Modeling development of frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry: Sex differences and links with temperament

Maturational changes in frontal EEG alpha and theta activity from infancy into early childhood and the relation with self-regulation in boys and girls

There is increasing interest in examining the development of frontal EEG power in relation to self-regulation in early childhood. However, the majority of previous studies solely focuses on the brain's alpha rhythm and little is known about the differences between young boys and girls. The aim of the current study was therefore to gain more insight into the neural mechanisms involved in the emergence of self-regulation. The sample consisted of 442 children and data were collected at approximately 5 months, 10 months, and around 3 years of age. Latent growth curve models indicated that,while the neurobiological foundations of self-regulation are established during infancy,it is the maturation of the frontal alpha rhythm that contributes to variations in both observed and parent-reported self-regulation. In addition, it appears that boys might have a greater reliance on external regulation than girls during early childhood, as evident by higher scores of girls on both measures of self-regulation. More insight into the role of external regulators in brain maturation can help to implement interventions aimed at establishing bottom-up self-regulatory skills early in life, in order to provide the necessary foundations for the emergence of top-down self-regulatory skills in the preschool period.

Frontal alpha asymmetry dynamics: A window into active self-regulatory processes

Frontal Alpha Asymmetry (FAA) has been studied since the late 1970s as a neural correlate of emotion regulation and motivational processes. FAA is often viewed through a dispositional lens reflecting individual differences in positive or negative emotionality and biases toward approach or avoidance motivational processes. However, FAA also shifts in response to context-specific conditions that elicit approach or avoidance responses, indicating FAA reflects active, ongoing self-regulatory processes. Moreover, FAA changes over time, and how it changes over time is affected by context, experience, and development. We propose FAA evolves over four different time scales including the (1) second-to-second, (2) laboratory task, (3) intervention or intensive learning experience, and (4) developmental time scales. We present evidence showing FAA evolves over each of these time scales and highlight influences of individual differences and the developmental context on how FAA changes over time. We emphasize the insights gained by studying change in FAA over each time scale. We concluded with recommendations about future directions and speculate about the nested, bidirectional nature of the four timescales.

Maternal heart rate variability at 3-months postpartum is associated with maternal mental health and infant neurophysiology

Previous research has demonstrated a critical link between maternal mental health and infant development. However, there is limited understanding of the role of autonomic regulation in postpartum maternal mental health and infant outcomes. In the current study, we tested 76 mother-infant dyads from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds when infants were 3-months of age. We recorded simultaneous ECG from dyads while baseline EEG was collected from the infant; ECG heart rate variability (HRV) and EEG theta-beta ratio and alpha asymmetry were calculated. Dyadic physiological synchrony was also analyzed to better understand the role of autonomic co-regulation. Results demonstrated that lower maternal HRV was associated with higher self-reported maternal depression and anxiety. Additionally, mothers with lower HRV had infants with lower HRV. Maternal HRV was also associated with higher infant theta-beta ratios, but not alpha asymmetry. Exploratory analyses suggested that for mother-infant dyads with greater physiological synchrony, higher maternal HRV predicted increased infant theta-beta ratio via infant HRV. These findings support a model in which maternal mental health may influence infant neurophysiology via alterations in autonomic stress regulation and dyadic physiological co-regulation.

Individual Variability in Brain Connectivity Patterns and Driving-Fatigue Dynamics

Mental fatigue during driving poses significant risks to road safety, necessitating accurate assessment methods to mitigate potential hazards. This study explores the impact of individual variability in brain networks on driving fatigue assessment, hypothesizing that subject-specific connectivity patterns play a pivotal role in understanding fatigue dynamics. By conducting a linear regression analysis of subject-specific brain networks in different frequency bands, this research aims to elucidate the relationships between frequency-specific connectivity patterns and driving fatigue. As such, an EEG sustained driving simulation experiment was carried out, estimating individuals' brain networks using the Phase Lag Index (PLI) to capture shared connectivity patterns. The results unveiled notable variability in connectivity patterns across frequency bands, with the alpha band exhibiting heightened sensitivity to driving fatigue. Individualized connectivity analysis underscored the complexity of fatigue assessment and the potential for personalized approaches. These findings emphasize the importance of subject-specific brain networks in comprehending fatigue dynamics, while providing sensor space minimization, advocating for the development of efficient mobile sensor applications for real-time fatigue detection in driving scenarios.

Prenatal maternal depression predicts neural maturation and negative emotion in infants

Despite widespread acceptance that prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers are detrimental to infants' long-term emotional and cognitive development, little is known about the mechanisms that may integrate outcomes across these domains. Rooted in the integrative perspective that emotional development is grounded in developing cognitive processes, we hypothesized that prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers would be associated with delays in neural maturation that support sociocognitive function in infants, leading to more problematic behaviors. We used a prospective longitudinal study of mothers (N = 92) and their infants to test whether self-reported symptoms of depression in mothers during the second and third trimesters were associated with neural development and infant outcomes at 4 months of age. While controlling for postpartum symptoms of depression, more prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers predicted less neural maturation in the parietal region of 4-month-old infants. Less neural maturation, in turn, was associated with greater infant negativity, suggesting neural maturation as a putative mechanism linking maternal symptoms of depression with infant outcomes. Differences in neural regions and developmental timing are also discussed.

