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Wang Z, Meghanathan RN, Pollmann S, Wang L. Common structure of saccades and microsaccades in visual perception. J Vis 2024; 24:20. [PMID: 38656530 PMCID: PMC11044844 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.4.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
We obtain large amounts of external information through our eyes, a process often considered analogous to picture mapping onto a camera lens. However, our eyes are never as still as a camera lens, with saccades occurring between fixations and microsaccades occurring within a fixation. Although saccades are agreed to be functional for information sampling in visual perception, it remains unknown if microsaccades have a similar function when eye movement is restricted. Here, we demonstrated that saccades and microsaccades share common spatiotemporal structures in viewing visual objects. Twenty-seven adults viewed faces and houses in free-viewing and fixation-controlled conditions. Both saccades and microsaccades showed distinctive spatiotemporal patterns between face and house viewing that could be discriminated by pattern classifications. The classifications based on saccades and microsaccades could also be mutually generalized. Importantly, individuals who showed more distinctive saccadic patterns between faces and houses also showed more distinctive microsaccadic patterns. Moreover, saccades and microsaccades showed a higher structure similarity for face viewing than house viewing and a common orienting preference for the eye region over the mouth region. These findings suggested a common oculomotor program that is used to optimize information sampling during visual object perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenni Wang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Stefan Pollmann
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lihui Wang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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Zhao S, Contadini-Wright C, Chait M. Cross-Modal Interactions Between Auditory Attention and Oculomotor Control. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1286232024. [PMID: 38331581 PMCID: PMC10941240 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1286-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Microsaccades are small, involuntary eye movements that occur during fixation. Their role is debated with recent hypotheses proposing a contribution to automatic scene sampling. Microsaccadic inhibition (MSI) refers to the abrupt suppression of microsaccades, typically evoked within 0.1 s after new stimulus onset. The functional significance and neural underpinnings of MSI are subjects of ongoing research. It has been suggested that MSI is a component of the brain's attentional re-orienting network which facilitates the allocation of attention to new environmental occurrences by reducing disruptions or shifts in gaze that could interfere with processing. The extent to which MSI is reflexive or influenced by top-down mechanisms remains debated. We developed a task that examines the impact of auditory top-down attention on MSI, allowing us to disentangle ocular dynamics from visual sensory processing. Participants (N = 24 and 27; both sexes) listened to two simultaneous streams of tones and were instructed to attend to one stream while detecting specific task "targets." We quantified MSI in response to occasional task-irrelevant events presented in both the attended and unattended streams (frequency steps in Experiment 1, omissions in Experiment 2). The results show that initial stages of MSI are not affected by auditory attention. However, later stages (∼0.25 s postevent onset), affecting the extent and duration of the inhibition, are enhanced for sounds in the attended stream compared to the unattended stream. These findings provide converging evidence for the reflexive nature of early MSI stages and robustly demonstrate the involvement of auditory attention in modulating the later stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijia Zhao
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, United Kingdom
| | | | - Maria Chait
- Ear Institute, University College London, London WC1X 8EE, United Kingdom
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Kadosh O, Inbal K, Snir H, Bonneh YS. Oculomotor inhibition markers of working memory load. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1872. [PMID: 38253785 PMCID: PMC10803752 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-52518-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Involuntary eye movements occur constantly even during fixation and were shown to convey information about cognitive processes. They are inhibited momentarily in response to external stimuli (oculomotor inhibition, OMI), with a time and magnitude that depend on stimulus saliency, attention, and expectations. It was recently shown that the working memory load for numbers modulates the microsaccade rate; however, the generality of the effect and its temporal properties remain unclear. Our goal was to investigate the relationship between OMI and the working memory load for simple colored shapes. Participants (N = 26) maintained their fixation while their eyes were tracked; they viewed briefly flashed colored shapes accompanied by small arrows indicating the shapes to be memorized (1/2/3). After a retention period, a probe shape appeared for matching. The microsaccade rate modulation and temporal properties were analyzed for the memory encoding, maintenance, and retrieval phases. Microsaccade inhibition was stronger when more shapes were memorized, and performance improved when microsaccades were suppressed during maintenance and retrieval. This occurred even though the physical stimuli were identical in number under all conditions. Thus, oculomotor inhibition may play a role in silencing the visual input while processing current stimuli and is generally related to processing time and load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Kadosh
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Kfir Inbal
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Hadar Snir
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Yoram S Bonneh
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
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Yamashita J, Takimoto Y, Oishi H, Kumada T. How do personality traits modulate real-world gaze behavior? Generated gaze data shows situation-dependent modulations. Front Psychol 2024; 14:1144048. [PMID: 38268808 PMCID: PMC10805946 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1144048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
It has both scientific and practical benefits to substantiate the theoretical prediction that personality (Big Five) traits systematically modulate gaze behavior in various real-world (working) situations. Nevertheless, previous methods that required controlled situations and large numbers of participants failed to incorporate real-world personality modulation analysis. One cause of this research gap is the mixed effects of individual attributes (e.g., the accumulated attributes of age, gender, and degree of measurement noise) and personality traits in gaze data. Previous studies may have used larger sample sizes to average out the possible concentration of specific individual attributes in some personality traits, and may have imposed control situations to prevent unexpected interactions between these possibly biased individual attributes and complex, realistic situations. Therefore, we generated and analyzed real-world gaze behavior where the effects of personality traits are separated out from individual attributes. In Experiment 1, we successfully provided a methodology for generating such sensor data on head and eye movements for a small sample of participants who performed realistic nonsocial (data-entry) and social (conversation) work tasks (i.e., the first contribution). In Experiment 2, we evaluated the effectiveness of generated gaze behavior for real-world personality modulation analysis. We successfully showed how openness systematically modulates the autocorrelation coefficients of sensor data, reflecting the period of head and eye movements in data-entry and conversation tasks (i.e., the second contribution). We found different openness modulations in the autocorrelation coefficients from the generated sensor data of the two tasks. These modulations could not be detected using real sensor data because of the contamination of individual attributes. In conclusion, our method is a potentially powerful tool for understanding theoretically expected, systematic situation-specific personality modulation of real-world gaze behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jumpei Yamashita
- NTT Access Network Service Systems Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Takimoto
- NTT Human Informatics Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Haruo Oishi
- NTT Access Network Service Systems Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
