Evaluation of the modified FINDRISC to identify individuals at high risk for diabetes among middle-aged white and black ARIC study participants

Health literacy - study protocol for LiSa cohort study

BACKGROUND

Health literacy is the degree to which individuals have the ability to find, understand, and use information and services to inform health-related decisions and actions for themselves and others, whether at home, at the workplace, in the community, marketplace, healthcare sector, or the political arena. The main aim of this project is to measure health literacy in the adult population living in the municipality of Leiria over the next 10 years. As secondary objectives it is intended to characterize anxiety and depression, metabolic risk and health behaviors in the same population and over the same period.

METHODS

This is a prospective cohort study that collects data on HL, anxiety and depression, health characteristics, health behavior and sociodemographic data. The study population will be composed by adults (≥ 18 years old) who are non-institutionalized and living in private households in Leiria. The random sample is stratified by gender and age groups. A face-to-face interview will be conducted with the Computer Assisted Personal Interview at baseline. Follow-up will be carried out every 2 years via telephone call. The association between independent variables and health literacy is examined by means of variance analysis with measurement repetition, and taking into consideration follow-up.

DISCUSSION

The LiSa project is a population-based study, derived from a random sampling technique that will allow the analysis of health outcomes in a representative sample of the population of the municipality of Leiria. The LiSa study will be a valuable resource for epidemiological research, as it will provide fundamental information to improve public health policies regarding health literacy in Portugal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical trials: NCT05558631 (registered on 26/09/2022).

Prevalence of increased risk of type 2 diabetes in general practice: a cross-sectional study in Norway

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a global public health problem, but the onset can be delayed or prevented with adequate intervention in individuals with increased risk. Therefore, a major challenge in general practice is to identify individuals at risk of diabetes. However, limited knowledge is available about the prevalence of high diabetes risk individuals in a primary care population. In a cohort of consecutive patients in general practice we examined the prevalence of known diabetes and estimated risk of diabetes using The Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) calculator, by sociodemographic and clinical characteristics.

METHODS

This study was a cross-sectional study conducted in four general practices in Western and Eastern Norway. A total of 1682 individuals, 20-80 years of age, were assessed for eligibility from May to December 2019. We excluded patients who actively declined participation (n = 112), were lost because of various organization challenges (n = 103) and patients who did not fulfil the inclusions criteria (n = 63). Diabetes prevalence and prevalence of individuals at risk of T2D with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated for the total sample, by age group and for men and women separately. We tested for differences between groups using t-test for continuous variables and chi-square test (Pearson Chi-Square) for categorical variables.

RESULTS

Of 1404 individuals, 132 reported known diabetes, yielding a prevalence of 9.9% (95% CI 8.4-11.6). Among participants without a known diagnosis of diabetes, the following estimates of elevated risk assessment scores were found: FINDRISC score ≥ 11 32.8% (95% CI 30.3-35.4) and FINDRISC ≥ 15 10.0% (95% CI 8.6-11.9). Comparable results were found between the sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

Detection of unknown diabetes and individuals with increased risk, is of high public health relevance for early implementation of preventive measures aimed to reduce the risk of diabetes and its complications through lifestyle modification. A simple, non-expensive questionnaire, such as FINDRISC, may be valuable as an initial screening method in general practice to identify those in need for preventive measures.

A Brazilian cohort of pregnant women with overt diabetes: analyses of risk factors using a machine learning technique

Objective

Pregnancy complicated by type 2 diabetes is rising, while data on type 2 diabetes first diagnosed in pregnancy (overt diabetes) are scarce. We aimed to describe the frequency and characteristics of pregnant women with overt diabetes, compare them to those with known pregestational diabetes, and evaluate the potential predictors for the diagnosis of overt diabetes.

Subjects and methods

A retrospective cohort study including all pregnant women with type 2 diabetes evaluated in two public hospitals in Porto Alegre, Brazil, from May 20, 2005, to June 30, 2021. Classic and obstetric factors associated with type 2 diabetes risk were compared between the two groups, using machine learning techniques and multivariable analysis with Poisson regression.

Results

Overt diabetes occurred in 33% (95% confidence interval: 29%-37%) of 646 women. Characteristics of women with known or unknown type 2 diabetes were similar; excessive weight was the most common risk factor, affecting ~90% of women. Age >30 years and positive family history of diabetes were inversely related to a diagnosis of overt diabetes, while previous delivery of a macrosomic baby behaved as a risk factor in younger multiparous women; previous gestational diabetes and chronic hypertension were not relevant risk factors.