Frontal Asymmetry as a Neural Correlate of Motivational Conflict

Motivational systems of approach, avoidance, and inhibition are fundamental to human behavior. While past research has linked approach motivation with greater relative left frontal asymmetry, many attempts to link avoidance motivation with greater relative right frontal asymmetry have been mixed. These mixed effects could be due to coactivation of the avoidance and behavioral inhibition system (BIS). Much recent evidence indicates that the behavioral inhibition system may be associated with greater relative right frontal activation. The current review examines evidence linking traits associated with the behavioral inhibition system with resting right frontal asymmetry. Other research links individual differences associated with the behavioral inhibition system with state changes in relative right frontal asymmetry. Moreover, activation of the behavioral inhibition system, but not activation of withdrawal motivation, increases greater relative right frontal asymmetry. Together, this work highlights the role of relative frontal asymmetry as a neural correlate in motivational conflict and helps to disentangle behavioral inhibition from avoidance motivation.

Quantitative Electroencephalogram Standardization: A Sex- and Age-Differentiated Normative Database

We describe the utility of a standardized index (Z-score) in quantitative EEG (QEEG) capable of when referenced to a resting-state, sex- and age-differentiated QEEG normative database (ISB-NormDB). Our ISB-NormDB comprises data for 1,289 subjects (553 males, 736 females) ages 4.5 to 81 years that met strict normative data criteria. A de-noising process allowed stratification based on QEEG variability between normal healthy men and women at various age ranges. The ISB-NormDB data set that is stratified by sex provides a unique, highly accurate ISB-NormDB model (ISB-NormDB: ISB-NormDB-Male, ISB-NormDB-Female). To evaluate the trends and accuracy of the ISB-NormDB, we used actual data to compare Z-scores obtained through the ISB-NormDB with those obtained through a traditional QEEG normative database to confirm that basic trends are maintained in most bands and are sensitive to abnormal test data. Finally, we demonstrate the value of our standardized index of QEEG, and highlight it's capacity to minimize the confounding variables of sex and age in any analysis.

Understanding emerging regulation: The role of frontal electroencephalography asymmetry and negative affectivity

The present study examined frontal electroencephalography (EEG) asymmetry and negative affectivity (NA) as predictors of infant behaviors during the Still-Face Paradigm (SFP). It was hypothesized that infants with lower NA subscale scores who also demonstrate greater left frontal activation would exhibit more frequent social engagement and self-soothing behaviors during the SFP. Mothers reported infant temperament at 6-12 months of age (N = 62), and EEG was recorded during a baseline task and the SFP. Social engagement, distress, and self-soothing behaviors were coded during the SFP. A three-factor solution emerged based on exploratory factor analysis of eight infant behaviors. After considering bivariate relations, multiple regression analyses predicting the behavior factor labeled social engagement (containing vocalizations and handwaving; average factor loading = .56) were conducted separately for asymmetry and NA subscales, controlling for infant sex and age. The SFP asymmetry predicted social engagement after controlling for covariates and baseline asymmetry; however, NA subscales (falling reactivity and distress to limitations) did not uniquely explain significant variance. These findings highlight the importance of frontal EEG asymmetry in contributing to emerging social engagement and regulation in infancy. Implications include potentially utilizing asymmetry markers as screening and intervention targets in the first year of life.

Psychometric properties of infant electroencephalography: Developmental stability, reliability, and construct validity of frontal alpha asymmetry and delta-beta coupling

Resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) provides developmental neuroscientists a noninvasive view into the neural underpinnings of cognition and emotion. Recently, the psychometric properties of two widely used neural measures in early childhood-frontal alpha asymmetry and delta-beta coupling-have come under scrutiny. Despite their growing use, additional work examining how the psychometric properties of these neural signatures may change across infancy is needed. The current study examined the developmental stability, split-half reliability, and construct validity of infant frontal alpha asymmetry and delta-beta coupling. Infants provided resting-state EEG data at 8, 12, and 18 months of age (N = 213). Frontal alpha asymmetry and delta-beta coupling showed significant developmental change from 8 to 18 months. Reliability for alpha asymmetry, and alpha, delta, and beta power, individually, was generally good. In contrast, the reliability of delta-beta coupling scores was poor. Associations between frontal alpha asymmetry and approach tendencies generally emerged, whereas stronger (over-coupled) delta-beta coupling scores were associated with profiles of dysregulation and low inhibition. However, the individual associations varied across time and specific measures of interest. We discuss these findings with a developmental lens, highlighting the importance of repeated measures to better understand links between neural signatures and typical and atypical development.