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Yang HW, Choe JY, Noh SR, Kim JL, Han JW, Kim KW. Exploring age-related changes in saccades during cognitive tasks in healthy adults. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 17:1301318. [PMID: 38249127 PMCID: PMC10796470 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1301318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Although eye movements such as saccades are related to internal cognitive processes and are independent of visual processing, few studies have investigated whether non-visual cognitive tasks simultaneously affect horizontal and vertical saccades in younger and older adults. Methods We recruited 28 younger adults aged 20-29 years and 26 older adults aged >60 years through advertisements in community settings. All participants were free of major psychiatric, neurological, or ocular diseases. All participants performed the mental arithmetic task (MAT) and verbal fluency task (VFT). The primary measures were saccade parameters, including frequency, mean amplitude, and mean velocity. Results During MAT and VFT, the frequencies of horizontal and vertical saccades increased (p = 0.0005 for horizontal saccade in MAT; p < 0.0001 for horizontal saccade in VFT; p = 0.012 for vertical saccade in MAT; p = 0.001 for vertical saccade in VFT), but were comparable between MAT and VFT. The old group showed a slower vertical saccade than the young group during the tasks (p = 0.011 in the MAT phase; p = 0.006 in the VFT phase). The amplitude of the horizontal saccade decreased in both groups during MAT compared to the resting period (p = 0.013), but did not change significantly during VFT. Discussion Saccade parameters can change during non-visual cognitive tasks with differences between age groups and saccade directions. This study significantly contributes to our understanding of the distinct dynamics of horizontal and vertical saccades across various age group in cognitive aging, despite its restricted focus on specific saccade parameters and cognitive tasks, and inclusion solely of cognitively normal individuals. This study highlights the importance of saccade analysis in elucidating age-related cognitive changes. In conclusion, saccades should be examined in future studies as a potential non-invasive biomarker for early detection of cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Won Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Chungnam National University Hospital, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Yeong Choe
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Rim Noh
- Department of Psychology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Lan Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Won Han
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
- Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University, College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Woong Kim
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
- Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University, College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Liu X, Li Y, Xu L, Zhang T, Cui H, Wei Y, Xia M, Su W, Tang Y, Tang X, Zhang D, Spillmann L, Max Andolina I, McLoughlin N, Wang W, Wang J. Spatial and Temporal Abnormalities of Spontaneous Fixational Saccades and Their Correlates With Positive and Cognitive Symptoms in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2024; 50:78-88. [PMID: 37066730 PMCID: PMC10754167 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbad039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS Visual fixation is a dynamic process, with the spontaneous occurrence of microsaccades and macrosaccades. These fixational saccades are sensitive to the structural and functional alterations of the cortical-subcortical-cerebellar circuit. Given that dysfunctional cortical-subcortical-cerebellar circuit contributes to cognitive and behavioral impairments in schizophrenia, we hypothesized that patients with schizophrenia would exhibit abnormal fixational saccades and these abnormalities would be associated with the clinical manifestations. STUDY DESIGN Saccades were recorded from 140 drug-naïve patients with first-episode schizophrenia and 160 age-matched healthy controls during ten separate trials of 6-second steady fixations. Positive and negative symptoms were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Cognition was assessed using the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB). STUDY RESULTS Patients with schizophrenia exhibited fixational saccades more vertically than controls, which was reflected in more vertical saccades with angles around 90° and a greater vertical shift of horizontal saccades with angles around 0° in patients. The fixational saccades, especially horizontal saccades, showed longer durations, faster peak velocities, and larger amplitudes in patients. Furthermore, the greater vertical shift of horizontal saccades was associated with higher PANSS total and positive symptom scores in patients, and the longer duration of horizontal saccades was associated with lower MCCB neurocognitive composite, attention/vigilance, and speed of processing scores. Finally, based solely on these fixational eye movements, a K-nearest neighbors model classified patients with an accuracy of 85%. Conclusions: Our results reveal spatial and temporal abnormalities of fixational saccades and suggest fixational saccades as a promising biomarker for cognitive and positive symptoms and for diagnosis of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Lihua Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianhong Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huiru Cui
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanyan Wei
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengqing Xia
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjun Su
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yingying Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaochen Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Dan Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lothar Spillmann
- Department of Neurology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ian Max Andolina
- Institute of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Center for Brain and Brain-inspired Intelligence Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Niall McLoughlin
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
| | - Wei Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Center for Brain and Brain-inspired Intelligence Technology, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jijun Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
- Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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de Vries E, Fejer G, van Ede F. No obligatory trade-off between the use of space and time for working memory. COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 1:41. [PMID: 38665249 PMCID: PMC11041649 DOI: 10.1038/s44271-023-00042-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Space and time can each act as scaffolds for the individuation and selection of visual objects in working memory. Here we ask whether there is a trade-off between the use of space and time for visual working memory: whether observers will rely less on space, when memoranda can additionally be individuated through time. We tracked the use of space through directional biases in microsaccades after attention was directed to memory contents that had been encoded simultaneously or sequentially to the left and right of fixation. We found that spatial gaze biases were preserved when participants could (Experiment 1) and even when they had to (Experiment 2) additionally rely on time for object individuation. Thus, space remains a profound organizing medium for working memory even when other organizing sources are available and utilized, with no evidence for an obligatory trade-off between the use of space and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eelke de Vries
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - George Fejer
- Department of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Freek van Ede
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Roberts S, Kufahl PR, Ryznar RJ, Norris T, Patel S, Gubler KD, Paz D, Schwimer G, Besserman R, LaPorta AJ. Start-of-day oculomotor screening demonstrates the effects of fatigue and rest during a total immersion training program. Surgery 2023; 174:1193-1200. [PMID: 37640665 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2023.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Investigating changes in sleep and fatigue metrics during intensive surgical and trauma skills training, this study explored the dynamic association between oculomotor metrics and fatigue. Specifically, alterations in these relations over extended stress exposure, the influence of time of day, and the impact of fatigue exposure on sleep metrics were examined. METHODS Thirty-nine military medical students participated in 6 days of immersion, hyper-realistic, and high-stress experiential casualty training. Participants completed surveys assessing the state of sleepiness with oculomotor tests performed each morning and evening, analyzing eye movement and pupillary change to characterize fatigue. Participants wore Fitbit TM devices to measure overall time asleep and time in each sleep stage during the training. RESULTS Fitbit data showed increased average minutes in rapid eye movement, deep sleep, and less time in light sleep from day 1 to day 4. The microsaccade peak velocity-to-displacement ratio exhibited a morning decrease but not in afternoon sessions, indicating repeated but temporary effects of accumulated fatigue. There were no findings regarding pupil reactivity to illumination changes. CONCLUSION This study describes characteristics of fatigue measured by rapid and individually calibrated oculomotor tests. It demonstrates oculomotor relationships to fatigue in start-of-day testing, providing a direction for timing for optimal fatigue testing. These data suggest that improved sleep could signal resilience to fatigue during afternoon testing. Further investigation with more participants and longer duration is warranted. A deeper understanding of the interrelationships between training, sleep, and fatigue could improve surgical and military fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Roberts
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO.
