 parents of cisgender adolescents) endorse gender stereotypes; (2) whether these groups differed from one another in their endorsement of gender stereotypes; and (3) whether parents' gender stereotyping was related to either their adolescents' stereotyping and/or their adolescents' predictions of their parents' stereotyping. We found (1) that participants showed low amounts of stereotyping; (2) there were no significant differences between gender stereotype endorsement in gender diverse and cisgender adolescents (or between their parents), though parents endorsed stereotypes slightly less than adolescents; and (3) there was a small positive association between adolescents' stereotyping and their parents' gender stereotyping. We discuss the limitations of our methods, and the possibility that rates of explicit stereotype endorsement may be changing over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin deMayo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Peretsman Scully Hall, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Shira Kahn-Samuelson
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Peretsman Scully Hall, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Kristina R. Olson
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Peretsman Scully Hall, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
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11
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Jackson EF, Sheanoda V, Bussey K. ‘I Can Construct it in My Own Way’: A Critical Qualitative Examination of Gender Self-Categorisation Processes. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/03616843221102787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Gender self-categorisation is used to communicate a gender group membership in daily life and is recognised across research as an important facet of an individual’s identity. However, understandings of the psychological processes associated with gender self-categorisation have, historically, been restricted by binary, cisgender assumptions. This study qualitatively examined the processes associated with gender self-categorisation in a sample of transgender (binary and nonbinary, n = 15) individuals alongside a negative case analysis of one cisgender woman. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to construct a map of components which interacted to inform participants’ gender self-categorisation. Participants reported that their self-categorisation was reciprocally informed by their internal sense of gendered self, their gendered attributes and by other people’s perceptions. Further, participants’ knowledge and understanding of gender in the world more broadly provided context for this reciprocal process. The process of gender self-categorisation mapped in this study has important implications for researchers regarding theory and methods, for educators and parents regarding how children might be taught about gender and for clinicians regarding how to talk with clients about gender outside of a diagnostic framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma F. Jackson
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Veronica Sheanoda
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Kay Bussey
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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12
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Faragó F, Savoy S, Sanchez EA, Khaleghi N, Evans L, Adams EL, Palomino E. Gender Typicality, Pressure to Conform to Gender Norms, and Anti-Fat and Appearance Stereotypes in Girls. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:2183-2198. [PMID: 35471679 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-02252-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This mixed-methods study investigated the relation among gender identity (i.e., self-perceived gender similarity to girls and boys; self-perceived parental and peer pressure to conform to gender norms) and stereotyping about weight (i.e., anti-fat stereotypes), weight change, and appearance in 83 girls ages 6-9 (Mage = 7.60 years, SD = .85; 65% White, 16% Mixed/Other, 11% Black, 8% Latina) in the U.S. Stereotypes about weight change were assessed with open-ended responses (i.e., qualitatively), and the rest of the constructs were assessed with closed-ended responses (i.e., quantitatively). There was a positive association between pressure from parents to conform to gender norms and appearance stereotypes, and between pressure from peers and negative stereotypes about the fat and thin figures. Girls who were more gender typical, or more similar to girls, were more likely to endorse appearance stereotypes. There was no significant relation among stereotypes about weight change and gender identity. Many girls deemed the fat figure as unattractive, physically restrained, unhealthy, and likely to be bullied and believed that the fat figure should change back to look like a thinner figure. Most girls were aware that exercising, eating healthy, and dietary restriction can lead to weight loss and that food consumption and lack of exercise can lead to weight gain. Findings suggest that certain aspects of weight (anti-fat) and appearance stereotypes are closely linked to gender identity in girls, whereas other aspects of weight stereotypes (e.g., stereotypes about weight change) are so pervasive that they are common in most girls, regardless of their gender identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flóra Faragó
- School of Human Sciences, Human Development and Family Studies, Stephen F. Austin State University, SFA Station, P. O. Box 13014, Nacogdoches, TX, 75962, USA.