Development and validation of the Mindful Parenting in Infancy Scale (MPIS)

Although mindfulness in parenting has been recognized as important for some time, there is a dearth of measurement tools, especially for caregivers of infants. Two studies were conducted: (1) developing and providing an initial psychometric evaluation of the Mindful Parenting in Infancy Scale (MPIS) and (2) reproducing initial findings with an independent sample of infants and caregivers. In Study 1, 37 caregivers of infants (3-12 months of age) responded to MPIS, providing indicators of parenting stress and infant temperament. Study 2 caregivers (N = 57) responded to identical measures, with infant electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded during the Still Face Procedure, along with a baseline condition. Study 1 results indicated good internal consistency, with Study 2 providing additional support for reliability. Correlations with parenting stress markers were also significant across both investigations, indicative of greater stress with lower levels of mindfulness. A number of correlations with temperament scores were also significant, and in the hypothesized direction, across both studies. Importantly, the MPIS score was predictive of infant frontal EEG asymmetry in a path model examined in the context of Study 2. Thus, the present investigation provides support for MPIS as a promising brief measurement tool based on results obtained with two independent samples.

Affectionate Touch in the Context of Breastfeeding and Maternal Depression Influences Infant Neurodevelopmental and Temperamental Substrates

BACKGROUND

While numerous studies have demonstrated maternal depression's influence on infant brain development, few studies have examined the changes that occur as a consequence of co-occurring experiential factors that affect quality of mother and infant affectionate touch as well as infant temperament and neurophysiological systems. The aim of the study was to examine the interactive effects of maternal depression and breastfeeding on mother and infant affectionate touch and infant temperament and cortical maturation patterns across early development.

METHODS

113 mothers and their infants participated when infants were 1 and 3 months of age. Questionnaires to assess maternal depressive symptoms, feeding, and temperament were completed. Tonic EEG patterns (asymmetry and left and right activity) were collected and the dyads were video-recorded during feeding to assess mother and infant affectionate touch patterns.

RESULTS

Data analysis showed that EEG activity and mother-infant affectionate touch differed as a function of mood and feeding method. Notably, only infants of depressed mothers that bottle-fed showed right frontal EEG asymmetry and attenuated change in the left frontal region across 3 months. Breastfeeding positively impacted affectionate touch behaviors and was associated with increased left and decreased right frontal EEG activation even for depressed groups. Furthermore, a model incorporating physiology, maternal depression, touch, temperament, and feeding indicated significant prediction for infant affectionate touch (with breastfeeding and affectively positive temperament demonstrating the strongest prediction). Con-clusion: The findings suggest that breastfeeding and the infant's positive temperament influence mother-infant affectionate touch patterns and result in neuroprotective outcomes for infants, even those exposed to maternal depression within early development.

Frontal Asymmetry in an approach-avoidance conflict paradigm

The frontal cortex appears to be asymmetrically related to approach motivation, avoidance motivation, and motivational conflict. Much past work has investigated approach and avoidance motivation, but little work has investigated frontal asymmetry in the face of motivational conflict in part because of the inherent conflict between avoidance motivation and motivational conflict. The current study sought to disentangle the existing confound between avoidance motivation and motivational conflict. In the study, participants selected the likelihood of viewing negative (vs. positive) images for zero reward points (avoidance only condition), or negative (vs. positive) images for the chance to win reward points (approach-avoidance conflict conditions). Participants exhibited greater relative right frontal asymmetry while making percent likelihood selections in the approach-avoidance conflict conditions relative to the avoidance only conditions. Additionally, participants exhibited greater relative right frontal asymmetry while viewing disgust images during trials with the greatest approach-avoidance conflict relative to trials with the lowest approach-avoidance conflict. Together, these results suggest that motivational conflict, and not avoidance motivation, is associated with greater relative right frontal activity.

Dynamics of frontal alpha asymmetry in mother-infant dyads: Insights from the Still Face Paradigm

The parent-infant dynamic has a foundational role in emotion regulation development. Electroencephalography (EEG) hyperscanning from mother-infant dyads can provide an unprecedented window into inter-brain dynamics during the parent-infant exchange. This potential depends on the feasibility of hyperscanning with dyads in emotionally taxing contexts. We sought to demonstrate feasibility of hyperscanning from 10 mother-infant dyads during the Still Face Procedure (SFP). We measured frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) to elucidate ongoing regulatory dynamics and considered maternal caregiving quality as a window into dyads' history. Results showed dyads exhibited a rightward shift in FAA over the course of SFP, indicating growing negative emotionality and desire to withdraw. Results also showed growing variability in FAA for infants over the course of SFP, indicating less active emotional control as stress ensued. Variability was especially low for mothers during periods when asked to be emotionally unavailable, suggesting active control to match the task demands. Dyads with a more responsive mother exhibited higher (more left) FAA relative to dyads with a less responsive mother, which might reflect a more positive emotional experience overall. We raise important methodological and theoretical questions that hyperscanning during SFP can address, such as the developmental origins of trait-like self-regulatory dispositions.