| | | | - Rebecca J Ryznar
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO
| | - Taylor Norris
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO
| | - Sagar Patel
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO. https://twitter.com/SagarPatel98740
| | - K Dean Gubler
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO. https://twitter.com/RFF4Player
| | - Dean Paz
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO. https://twitter.com/StuDoc_DeanPaz
| | | | | | - Anthony J LaPorta
- Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Greenwood Village, CO
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Krasovskaya S, Kristjánsson Á, MacInnes WJ. Microsaccade rate activity during the preparation of pro- and antisaccades. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2257-2276. [PMID: 37258896 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02731-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Microsaccades belong to the category of fixational micromovements and may be crucial for image stability on the retina. Eye movement paradigms typically require fixational control, but this does not eliminate all oculomotor activity. The antisaccade task requires a planned eye movement in the direction opposite of an onset, allowing separation of planning and execution. We build on previous studies of microsaccades in the antisaccade task using a combination of fixed and mixed pro- and antisaccade blocks. We hypothesized that microsaccade rates may be reduced prior to the execution of antisaccades as compared with regular saccades (prosaccades). In two experiments, we measured microsaccades in four conditions across three trial blocks: one block each of fixed prosaccade and antisaccade trials, and a mixed block where both saccade types were randomized. We anticipated that microsaccade rates would be higher prior to antisaccades than prosaccades due to the need to preemptively suppress reflexive saccades during antisaccade generation. In Experiment 1, with monocular eye tracking, there was an interaction between the effects of saccade and block type on microsaccade rates, suggesting lower rates on antisaccade trials, but only within mixed blocks. In Experiment 2, eye tracking was binocular, revealing suppressed microsaccade rates on antisaccade trials. A cluster permutation analysis of the microsaccade rate over the course of a trial did not reveal any particular critical time for this difference in microsaccade rates. Our findings suggest that microsaccade rates reflect the degree of suppression of the oculomotor system during the antisaccade task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Krasovskaya
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland.
- Icelandic Vision Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Iceland, Nýi Garður, Sæmundargata 12, 102, Reykjavik, Iceland.
- Vision Modelling Lab, HSE University, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Árni Kristjánsson
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
- Icelandic Vision Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Iceland, Nýi Garður, Sæmundargata 12, 102, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - W Joseph MacInnes
- Vision Modelling Lab, HSE University, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Computer Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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Walcher S, Korda Ž, Körner C, Benedek M. The effects of type and workload of internal tasks on voluntary saccades in a target-distractor saccade task. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290322. [PMID: 37616320 PMCID: PMC10449167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
When we engage in internally directed cognition, like doing mental arithmetic or mind wandering, fewer cognitive resources are assigned for other activities like reacting to perceptual input-an effect termed perceptual decoupling. However, the exact conditions under which perceptual decoupling occurs and its underlying cognitive mechanisms are still unclear. Hence, the present study systematically manipulated the task type (arithmetic, visuospatial) and workload (control, low, high) of the internal task in a within-subject design and tested its effects on voluntary saccades in a target-distractor saccade task. As expected, engagement in internal tasks delayed saccades to the target. This effect was moderated by time, task, and workload: The delay was largest right after internal task onset and then decreased, potentially reflecting the intensity of internal task demands. Saccades were also more delayed for the high compared to the low workload condition in the arithmetic task, whereas workload conditions had similarly high effects in the visuospatial task. Findings suggests that perceptual decoupling of eye behavior gradually increases with internal demands on general resources and that perceptual decoupling is specifically sensitive to internal demands on visuospatial resources. The latter may be mediated by interference due to eye behavior elicited by the internal task itself. Internal tasks did not affect the saccade latency-deviation trade-off, indicating that while the internal tasks delayed the execution of the saccade, the perception of the saccade stimuli and spatial planning of the saccade continued unaffected in parallel to the internal tasks. Together, these findings shed further light on the specific mechanisms underlying perceptual decoupling by suggesting that perceptual decoupling of eye behavior increases as internal demands on cognitive resources overlap more strongly with demands of the external task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Walcher
- Creative Cognition Lab, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Živa Korda
- Creative Cognition Lab, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christof Körner
- Cognitive Psychology & Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Mathias Benedek
- Creative Cognition Lab, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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Barquero C, Chen JT, Munoz DP, Wang CA. Human microsaccade cueing modulation in visual- and memory-delay saccade tasks after theta burst transcranial magnetic stimulation over the frontal eye field. Neuropsychologia 2023; 187:108626. [PMID: 37336260 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Microsaccades that occur during periods of fixation are modulated by various cognitive processes and have an impact on visual processing. A network of brain areas is involved in microsaccade generation, including the superior colliculus and frontal eye field (FEF) which are involved in modulating microsaccade rate and direction after the appearance of a visual cue (referred to as microsaccade cueing modulation). Although the neural mechanisms underlying microsaccade cueing modulations have been demonstrated in monkeys, limited research has investigated a causal role of these areas in humans. By applying continuous theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation (cTBS) over the right FEF and vertex, we investigated the role of human FEF in modulating microsaccade responses after the appearance of a visual target in a visual- and memory-delay saccade task. After target appearance, microsaccade rate was initially suppressed but then increased in both cTBS conditions. More importantly, in the visual-delay task, microsaccades after target appearance were directed to the ipsilateral side more often with FEF, compared to vertex stimulation. Moreover, microsaccades were directed towards the target location, then to the opposite location of the target in both tasks, with larger effects in the visual-, compared to, memory-delay task. This microsaccade direction modulation was delayed after FEF stimulation in the memory-delay task. Overall, some microsaccade cueing modulations were moderately disrupted after FEF cTBS, suggesting a causal role for involvement of the human FEF in microsaccade generation after presentation of salient stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesar Barquero
- Eye-Tracking Laboratory, Brain and Consciousness Research Center, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Science and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan; Department of Physical Activity and Sport Science, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru
| | - Jui-Tai Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Douglas P Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Chin-An Wang
- Eye-Tracking Laboratory, Brain and Consciousness Research Center, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Science and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan.