Conclusion

Characteristics of women with overt diabetes are similar to those of women with pregestational diabetes. Classic risk factors for diabetes not included in current questionnaires can help identify women at risk of type 2 diabetes before they become pregnant.

Association between the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score and cancer in middle-aged and older adults: Involvement of inflammation

BACKGROUND

Diabetes is associated with increased risk of common cancers. However, evidence of cancer risk in individuals with different diabetes risk is still scarce, and the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) and risks of cancer incidence and mortality in a prospective study, and to explore whether low-grade inflammation partially mediated the association.

METHODS

A total of 330,384 participants aged 37 to 73 at baseline from the UK Biobank database was included in this study. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to examine the relationship of the FINDRISC and low-grade inflammation with risks of cancer incidence and mortality. Then, we estimated the contribution of higher FINDRISC to risks of overall and site-specific cancers. In addition, the role of low-grade inflammation in the association between FINDRISC and cancer risks was investigated through mediation analysis.

RESULTS

The increased FINDRISC was dose-dependently associated with higher incidence and mortality risks of overall cancer and an overwhelming majority of site-specific cancers. The higher FINDRISC was a strong contributor to incidence of eighteen site-specific cancers and mortality of fourteen site-specific cancers, with a population-attributable risk of 8.1 %-39.1 %, 14.2 %-39.7 %, respectively. Additionally, low-grade inflammation mainly mediated the association between the FINDRISC and risks of incidence and mortality of overall cancer, colorectal cancer, etc. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlighted the higher FINDRISC as critical risk factors of cancer incidence and mortality, partially mediated by low-grade inflammation. Individuals with increased risk of diabetes are also needed to be concerned about cancer prevention.

Non-invasive type 2 diabetes risk scores do not identify diabetes when the cause is β-cell failure: The Africans in America study

Background

Emerging data suggests that in sub-Saharan Africa β-cell-failure in the absence of obesity is a frequent cause of type 2 diabetes (diabetes). Traditional diabetes risk scores assume that obesity-linked insulin resistance is the primary cause of diabetes. Hence, it is unknown whether diabetes risk scores detect undiagnosed diabetes when the cause is β-cell-failure.

Aims

In 528 African-born Blacks living in the United States [age 38 ± 10 (Mean ± SE); 64% male; BMI 28 ± 5 kg/m²] we determined the: (1) prevalence of previously undiagnosed diabetes, (2) prevalence of diabetes due to β-cell-failure vs. insulin resistance; and (3) the ability of six diabetes risk scores [Cambridge, Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC), Kuwaiti, Omani, Rotterdam, and SUNSET] to detect previously undiagnosed diabetes due to either β-cell-failure or insulin resistance.

Methods

Diabetes was diagnosed by glucose criteria of the OGTT and/or HbA1c ≥ 6.5%. Insulin resistance was defined by the lowest quartile of the Matsuda index (≤ 2.04). Diabetes due to β-cell-failure required diagnosis of diabetes in the absence of insulin resistance. Demographics, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, visceral adipose tissue (VAT), family medical history, smoking status, blood pressure, antihypertensive medication, and blood lipid profiles were obtained. Area under the Receiver Operator Characteristics Curve (AROC) estimated sensitivity and specificity of each continuous score. AROC criteria were: Outstanding: >0.90; Excellent: 0.80-0.89; Acceptable: 0.70-0.79; Poor: 0.50-0.69; and No Discrimination: 0.50.

Results

Prevalence of diabetes was 9% (46/528). Of the diabetes cases, β-cell-failure occurred in 43% (20/46) and insulin resistance in 57% (26/46). The β-cell-failure group had lower BMI (27 ± 4 vs. 31 ± 5 kg/m² P < 0.001), lower waist circumference (91 ± 10 vs. 101 ± 10cm P < 0.001) and lower VAT (119 ± 65 vs. 183 ± 63 cm³, P < 0.001). Scores had indiscriminate or poor detection of diabetes due to β-cell-failure (FINDRISC AROC = 0.49 to Cambridge AROC = 0.62). Scores showed poor to excellent detection of diabetes due to insulin resistance, (Cambridge AROC = 0.69, to Kuwaiti AROC = 0.81).