| | - Sarah Savoy
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Emily A Sanchez
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Neusha Khaleghi
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Lauren Evans
- Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Emily L Adams
- Human Services and Educational Leadership, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Edgar Palomino
- Human Services and Educational Leadership, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
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13
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Schiralli JE, Peragine DE, Chasteen AL, Einstein G. Explicit and Implicit Gender-Related Stereotyping in Transgender, Gender Expansive, and Cisgender Adults. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:2065-2076. [PMID: 35467169 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-022-02339-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about gender-related stereotyping among transgender and gender expansive adults. Using the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (AIS; Glick & Fiske, 1996), we examined explicit gender attitudes in 3298 cisgender, transgender, and gender expansive respondents designated female at birth (FAB; n = 1976 cisgender, n = 108 transgender, n = 188 gender expansive) and male at birth (MAB; n = 922 cisgender, n = 52 transgender, n = 52 gender expansive). In order to learn more about implicit gender-related stereotyping, a subset of 822 participants (FAB; n = 445 cisgender, n = 32 transgender, n = 51 gender expansive. MAB; n = 254 cisgender, n = 21 transgender, n = 19 gender expansive) completed the gender-leadership Implicit Association Test (IAT; Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004). Cisgender men scored significantly higher than all other groups on hostile sexism, but patterns of endorsement for benevolent sexism and implicit attitudes were more nuanced, with cisgender women and gender expansive FAB often scoring significantly below other groups. We observed that transgender men and transgender women, along with cisgender men and gender expansive MAB, moderately endorsed essentialist views regarding differences between men and women (i.e., complementary gender differentiation). These data reveal novel patterns of gender-related stereotyping, with some corresponding to sex designated at birth and others corresponding to current gender identification. Together, these findings suggest that one's experienced gender, designated sex at birth, and the intersection between them may relate to gender stereotyping, underscoring the importance of including transgender and gender expansive individuals in this research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordana E Schiralli
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada.
| | - Diana E Peragine
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Alison L Chasteen
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Gillian Einstein
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Tema Genus, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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14
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Gülgöz S, Alonso DJ, Olson KR, Gelman SA. Transgender and cisgender children's essentialist beliefs about sex and gender identity. Dev Sci 2021; 24:e13115. [PMID: 33932066 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Children essentialize gender from a young age, viewing it as inborn, biologically based, unchanging, and predictive of preferences and behaviors. Children's gender essentialism appears to be so pervasive that it is found within conservative and liberal communities, and among transgender and cisgender children. However, it remains unclear what aspect of gender the children participating in past studies essentialized. Such studies used labels such as "girl" or "boy" without clarifying how children (or researchers) interpreted them. Are they indicators of the target's biological categorization at birth (sex), the target's sense of their own gender (gender identity), or some third possible interpretation? This distinction becomes particularly relevant when transgender children are concerned, as their sex assigned at birth and gender identity are not aligned. In the present two studies, we discovered that 6- to 11-year-old transgender children, their cisgender siblings, and unrelated cisgender children, all essentialized both sex and gender identity. Moreover, transgender and cisgender children did not differ in their essentialism of sex (i.e., whether body parts would remain stable over time). Importantly, however, transgender children were less likely than unrelated cisgender children to essentialize when hearing an ambiguous gender/sex label ("girl" or "boy"). Finally, the two studies showed mixed findings on whether the participant groups differed in reasoning about the stability of a gender-nonconforming target's gender identity. These findings illustrate that a child's identity can relate to their conceptual development, as well as the importance of diversifying samples to enhance our understanding of social cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selin Gülgöz
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Daniel J Alonso
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Kristina R Olson
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.,Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Susan A Gelman
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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15
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Qian M, Wang Y, Wong WI, Fu G, Zuo B, VanderLaan DP. The Effects of Race, Gender, and Gender-Typed Behavior on Children's Friendship Appraisals. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:807-820. [PMID: 33169294 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01825-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
From a young age, children's peer appraisals are influenced by the social categories to which peers belong based on factors such as race and gender. To date, research regarding the manner in which race- and gender-related factors might interact to influence these appraisals has been limited. The present study employed an experimental vignette paradigm to investigate the relative influences of target peers' race, gender, and gender-typed behavior toward 4- to 6-year-old Chinese children's (N = 119, 62 girls, 57 boys) peer appraisals. Appraisals were assessed via (1) a rating scale measuring children's interest in being friends with a range of hypothetical target peers varying in race, gender, and gender-typed behavior, and (2) a forced-choice rank-order task in which children indicated their preferences for four hypothetical target peers who varied from themselves on either race, gender, or gender-typed behavior, or were similar to themselves on all three traits. There was little evidence to suggest children's rank-ordered peer preferences in relation to race were influenced by whether the other-race presented was White (preferred relatively more) or Black (preferred relatively less). In contrast, gender-related factors (i.e., rater gender, target gender, target gender-typed behavior) had more robust influences on peer preferences for both outcome measures. Gender-conforming peers were preferred over gender-nonconforming peers, and target boys displaying feminine behavior were less preferred than target girls displaying masculine behavior. The results help characterize cross-cultural (in)consistencies in children's social preferences in relation to peers' race and gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Qian
- Applied Psychology and Human Development, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wang Ivy Wong
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Genyue Fu
- School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Room 4098, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada.