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12
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Holmqvist K, Örbom SL, Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Alexander RG, Andersson R, Benjamins JS, Blignaut P, Brouwer AM, Chuang LL, Dalrymple KA, Drieghe D, Dunn MJ, Ettinger U, Fiedler S, Foulsham T, van der Geest JN, Hansen DW, Hutton SB, Kasneci E, Kingstone A, Knox PC, Kok EM, Lee H, Lee JY, Leppänen JM, Macknik S, Majaranta P, Martinez-Conde S, Nuthmann A, Nyström M, Orquin JL, Otero-Millan J, Park SY, Popelka S, Proudlock F, Renkewitz F, Roorda A, Schulte-Mecklenbeck M, Sharif B, Shic F, Shovman M, Thomas MG, Venrooij W, Zemblys R, Hessels RS. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:364-416. [PMID: 35384605 PMCID: PMC9535040 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section "An empirically based minimal reporting guideline").
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Holmqvist
- Department of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Saga Lee Örbom
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Blignaut
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | | | - Lewis L Chuang
- Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Institute for Working Environments and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute of Informatics, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tom Foulsham
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | | | - Dan Witzner Hansen
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Paul C Knox
- Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ellen M Kok
- Department of Education and Pedagogy, Division Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Online Learning and Instruction, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Lee
- University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Joy Yeonjoo Lee
- School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka M Leppänen
- Department of Psychology and Speed-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen Macknik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Päivi Majaranta
- TAUCHI Research Center, Computing Sciences, Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Antje Nuthmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jacob L Orquin
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Research in Marketing and Consumer Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stanislav Popelka
- Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Frank Proudlock
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Frank Renkewitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Bonita Sharif
- School of Computing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of General Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mark Shovman
- Eyeviation Systems, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Industrial Design, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mervyn G Thomas
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ward Venrooij
- Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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13
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Association between ADHD and vision problems. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:410-422. [PMID: 35931758 PMCID: PMC9812778 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01699-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
AIM To conduct the first systematic review and meta-analysis assessing whether attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with disorders of the eye, and/or altered measures of visual function. METHOD Based on a pre-registered protocol (PROSPERO: CRD42021256352), we searched PubMed, Web of Knowledge/Science, Ovid Medline, Embase and APA PsycINFO up to 16th November 2021, with no language/type of document restrictions. We included observational studies reporting at least one measure of vision in people of any age meeting DSM/ICD criteria for ADHD and in people without ADHD; or the prevalence of ADHD in people with and without vision disorders. Study quality was assessed with the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS). Random effects meta-analyses were used for data synthesis. RESULTS We included 42 studies in the narrative synthesis and 35 studies in the meta-analyses (3,250,905 participants). We found meta-analytic evidence of increased risk of astigmatism (OR = 1.79 [CI: 1.50, 2.14]), hyperopia and hypermetropia (OR = 1.79 [CI: 1.66, 1.94]), strabismus (OR = 1.93 [CI: 1.75, 2.12]), unspecified vision problems (OR = 1.94 [CI: 1.38, 2.73]) and reduced near point of convergence (OR = 5.02 [CI: 1.78, 14.11]); increased lag (Hedge's g = 0.63 [CI: 0.30, 0.96]) and variability (Hedge's g = 0.40 [CI: 0.17, 0.64]) of the accommodative response; and increased self-reported vision problems (Hedge's g = 0.63 [CI: 0.44, 0.82]) in people with ADHD compared to those without ADHD (with no significant heterogeneity). We also found meta-analytic evidence of no differences between people with and without ADHD on retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (Hedge's g = -0.19 [CI: -0.41, 0.02]) and refractive error (Hedge's g = 0.08 [CI: -0.26, 0.42]) (with no significant heterogeneity). DISCUSSION ADHD is associated with some self-reported and objectively ascertained functional vision problems, but not with structural alterations of the eye. Further studies should clarify the causal relationship, if any, between ADHD and problems of vision. TRIAL REGISTRATION PROSPERO registration: CRD42021256352.