Conclusions

At a prevalence of 43%, β-cell-failure accounted for nearly half of the cases of diabetes. All six diabetes risk scores failed to detect previously undiagnosed diabetes due to β-cell-failure while effectively identifying diabetes when the etiology was insulin resistance. Diabetes risk scores which correctly classify diabetes due to β-cell-failure are urgently needed.

Diabetes Risk Assessment and Awareness in a University Academics and Employees

Objectives

Screening of the community for diabetes is generally costly and imposes a significant financial burden. Therefore, some non-invasive measures such as the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISK) Scale have been developed and are generally recommended for screening of people, particularly those with a high risk of diabetes. However, the screening of the university employees including academics with FINDRISK scale has not been performed so far. Therefore, in this study, we intended to assess the risk of diabetes by FINDRISC among the academics and other employees of a university as well as to make diabetes awareness among them.

Methods

442 subjects were included in this study. "Diabetes awareness meetings" were organized, posters with awareness themes were displayed and brochures were distributed to academics and employees of our university. The FINDRISK was used for diabetes risk assessment. Participants' height, weight, waist circumference, and body mass indexes were measured and were recorded.

Results

The mean age of the participants was 36.76±9.05. About 62%, 67%, and 32% of the participants were females, married, and academic staff, respectively. The mean waist circumference and body mass index of the participants were 84.71±14.49 cm and 26.8±4.91 kg/m2, respectively, and the median FINDRISK score was 7 (3-10). The 10-year risk of developing diabetes, assessed by FINDRISK score was very high and high, moderate, mild, and low in 8, 10.6, 32.4, and 43.9% of the participants, respectively. Significant differences were found between FINDRISK scores according to gender, age, marital status, smoking status, and occupational positions of the participants (p<0.001 for all parameters). However, the FINDRISK scores of the academics were significantly higher than in other groups.

Conclusion

Our study results suggest that the 10-year risk of developing diabetes is higher in academics compared to the other employees. Therefore, to raise awareness among people, diabetes prevention training is of paramount importance, regardless of the education levels of the people, to prevent or delay the development of diabetes.

Characteristic of FINDRISC Score and Association with Diabetes Development in 6-Year Follow-Up in PURE Poland Cohort Study

Purpose

The aim of the study was to assess if FINDRISC score was associated with diabetes development after 6 years of observation.

Methods

Polish cohort is a part of global PURE study. Hereby analysis presents data from baseline (2007–2010) and 6-year follow-up (2013–2016) and was conducted on 1090 participants (702 women) from urban and rural areas in Lower Silesia region (Poland) without diabetes at the baseline and with complete data throughout course of the study.

Results

At the baseline, women had significantly higher FINDRISC score than men (10.43 vs 8.91; p=0.000) and participants from rural areas had higher score than from urban areas (10.97 vs 9.33; p=0.000). At the baseline, 25.87% of the participants had low risk of diabetes according to FINDRISC score, 38.90% had slightly elevated risk, 16.79% moderate risk, 16.42% high risk and 2.02% very high risk. Participants, who were healthy at baseline, but developed diabetes after 6 years of observation had significantly higher FINDRISC, than those who did not (13.39 vs 9.36; p=0.000). In 6-year follow-up, diabetes was diagnosed in 2.8% of participants, who were ascertained to “low risk” according to FINDRISC score in baseline; in 9.9% of participants of “slightly elevated risk”, 17.5% of participants of “moderate risk”, 26.8% in participants of “high risk” and 50.0% of participants of “very high risk”.

Conclusions

Results of PURE Poland cohort study indicates that higher FINDRISC score at the baseline was associated with higher risk of diabetes development during 6 years of observation.

Expanding the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score for Predicting Diabetes Incidence in People Living with HIV