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16
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Lemelin E, Sirois M, Bernier A, Martin CL. Associations between quality of parent–child relationships and children's gender typicality: A 4‐year longitudinal study. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Lemelin
- Department of Psychology University of Montreal Montreal Quebec Canada
| | | | - Annie Bernier
- Department of Psychology University of Montreal Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Carol L. Martin
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics Arizona State University Tempe Arizona USA
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17
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Horton C. Thriving or Surviving? Raising Our Ambition for Trans Children in Primary and Secondary Schools. FRONTIERS IN SOCIOLOGY 2020; 5:67. [PMID: 33869473 PMCID: PMC8022833 DOI: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
As more trans children find the confidence to make themselves known in our primary and secondary schools, school teachers and administrators look for guidance on how to best support trans pupils. This article synthesises findings from global literature on trans children in primary and secondary education (K1-12 in the US), extracting key themes and conclusions. It then examines the most recent UK school guidance documents on trans inclusion, assessing which lessons and recommendations from global literature are represented. The article highlights existing good practices in visibility and representation and in protection from violence and harassment. Several areas where additional effort is needed are identified, including action on environmental stress and cisnormativity, addressing barriers to school trans-inclusivity and institutional accountability. A number of important shifts are called for: from adaptation on request to pre-emptive change; from accommodation to a rights-based approach; from pathologisation to trans-positivity. Finally, the article raises expectations on what it means to be an ally for trans children in education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cal Horton
- Education Department, Goldsmiths University, London, United Kingdom
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18
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Glazier JJ, Gülgöz S, Olson KR. Gender Encoding in Gender Diverse and Gender Conforming Children. Child Dev 2020; 91:1877-1885. [PMID: 32686844 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous research suggests that people encode gender starting in childhood. The present research asked whether gender diverse children (i.e., children whose gender identity or expression differs from that expected based on assigned sex) encode gender. Results showed that 3- to 5-year-old gender diverse participants (N = 71), siblings of gender diverse children (N = 52), and gender conforming controls (N = 69) did not significantly differ in degree of gender encoding. These results converge with prior research to suggest that gender diverse children process gender in ways that do not differ from gender conforming children, and provide further evidence that gender encoding may be a common aspect of person perception in societies that support a binary view of gender.
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19
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Muntoni F, Wagner J, Retelsdorf J. Beware of Stereotypes: Are Classmates' Stereotypes Associated With Students' Reading Outcomes? Child Dev 2020; 92:189-204. [PMID: 32100295 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the associations between classmates' reading-related gender stereotypes and students' reading self-efficacy, self-concept, motivation, and achievement. Our sample consisted of 1,508 fifth-grade students (49% girls; age: 10.89 years); data were collected at two time points. Multilevel analyses yielded two main results: First, there was a relation between students' individual reading-related gender stereotypes and their reading self-concept, self-efficacy, and motivation with boys experiencing negative and girls experiencing positive effects. Second, a contextual effect was found: after controlling for students' individual reading-related gender stereotypes, classmates' gender stereotypes were negatively related to all of the boys' reading outcomes. The results provide evidence for the assumption that classmates are important communicators of gender stereotypes and that they reinforce conforming behaviors.