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14
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Hoogerbrugge AJ, Strauch C, Oláh ZA, Dalmaijer ES, Nijboer TCW, Van der Stigchel S. Seeing the Forrest through the trees: Oculomotor metrics are linked to heart rate. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0272349. [PMID: 35917377 PMCID: PMC9345484 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluctuations in a person’s arousal accompany mental states such as drowsiness, mental effort, or motivation, and have a profound effect on task performance. Here, we investigated the link between two central instances affected by arousal levels, heart rate and eye movements. In contrast to heart rate, eye movements can be inferred remotely and unobtrusively, and there is evidence that oculomotor metrics (i.e., fixations and saccades) are indicators for aspects of arousal going hand in hand with changes in mental effort, motivation, or task type. Gaze data and heart rate of 14 participants during film viewing were used in Random Forest models, the results of which show that blink rate and duration, and the movement aspect of oculomotor metrics (i.e., velocities and amplitudes) link to heart rate–more so than the amount or duration of fixations and saccades. We discuss that eye movements are not only linked to heart rate, but they may both be similarly influenced by the common underlying arousal system. These findings provide new pathways for the remote measurement of arousal, and its link to psychophysiological features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J. Hoogerbrugge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Christoph Strauch
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Zoril A. Oláh
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Edwin S. Dalmaijer
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Tanja C. W. Nijboer
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Center of Excellence for Rehabilitation Medicine, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, De Hoogstraat Rehabilitation, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Therapy Science & Sports, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
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15
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Johnston R, Snyder AC, Khanna SB, Issar D, Smith MA. The eyes reflect an internal cognitive state hidden in the population activity of cortical neurons. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3331-3346. [PMID: 34963140 PMCID: PMC9340396 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have shown that global brain states such as arousal can be indexed by measuring the properties of the eyes. The spiking responses of neurons throughout the brain have been associated with the pupil, small fixational saccades, and vigor in eye movements, but it has been difficult to isolate how internal states affect the eyes, and vice versa. While recording from populations of neurons in the visual and prefrontal cortex (PFC), we recently identified a latent dimension of neural activity called "slow drift," which appears to reflect a shift in a global brain state. Here, we asked if slow drift is correlated with the action of the eyes in distinct behavioral tasks. We recorded from visual cortex (V4) while monkeys performed a change detection task, and PFC, while they performed a memory-guided saccade task. In both tasks, slow drift was associated with the size of the pupil and the microsaccade rate, two external indicators of the internal state of the animal. These results show that metrics related to the action of the eyes are associated with a dominant and task-independent mode of neural activity that can be accessed in the population activity of neurons across the cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Johnston
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Adam C Snyder
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Sanjeev B Khanna
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Deepa Issar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Matthew A Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
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16
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Raffi M, Trofè A, Meoni A, Gallelli L, Piras A. Optic Flow Speed and Retinal Stimulation Influence Microsaccades. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19116765. [PMID: 35682346 PMCID: PMC9180672 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19116765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Microsaccades are linked with extraretinal mechanisms that significantly alter spatial perception before the onset of eye movements. We sought to investigate whether microsaccadic activity is modulated by the speed of radial optic flow stimuli. Experiments were performed in the dark on 19 subjects who stood in front of a screen covering 135 × 107° of the visual field. Subjects were instructed to fixate on a central fixation point while optic flow stimuli were presented in full field, in the foveal, and in the peripheral visual field at different dot speeds (8, 11, 14, 17, and 20°/s). Fixation in the dark was used as a control stimulus. For almost all tested speeds, the stimulation of the peripheral retina evoked the highest microsaccade rate. We also found combined effects of optic flow speed and the stimulated retinal region (foveal, peripheral, and full field) for microsaccade latency. These results show that optic flow speed modulates microsaccadic activity when presented in specific retinal portions, suggesting that eye movement generation is strictly dependent on the stimulated retinal regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Raffi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (A.M.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Aurelio Trofè
- Department of Quality of Life, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy;
| | - Andrea Meoni
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (A.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Luca Gallelli
- Department of Health Science, School of Medicine, University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacovigilance Unit, Mater Domini Hospital Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessandro Piras
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (A.M.); (A.P.)
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17
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Allen AK, Jacobs MT, Davidenko N. Subjective control of polystable illusory apparent motion: Is control possible when the stimulus affords countless motion possibilities? J Vis 2022; 22:5. [PMID: 35708685 PMCID: PMC9206494 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.7.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigate whether a new polystable illusion, illusory apparent motion (IAM), is susceptible to subjective perceptual control as has been shown in other polystable stimuli (e.g., the Necker cube, apparent motion quartets). Previous research has demonstrated that, although IAM shares some properties in common with other polystable stimuli, it also has some unique ones that make it unclear whether it should have similar susceptibility to subjective control. For example, IAM can be perceived in a countless number of directions and motion patterns (e.g., up–down, left–left, contracting–expanding, shear, diagonal). To explore perceptual control of IAM, in experiment 1 (n = 99) we used a motion persistence paradigm where participants are primed with different motion patterns and are instructed to control (change or hold) the initial motion pattern and indicate when the motion pattern changes. Building on experiment 1, experiment 2 (n = 76) brings the method more in line with previous subjective control research, testing whether participants can control their perception of IAM in a context without priming and while dynamically reporting their percepts throughout the trial. Findings from the two experiments demonstrate that participants were able to control their perception of IAM across paradigms. We explore the implications of these findings, strategies reported, and open questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison K Allen
- Department of Psychology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.,
| | - Matthew T Jacobs
- Open Mind School, Silicon Valley Social Innovation Lab, Menlo Park, CA, USA.,
| | - Nicolas Davidenko
- Department of Psychology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.,
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18
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Eye movements in Parkinson's disease during visual search. J Neurol Sci 2022; 440:120299. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2022.120299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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19