This study investigated whether the predictive ability of the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) can be improved among people with HIV by adding a marker of insulin resistance. In this longitudinal analysis of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study and the Women's Interagency HIV Study, HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants without prevalent diabetes were included. FINDRISC score and the Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) were calculated at baseline. Cox proportional hazards models were used to examine associations between baseline risk scores and time to incident diabetes (first self-report of diabetes medication use). Model discrimination (Uno's c-statistic) and calibration (observed vs. cumulative probability of diabetes) were assessed for FINDRISC, HOMA-IR, and combined FINDRISC and HOMA-IR. Overall, 2,527 men (1,299 HIV-positive and 1,228 HIV-negative, median age = 44) and 2,446 women (1,841 HIV-positive and 605 HIV-negative, median age = 41) were included. Over 47,040 person-years of follow-up, diabetes incidence rates per 1,000 person-years were 9.5 in HIV-positive men, 7.1 in HIV-negative men, 14.5 in HIV-positive women, and 15.1 in HIV-negative women. FINDRISC discrimination (HIV-positive men c = 0.64 [0.55, 0.74], HIV-negative men c = 0.74 [0.68, 0.79], HIV-positive women c = 0.68 [0.64, 0.71], and HIV-negative women c = 0.73 [0.66, 0.79]) was significantly better than that of HOMA-IR. FINDRISC was better calibrated than HOMA-IR in each of the four groups. Adding HOMA-IR did not improve FINDRISC discrimination/calibration. Diabetes risk prediction with FINDRISC was suboptimal in men and women with HIV, and its performance was not improved with addition of HOMA-IR. The optimal method for identifying people living with HIV at-risk for diabetes is yet to be identified.

Artificial intelligence in health data analysis: The Darwinian evolution theory suggests an extremely simple and zero-cost large-scale screening tool for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes

AIMS

The effective identification of individuals with early dysglycemia status is key to reduce the incidence of type 2 diabetes. We develop and validate a novel zero-cost tool that significantly simplifies the screening of undiagnosed dysglycemia.

METHODS

We use NHANES cross-sectional data over 10 years (2007-2016) to derive an equation that links non-laboratory exposure variables to the possible presence of undetected dysglycemia. For the first time, we adopt a novel artificial intelligence approach based on the Darwinian evolutionary theory to analyze health data. We collected data for 47 variables.

RESULTS

Age and waist circumference are the only variables required to use the model. To identify undetected dysglycemia, we obtain an area under the curve (AUC) of 75.3%. Sensitivity and specificity are 0.65 and 0.73 by using the optimal threshold value determined from external validation data.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of uniquely two variables allows to obtain a zero-cost screening tool of analogous precision than that of more complex tools widely adopted in the literature. The newly developed tool has clinical use as it significantly simplifies the screening of dysglycemia. Furthermore, we suggest that the definition of an age-related waist circumference cut-off might help to improve existing diabetes risk factors.

Validation of Finnish Diabetes Risk Score Indonesia Version in Yogyakarta

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has developed as a major public health problem in the world. It is estimated that around 50% of diabetics have not been diagnosed in Indonesia, and only two-thirds of those diagnosed are undergoing treatment. This condition must be prevented. The purpose of this study is to determine the validity and reliability of the Indonesian version of FINDRISC as an instrument for predicting type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study was an observational study with a cross-sectional design on 60 research subjects who are indigenous people of Yogyakarta who live in Yogyakarta, which can be proven by Identity Cards by the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Validity is tested by the validity of criteria by type while using the area under the receiver-operating curve (ROC-AUC), while reliability is tested by internal consistency using Cronbach's Alpha (α). The results showed that as many as 14 people, or 23.33% experienced uncontrolled fasting blood sugar and 15 people had a risk score of FINDRISC more than 10. Based on the ROC AUC analysis, the value of 0.935 (95% CI 0.865 1.00) with a cut-off point of 10 with the value of Sn = 85%, Sp = 95%, PPV = 85%, NPV = 95%, +LR = 5.66, and -LR = 0.15. Based on the reliability test, the Cronbach's value of 0.727 is obtained. The FINDRISC questionnaire is categorized as valid and reliable so that it can be a screening tool for understanding.

The Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC), incident diabetes and low-grade inflammation

AIMS

The FINDRISC was created to predict the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Since T2DM associates with inflammation we evaluated if the FINDRISC could predict either current or incident T2DM, and elevated high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP).

METHODS

41,880 people (age 41.9 ± 9.7 years; 31% female) evaluated between 2008 and 2016 were included. First, the cross-sectional association between the FINDRISC with presence of either T2DM or hs-CRP ≥ 2.0 mg/L was tested. After a 5 ± 3 years follow-up we tested the score predictive value for incident T2DM and inflammation in respectively 10,559 individuals without diabetes and in a subset of 2,816 individuals having no elevated hs-CRP at baseline.