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20
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Similarity in transgender and cisgender children's gender development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:24480-24485. [PMID: 31740598 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1909367116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gender is one of the central categories organizing children's social world. Clear patterns of gender development have been well-documented among cisgender children (i.e., children who identify as a gender that is typically associated with their sex assigned at birth). We present a comprehensive study of gender development (e.g., gender identity and gender expression) in a cohort of 3- to 12-y-old transgender children (n = 317) who, in early childhood, are identifying and living as a gender different from their assigned sex. Four primary findings emerged. First, transgender children strongly identify as members of their current gender group and show gender-typed preferences and behaviors that are strongly associated with their current gender, not the gender typically associated with their sex assigned at birth. Second, transgender children's gender identity (i.e., the gender they feel they are) and gender-typed preferences generally did not differ from 2 comparison groups: cisgender siblings (n = 189) and cisgender controls (n = 316). Third, transgender and cisgender children's patterns of gender development showed coherence across measures. Finally, we observed minimal or no differences in gender identity or preferences as a function of how long transgender children had lived as their current gender. Our findings suggest that early sex assignment and parental rearing based on that sex assignment do not always define how a child identifies or expresses gender later.
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21
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Gender essentialism in transgender and cisgender children. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224321. [PMID: 31721765 PMCID: PMC6853285 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Children, across cultures, show an early-emerging tendency to essentialize gender, viewing gender as inborn and predictive of stereotypical preferences. However, research has been limited to children whose own gender experience is largely consistent with the assumptions of gender essentialism. In contrast, transgender children have gender identities (and related stereotypical preferences) that differ from their sex assigned at birth, which therefore appear to challenge an essentialist view of gender. In the current study, we examined the degree to which transgender children (N = 97, 3-11 years) view a child's sex at birth as predictive of their later gender-typed preferences. Additionally, we recruited two comparison groups: cisgender siblings of transgender participants (N = 59) and cisgender, age- and gender-matched controls (N = 90). In an adapted switched-at-birth paradigm, participants in all groups believed that a child's sex at birth would predict their later gender-typed preferences; participants were especially likely to think so when the target character was reared in a socialization environment that aligned with the target's own gender, rather than one where the socialization environment aligned with a different gender. Whereas cisgender participants showed a decline in essentialism with age, transgender children did not show any age-related changes in their beliefs. The current findings are the first to show that transgender and cisgender children, despite differences in gender experiences, might similarly essentialize gender. However, these findings also raise questions about how different participant groups might interpret measures differently.
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Rubin JD, Gülgöz S, Alonso D, Olson KR. Transgender and Cisgender Children's Stereotypes and Beliefs About Others' Stereotypes. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2019; 11:638-646. [PMID: 33854699 DOI: 10.1177/1948550619879911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Early in childhood, children already have an awareness of prescriptive stereotypes- or beliefs about what a girl or boy should do (e.g., "girls should play with dolls"). In the present work, we investigate the relation between children's own prescriptive gender stereotypes and their perceptions of others' prescriptive gender stereotypes within three groups of children previously shown to differ in their prescriptive stereotyping-6-to-11-year-old transgender children (N = 93), cisgender siblings of transgender children (N = 55), and cisgender controls (N = 93). Cisgender and transgender children did not differ in their prescriptive stereotypes or their perceptions of others' prescriptive stereotypes, though the relationship between these variables differed by group. The more cisgender control children believed others held prescriptive stereotypes, the more they held those stereotypes, a relation that did not exist for transgender children. Further, all groups perceived the stereotypes of others to be more biased than their own stereotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Rubin
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Selin Gülgöz
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Daniel Alonso
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kristina R Olson
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Zucker KJ. The myth of persistence: Response to “A critical commentary on follow-up studies and ‘desistance’ theories about transgender and gender non-conforming children” by Temple Newhook et al. (2018). Int J Transgend 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/15532739.2018.1468293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J. Zucker
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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24
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Olson KR, Gülgöz S. Early Findings From the TransYouth Project: Gender Development in Transgender Children. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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