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Kasneci E, Kasneci G, Trautwein U, Appel T, Tibus M, Jaeggi SM, Gerjets P. Do your eye movements reveal your performance on an IQ test? A study linking eye movements and socio-demographic information to fluid intelligence. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264316. [PMID: 35349582 PMCID: PMC8963570 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the main factors contributing to individual differences in fluid intelligence is one of the main challenges of psychology. A vast body of research has evolved from the theoretical framework put forward by Cattell, who developed the Culture-Fair IQ Test (CFT 20-R) to assess fluid intelligence. In this work, we extend and complement the current state of research by analysing the differential and combined relationship between eye-movement patterns and socio-demographic information and the ability of a participant to correctly solve a CFT item. Our work shows that a participant’s eye movements while solving a CFT item contain discriminative information and can be used to predict whether the participant will succeed in solving the test item. Moreover, the information related to eye movements complements the information provided by socio-demographic data when it comes to success prediction. In combination, both types of information yield a significantly higher predictive performance than each information type individually. To better understand the contributions of features related to eye movements and socio-demographic information to predict a participant’s success in solving a CFT item, we employ state-of-the-art explainability techniques and show that, along with socio-demographic variables, eye-movement data. Especially the number of saccades and the mean pupil diameter, significantly increase the discriminating power. The eye-movement features are likely indicative of processing efficiency and invested mental effort. Beyond the specific contribution to research on how eye movements can serve as a means to uncover mechanisms underlying cognitive processes, the findings presented in this work pave the way for further in-depth investigations of factors predicting individual differences in fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Gjergji Kasneci
- Data Science and Analytics, Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Trautwein
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tobias Appel
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maike Tibus
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Susanne M. Jaeggi
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - Peter Gerjets
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
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20
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Condor Montes SY, Bennett D, Bensinger E, Rani L, Sherkat Y, Zhao C, Helft Z, Roorda A, Green AJ, Sheehy CK. Characterizing Fixational Eye Motion Variance Over Time as Recorded by the Tracking Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2022; 11:35. [PMID: 35201339 PMCID: PMC8883154 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.11.2.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to characterize the benign biological variance of fixational microsaccades in a control population using a tracking scanning laser ophthalmoscope (TSLO), accounting for machine accuracy and precision, to determine ideal testing conditions to detect pathologic change in fixational eye motion (FEM). Methods We quantified the accuracy and precision of the TSLO, analyzing measurements made by three operators on a model eye. Repeated, 10-second retinal motion traces were then recorded in 17 controls, 3 times a day (morning, afternoon, and evening), on 3 separate days. Microsaccade metrics (MMs) of frequency, average amplitude, peak velocity, and peak acceleration were extracted. Trace to trace, interday, and intraday variability were calculated across all subjects. Results Intra-operator and machine variation contributed minimally to total variation, with only 0.007% and 0.14% contribution for frequency and amplitude respectively. Bias was detected, with lower accuracy for higher amplitudes. Participants had an average (SD) microsaccade frequency of 0.84 Hz (0.52 Hz), amplitude of 0.32 degrees (0.11 degrees), peak velocity of 43.68 degrees/s (14.02 degrees/s), and peak acceleration of 13,920.04 degrees/s2 (4,186.84 degrees/s2). The first trace recorded within a session significantly differed from the second two in both microsaccade acceleration and velocity (P < 0.05), and frequency was 0.098 Hz higher in the evenings (P < 0.05). There was no MM difference between days and no evidence of a session-level learning effect (P > 0.05). Conclusions The TSLO is both accurate and precise. However, biological inter- and intra-individual variance is present. Trace to trace variability and time of day should be accounted for to optimize detection of pathologic change.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Bennett
- University of California - San Francisco, Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ethan Bensinger
- University of California Berkeley, Vision Science Graduate Group, Berkeley, CA, USA.,University of California Berkeley, School of Optometry, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Lakshmisahithi Rani
- University of California - San Francisco, Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Younes Sherkat
- University of California Berkeley, College of Engineering, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Chao Zhao
- University of California - San Francisco, Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Austin Roorda
- University of California Berkeley, Vision Science Graduate Group, Berkeley, CA, USA.,University of California Berkeley, School of Optometry, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ari J Green
- University of California - San Francisco, Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California - San Francisco, Department of Ophthalmology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christy K Sheehy
- University of California - San Francisco, Department of Neurology, San Francisco, CA, USA.,C. Light Technologies, Inc. Berkeley, CA, USA
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21
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Wang CA, Munoz DP. Differentiating global luminance, arousal and cognitive signals on pupil size and microsaccades. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:7560-7574. [PMID: 34716728 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Pupil size reflects a proxy for neural activity associated with global luminance, arousal and cognitive processing. Microsaccades are also modulated by arousal and cognitive processing. Are these effects of arousal and cognitive signals on pupil size and microsaccades coordinated? If so, via what neural mechanisms? We hypothesized that if pupil size and microsaccades are coordinately modulated by these processes, pupil size immediately before microsaccade onset, as an index for ongoing cognitive and arousal processing, should correlate with microsaccade responses during tasks alternating these signals. Here, we examined the relationship between pupil size and microsaccade responses in tasks that included variations in global luminance, arousal and inhibitory control. Higher microsaccade peak velocities correlated with larger pre-microsaccade pupil response related to arousal and inhibitory control signals. In contrast, pupil responses evoked by global luminance signals did not correlate with microsaccade responses. Given the central role of the superior colliculus in microsaccade generation, these results suggest the critical involvement of the superior colliculus to coordinate pupil and microsaccade responses for arousal and inhibitory control modulations, but not for the pupil luminance modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-An Wang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Science and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.,Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Research Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Douglas P Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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22
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Hsu TY, Chen JT, Tseng P, Wang CA. Role of the frontal eye field in human microsaccade responses: A TMS study. Biol Psychol 2021; 165:108202. [PMID: 34634433 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Microsaccade is a type of fixational eye movements that is modulated by various sensory and cognitive processes, and impact our visual perception. Although studies in monkeys have demonstrated a functional role for the superior colliculus and frontal eye field (FEF) in controlling microsaccades, our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the generation of microsaccades is still limited. By applying continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS) over the right FEF and the vertex, we investigated the role of the FEF in generating human microsaccade responses evoked by salient stimuli or by changes in background luminance. We observed higher microsaccade rates prior to target appearance, and larger rebound in microsaccade occurrence following salient stimuli, when disruptive cTBS was applied over FEF compared to vertex stimulation. Moreover, the microsaccade direction modulation after changes in background luminance was disrupted with FEF stimulation. Together, our results constitute the first evidence of FEF modulation in human microsaccade responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yu Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain, and Consciousness (GIMBC), Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain and Consciousness Research Center (BCRC), TMU-Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Tai Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Philip Tseng
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain, and Consciousness (GIMBC), Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain and Consciousness Research Center (BCRC), TMU-Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chin-An Wang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Science and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan; Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Research Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.