RESULTS

In the cross sectional analysis the FINDRISC was associated with both T2DM (OR 1.24, 95% CI: 1.23-1.26, P < 0.001) and inflammation (OR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.09-1.11, P < 0.001) per FINDRISC unit, as well as in longitudinal analyses (OR 1.17, 95% CI: 1.14-1.20, P < 0.001; and OR 1.04, 95% CI: 1.02-1.07, P < 0.001; respectively, per FINDRISC unit). The C-statistic for incident T2DM and inflammation was 0.79 (95% CI 0.77-0.82) and 0.55 (95% CI 0.53-0.58), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The FINDRISC shows good discrimination for incident T2DM but less for inflammation.

Early detection of type 2 diabetes in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas in Stockholm - comparing reach of community and facility-based screening

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes and its high-risk stage, prediabetes, are often undiagnosed. Early detection of these conditions is of importance to avoid organ complications due to the metabolic disturbances associated with diabetes. Diabetes screening can detect persons unaware of diabetes risk and the elevated glucose levels can potentially be reversed through lifestyle modification and medication. There are mainly two approaches to diabetes screening: opportunistic facility-based screening at health facilities and community screening.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the difference in population reach and participant characteristics between community- and facility-based screening for detection of type 2 diabetes and persons at high risk of developing diabetes.

METHODS

Finnish diabetes risk score (FINDRISC) is a risk assessment tool used by two diabetes projects to conduct community- and facility-based screenings in disadvantaged suburbs of Stockholm. In this study, descriptive and limited inferential statistics were carried out analyzing data from 2,564 FINDRISC forms from four study areas. Community- and facility-based screening was compared in terms of participant characteristics and with population data from the respective areas to determine their reach.

RESULTS

Our study found that persons born in Africa and Asia were reached through community screening to a higher extent than with facility-based screening, while persons born in Sweden and other European countries were reached more often by facility-based screening. Also, younger persons were reached more frequently through community screening compared with facility-based screening. Both types of screening reached more women than men.

CONCLUSION

Community-based screening and facility-based screening were complementary methods in reaching different population groups at high risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Community screening in particular reached more hard-to-reach groups with unfavorable risk profiles, making it a critical strategy for T2D prevention. More men should be recruited to intervention studies and screening initiatives to achieve a gender balance.

Identifying Africans with undiagnosed diabetes: Fasting plasma glucose is similar to the hemoglobin A1C updated Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities diabetes prediction equation

AIMS

Seventy percent of Africans living with diabetes are undiagnosed. Identifying who should be referred for testing is critical. Therefore we evaluated the ability of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) diabetes prediction equation with A1C added (ARIC + A1C) to identify diabetes in 451 African-born blacks living in America (66% male; age 38 ± 10y (mean ± SD); BMI 27.5 ± 4.4 kg/m²).

METHODS

All participants denied a history of diabetes. OGTTs were performed. Diabetes diagnosis required 2-h glucose ≥200 mg/dL. The five non-invasive (Age, parent history of diabetes, waist circumference, height, systolic blood pressure) and four invasive variables (Fasting glucose (FPG), A1C, triglycerides (TG), HDL) were obtained. Four models were tested: Model-1: Full ARIC + A1C equation; Model-2: All five non-invasive variables with one invasive variable excluded at a time; Model-3: All five non-invasive variables with one invasive variable included at a time; Model-4: Each invasive variable singly. Area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AROC) predicted diabetes. Youden Index identified optimal cut-points.

RESULTS

Diabetes occurred in 7% (30/451). Model-1, the full ARIC + A1C equation, AROC = 0.83. Model-2: With FPG excluded, AROC = 0.77 (P = 0.038), but when A1C, HDL or TG were excluded AROC remained unchanged. Model-3 with all non-invasive variables and FPG alone, AROC=0.87; but with A1C, TG or HDL included AROC declined to ≤0.76. Model-4: FPG as a single predictor, AROC = 0.87. A1C, TG, or HDL as single predictors all had AROC ≤ 0.74. Optimal cut-point for FPG was 100 mg/dL.

CONCLUSIONS

To detect diabetes, FPG performed as well as the nine-variable updated ARIC + A1C equation.

Diabetes mellitus risk among Jordanians in a dental setting: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Dental offices can be useful to screen and identify patients at risk of developing diabetes mellitus (DM) using risk prediction tools. The Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) is a validated, questionnaire-based tool used to predict the 10-year risk of developing type II DM.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the 10-year DM risk among Jordanians using the FINDRISC questionnaire in a dental setting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Participants attending two university dental teaching centres between March 2017 and February 2018 were interviewed using an Arabic translated version of the FINDRISC questionnaire. Anthropometrics including weight, height, waist circumference (WC) and body mass index (BMI) were recorded. Random capillary blood glucose level was measured for each participant. Statistical analysis was done using Chi-square and independent t-tests.

RESULTS

A total of 1,247 (436 males and 811 females) participants were included. As defined by BMI, 1,012 (81.2%) participants were either overweight or obese. Abdominal adiposity as determined by WC was seen in 738 (59.2%) participants. The mean (± SD) FINDRISC score for females (11.3 ± 4.3) was significantly higher (P = 0.001) than males (10.4 ± 4.9). After age adjustment, more females were in the high-risk categories (FINDRISC ≥ 15) compared with males. This trend was seen among all age groups, but was statistically significant in the older age groups; 55-64 years (P = 0.037) and ≥ 65 years (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

In a developing Middle Eastern country such as Jordan, almost half of Jordanians attending university dental clinics are at a moderate to high risk of developing type II DM in 10 years. The risk of DM should be considered in dental patients, particularly older females.

A Review of Diabetes Prediction Equations in African Descent Populations

Background: Predicting undiagnosed diabetes is a critical step toward addressing the diabetes epidemic in populations of African descent worldwide. Objective: To review characteristics of equations developed, tested, or modified to predict diabetes in African descent populations. Methods: Using PubMed, Scopus, and Embase databases, a scoping review yielded 585 research articles. After removal of duplicates (n = 205), 380 articles were reviewed. After title and abstract review 328 articles did not meet inclusion criteria and were excluded. Fifty-two articles were retained. However, full text review revealed that 44 of the 52 articles did not report findings by AROC or C-statistic in African descent populations. Therefore, eight articles remained. Results: The 8 articles reported on a total of 15 prediction equation studies. The prediction equations were of two types. Prevalence prediction equations (n = 9) detected undiagnosed diabetes and were based on non-invasive variables only. Non-invasive variables included demographics, blood pressure and measures of body size. Incidence prediction equations (n = 6) predicted risk of developing diabetes and used either non-invasive variables or both non-invasive and invasive. Invasive variables required blood tests and included fasting glucose, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL), triglycerides (TG), and A1C. Prevalence prediction studies were conducted in the United States, Africa and Europe. Incidence prediction studies were conducted only in the United States. In all these studies, the performance of diabetes prediction equations was assessed by area under the receiver operator characteristics curve (AROC) or the C-statistic. Therefore, we evaluated the efficacy of these equations based on standard criteria, specifically discrimination by either AROC or C-statistic were defined as: Poor (0.50 - 0.69); Acceptable (0.70 - 0.79); Excellent (0.80 - 0.89); or Outstanding (0.90 - 1.00). Prediction equations based only on non-invasive variables reported to have poor to acceptable detection of diabetes with AROC or C-statistic 0.64 - 0.79. In contrast, prediction equations which were based on both non-invasive and invasive variables had excellent diabetes detection with AROC or C-statistic 0.80 - 0.82. Conclusion: Equations which use a combination of non-invasive and invasive variables appear to be superior in the prediction of diabetes in African descent populations than equations that rely on non-invasive variables alone.

Risk assessment and HbA1c measurement in Norwegian community pharmacies to identify people with undiagnosed type 2 diabetes - A feasibility study

OBJECTIVES

Determine the feasibility of using a diabetes risk assessment tool followed by HbA1c-measurement in a community-pharmacy setting in Norway.

METHODS

In this longitudinal study two pharmacists in each of three community pharmacies were trained to perform risk assessments, HbA1c-measurements and counselling. Pharmacy customers who were > 18 years old and could understand and speak Norwegian or English were recruited in the pharmacies during a two-months-period. Information about the service was presented in local newspapers, social media, leaflets and posters at the pharmacy. Customers wishing to participate contacted the pharmacy staff. Participants completed a validated diabetes risk test and a background questionnaire including a validated instrument for self-rated health. A HbA1c measurement was performed for individuals with a moderate to high risk of developing diabetes. If HbA1c ≥ 6.5% they were recommended to visit their general practitioner for follow-up. The pharmacies performed internal and external quality control of the HbA1c instrument.

RESULTS

Of the 211 included participants 97 (46%) were > 50 years old. HbA1c was measured for the 47 participants (22%) with high risk. Thirty-two (15%) had HbA1c values < 5.7%, twelve (5.4%) had values between 5.7%-6.4%, and three (1.4%) had an HbA1c ≥ 6.5%. Two participants with HbA1 ≥ 6.5% were diagnosed with diabetes by their general practitioner. The third was lost to follow-up. Results from internal and external quality control for HbA1c were within set limits.