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Borisov V, Kasneci E, Kasneci G. Robust cognitive load detection from wrist-band sensors. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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24
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TüEyeQ, a rich IQ test performance data set with eye movement, educational and socio-demographic information. Sci Data 2021; 8:154. [PMID: 34135342 PMCID: PMC8208979 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-021-00938-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the TüEyeQ data set - to the best of our knowledge - the most comprehensive data set generated on a culture fair intelligence test (CFT 20-R), i.e., an IQ Test, consisting of 56 single tasks, taken by 315 individuals aged between 18 and 30 years. In addition to socio-demographic and educational information, the data set also includes the eye movements of the individuals while taking the IQ test. Along with distributional information we also highlight the potential for predictive analysis on the TüEyeQ data set and report the most important covariates for predicting the performance of a participant on a given task along with their influence on the prediction. Measurement(s) | intelligence • eye movement • Socioeconomic Factors | Technology Type(s) | culture fair intelligence test (CFT-R) • eye tracking device • Questionnaire | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Homo sapiens |
Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.14173244
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25
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Schneider A, Sonderegger A, Krueger E, Meteier Q, Luethold P, Chavaillaz A. The interplay between task difficulty and microsaccade rate: Evidence for the critical role of visual load. J Eye Mov Res 2021; 13:10.16910/jemr.13.5.6. [PMID: 34122745 PMCID: PMC8188521 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.5.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous research, microsaccades have been suggested as psychophysiological indicators of task load. So far, it is still under debate how different types of task demands are influencing microsaccade rate. This piece of research examines the relation between visual load, mental load and microsaccade rate. Fourteen participants carried out a continuous performance task (n-back), in which visual (letters vs. abstract figures) and mental task load (1-back to 4-back) were manipulated as within-subjects variables. Eye tracking data, performance data as well as subjective workload were recorded. Data analysis revealed an increased level of microsaccade rate for stimuli of high visual demand (i.e. abstract figures), while mental demand (n-back-level) did not modulate microsaccade rate. In conclusion, the present results suggest that microsaccade rate reflects visual load of a task rather than its mental load.
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26
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Annerer‐Walcher S, Ceh SM, Putze F, Kampen M, Körner C, Benedek M. How Reliably Do Eye Parameters Indicate Internal Versus External Attentional Focus? Cogn Sci 2021; 45:e12977. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Felix Putze
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science University of Bremen
| | - Marvin Kampen
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science University of Bremen
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Abstract
Due to its reported high sampling frequency and precision, the Tobii Pro Spectrum is of potential interest to researchers who want to study small eye movements during fixation. We test how suitable the Tobii Pro Spectrum is for research on microsaccades by computing data-quality measures and common properties of microsaccades and comparing these to the currently most used system in this field: the EyeLink 1000 Plus. Results show that the EyeLink data provide higher RMS precision and microsaccade rates compared with data acquired with the Tobii Pro Spectrum. However, both systems provide microsaccades with similar directions and shapes, as well as rates consistent with previous literature. Data acquired at 1200 Hz with the Tobii Pro Spectrum provide results that are more similar to the EyeLink, compared to data acquired at 600 Hz. We conclude that the Tobii Pro Spectrum is a useful tool for researchers investigating microsaccades.
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28
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Kadem M, Herrmann B, Rodd JM, Johnsrude IS. Pupil Dilation Is Sensitive to Semantic Ambiguity and Acoustic Degradation. Trends Hear 2021; 24:2331216520964068. [PMID: 33124518 PMCID: PMC7607724 DOI: 10.1177/2331216520964068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Speech comprehension is challenged by background noise, acoustic interference, and linguistic factors, such as the presence of words with more than one meaning (homonyms and homophones). Previous work suggests that homophony in spoken language increases cognitive demand. Here, we measured pupil dilation—a physiological index of cognitive demand—while listeners heard high-ambiguity sentences, containing words with more than one meaning, or well-matched low-ambiguity sentences without ambiguous words. This semantic-ambiguity manipulation was crossed with an acoustic manipulation in two experiments. In Experiment 1, sentences were masked with 30-talker babble at 0 and +6 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and in Experiment 2, sentences were heard with or without a pink noise masker at –2 dB SNR. Speech comprehension was measured by asking listeners to judge the semantic relatedness of a visual probe word to the previous sentence. In both experiments, comprehension was lower for high- than for low-ambiguity sentences when SNRs were low. Pupils dilated more when sentences included ambiguous words, even when no noise was added (Experiment 2). Pupil also dilated more when SNRs were low. The effect of masking was larger than the effect of ambiguity for performance and pupil responses. This work demonstrates that the presence of homophones, a condition that is ubiquitous in natural language, increases cognitive demand and reduces intelligibility of speech heard with a noisy background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mason Kadem
- Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Björn Herrmann
- Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jennifer M Rodd
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ingrid S Johnsrude
- Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,School of Communication and Speech Disorders, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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29
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Abe T, Mishima K, Kitamura S, Hida A, Inoue Y, Mizuno K, Kaida K, Nakazaki K, Motomura Y, Maruo K, Ohta T, Furukawa S, Dinges DF, Ogata K. Tracking intermediate performance of vigilant attention using multiple eye metrics. Sleep 2021; 43:5733056. [PMID: 32040590 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsz219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Vigilance deficits account for a substantial number of accidents and errors. Current techniques to detect vigilance impairment measure only the most severe level evident in eyelid closure and falling asleep, which is often too late to avoid an accident or error. The present study sought to identify ocular biometrics of intermediate impairment of vigilance and develop a new technique that could detect a range of deficits in vigilant attention (VA). Sixteen healthy adults performed well-validated Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) for tracking vigilance attention while undergoing simultaneous recording of eye metrics every 2 hours during 38 hours of continuous wakefulness. A novel marker was found that measured VA when the eyes were open-the prevalence of microsaccades. Notably, the prevalence of microsaccades decreased in response to sleep deprivation and time-on-task. In addition, a novel algorithm for detecting multilevel VA was developed, which estimated performance on the PVT by integrating the novel marker with other eye-related indices. The novel algorithm also tracked changes in intermediate level of VA (specific reaction times in the PVT, i.e. 300-500 ms) during prolonged time-on-task and sleep deprivation, which had not been tracked previously by conventional techniques. The implication of the findings is that this novel algorithm, named "eye-metrical estimation version of the PVT: PVT-E," can be used to reduce human-error-related accidents caused by vigilance impairment even when its level is intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Abe