CONCLUSION

The pharmacists were able to perform the risk assessment and measurement of HbA1c, and pharmacy customers were willing to participate. The HbA1c measurements fulfilled the requirements for analytical quality. Thus, it is feasible to implement this service in community pharmacies in Norway. In a large-scale study the inclusion criteria should be increased to 45 years in accordance with the population the risk test has been validated for.

Undetected dysglycaemia common in primary care patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia: on the need for a screening strategy in clinical practice. A report from EUROASPIRE IV a registry from the EuroObservational Research Programme of the European Society of Cardiology

Background

Dysglycaemia defined as type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The negative impact is more apparent in the presence of hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. Thus, it seems reasonable to screen for dysglycaemia in patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. A simple screening algorithm would enhance the adoption of such strategy in clinical practice.

Objectives

To test the hypotheses (1) that dysglycaemia is common in patients with hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia and (2) that initial screening with the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) will decrease the need for laboratory based tests.

Methods

2395 patients (age 18–80 years) without (i) a history of CVD or TDM2, (ii) prescribed blood pressure and/or lipid lowering drugs answered the FINDRISC questionnaire and had an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and HbA1c measured.

Results

According to the OGTT 934 (39%) had previously undetected dysglycaemia (T2DM 19%, IGT 20%). Of patients, who according to FINDRISC had a low, moderate or slightly elevated risk 20, 34 and 41% and of those in the high and very high-risk category 49 and 71% had IGT or T2DM respectively. The OGTT identified 92% of patients with T2DM, FPG + HbA1c 90%, FPG 80%, 2hPG 29% and HbA1c 22%.

Conclusions

(1) The prevalence of dysglycaemia was high in patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. (2) Due to the high proportion of dysglycaemia in patients with low to moderate FINDRISC risk scores its initial use did not decrease the need for subsequent glucose tests. (3) FPG was the best test for detecting T2DM. Its isolated use is limited by the inability to disclose IGT. A pragmatic strategy, decreasing the demand for an OGTT, would be to screen all patients with FPG followed by OGTT in patients with IFG.

Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Development in the Native Population of Low- and High-Altitude Regions of Kyrgyzstan: Finnish Diabetes Risc Score Questionnaire Results

Moldobaeva, Marina S., Anastasiya V. Vinogradova, and Marina K. Esenamanova. Risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus development in the native population of low- and high-altitude regions of Kyrgyzstan: Finnish Diabetes Risc Score questionnaire results. High Alt Med Biol. 18:428-435, 2017.

OBJECTIVE

The number of patients with diabetes is steadily growing, but likely only half of all cases are ever identified. The Kyrgyz, native inhabitants of Central Asia, live in the mountainous area and have a particular lifestyle and nutrition. However, the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in our population is not well defined. Therefore, we aimed at determining the risk of T2DM development in the Kyrgyz population residing in low- and high-altitude (HAlt) regions by using the Finnish Diabetes Risc Score (FINDRISC) questionnaire.

METHODS

We included in the study 3190 randomly selected participants, including 1780 low-altitude (LAlt) residents (Chu region, 500-1200 m) and 1410 HAlt residents (Naryn region, 2000-4500 m), among whom there were 1207 men and 1983 women. Assessment of T2DM development was conducted by using the FINDRISC questionnaire and risk stratification was performed by region of residency, gender, and age.

RESULTS

An irregular intake of vegetables and fruits, increased waist circumference (WC), and increased body mass index (BMI) were identified as leading risk factors of T2DM development in native residents of Chu and Naryn regions of Kyrgyzstan. The 10-year risk stratification of T2DM development revealed the absence of a very high-risk group; high-risk status was more frequently identified among residents of the LAlt Chu district (4.7% of women and 2.1% of men), as compared with the HAlt population (1.9% of women and 1% of men) (p = 0.0018 for women and p = 0.09 for men).

CONCLUSIONS

In the Kyrgyz population, a 10-year high risk of T2DM development is greater among residents of LAlts as compared with HAlts, irrespective of gender. No very high-risk group was detected in residents of low or HAlts. The leading composites of FINDRISC score are increased WC and BMI, possibly due to irregular intake of vegetables and fruits that are dependent on the altitude of residence and age.