- Astronaut and Operation Control Unit, Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuo Mishima
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Neuropsychiatry, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita-city, Akita, Japan
| | - Shingo Kitamura
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akiko Hida
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuichi Inoue
- Department of Somnology, Tokyo Medical University, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koh Mizuno
- Astronaut and Operation Control Unit, Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Faculty of Education, Tohoku Fukushi University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kosuke Kaida
- Automotive Human Factors Research Center, Department of Information Technology and Human Factors, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kyoko Nakazaki
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Motomura
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Human Science, Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Minami-Ku, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazushi Maruo
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Toshiko Ohta
- Astronaut and Operation Control Unit, Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Satoshi Furukawa
- Astronaut and Operation Control Unit, Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - David F Dinges
- Division of Sleep and Chronobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Katsuhiko Ogata
- Astronaut and Operation Control Unit, Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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Chen JT, Yep R, Hsu YF, Cherng YG, Wang CA. Investigating Arousal, Saccade Preparation, and Global Luminance Effects on Microsaccade Behavior. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:602835. [PMID: 33746722 PMCID: PMC7973374 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.602835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsaccades, small saccadic eye movements occurring during fixation, have been suggested to be modulated by various sensory, cognitive, and affective processes relating to arousal. Although the modulation of fatigue-related arousal on microsaccade behavior has previously been characterized, the influence of other aspects of arousal, such as emotional arousal, is less understood. Moreover, microsaccades are modulated by cognitive processes (e.g., voluntary saccade preparation) that could also be linked to arousal. To investigate the influence of emotional arousal, saccade preparation, and global luminance levels on microsaccade behavior, emotional auditory stimuli were presented prior to the onset of a fixation cue whose color indicated to look either at the peripheral stimulus (pro-saccade) or in the opposite direction of the stimulus (anti-saccade). Microsaccade behavior was found to be significantly modulated by saccade preparation and global luminance level, but not emotional arousal. In the pro- and anti-saccade task, microsaccade rate was lower during anti-saccade preparation as compared to pro-saccade preparation, though microsaccade dynamics were comparable during both trial types. Our results reveal a differential role of arousal linked to emotion, fatigue, saccade preparation, and global luminance level on microsaccade behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Tai Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Rachel Yep
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Yu-Fan Hsu
- Research Center of Brain and Consciousness, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain, and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Giun Cherng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chin-An Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Research Center of Brain and Consciousness, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain, and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Science and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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31
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Vroegh T, Wiesmann SL, Henschke S, Lange EB. Manual motor reaction while being absorbed into popular music. Conscious Cogn 2021; 89:103088. [PMID: 33636569 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In three experiments, we investigated the behavioral consequences of being absorbed into music on performance in a concurrent task. We tested two competing hypotheses: Based on a cognitive load account, captivation of attention by the music and state absorption might slow down reactions in the decisional task. Alternatively, music could induce spontaneous motor activity, and being absorbed in music might result in a more autonomous, flow-driven behavior with quicker motor reactions. Participants performed a simple, visual, two-alternative forced-choice task while listening to popular musical excerpts. Subsequently, they rated their subjective experience using a short questionnaire. We presented music in four tempo categories (between 80 and 140 BPM) to account for a potential effect of tempo and an interaction between tempo and absorption. In Experiment 1, absorption was related to decreased reaction times (RTs) in the visual task. This effect was small, as expected in this setting, but replicable in Experiment 2. There was no effect of the music's tempo on RTs but a tendency of mind wandering to relate to task performance. After slightly changing the study setting in Experiment 3, flow predicted decreased RTs, but absorption alone - as part of the flow construct - did not predict RTs. To sum up, we demonstrated that being absorbed in music can have the behavioral consequence of speeded manual reactions in specific task contexts, and people seem to integrate the music into an active, flow-driven and therefore enhanced performance. However, shown relations depend on task settings, and a systematic study of context is necessary to understand how induced states and their measurement contribute to the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Vroegh
- Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sandro L Wiesmann
- Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany; Scene Grammar Lab, Department of Psychology, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | - Elke B Lange
- Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany
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32
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Meteier Q, Capallera M, Ruffieux S, Angelini L, Abou Khaled O, Mugellini E, Widmer M, Sonderegger A. Classification of Drivers' Workload Using Physiological Signals in Conditional Automation. Front Psychol 2021; 12:596038. [PMID: 33679516 PMCID: PMC7930004 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.596038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of automation in cars is increasing. In future vehicles, drivers will no longer be in charge of the main driving task and may be allowed to perform a secondary task. However, they might be requested to regain control of the car if a hazardous situation occurs (i.e., conditionally automated driving). Performing a secondary task might increase drivers' mental workload and consequently decrease the takeover performance if the workload level exceeds a certain threshold. Knowledge about the driver's mental state might hence be useful for increasing safety in conditionally automated vehicles. Measuring drivers' workload continuously is essential to support the driver and hence limit the number of accidents in takeover situations. This goal can be achieved using machine learning techniques to evaluate and classify the drivers' workload in real-time. To evaluate the usefulness of physiological data as an indicator for workload in conditionally automated driving, three physiological signals from 90 subjects were collected during 25 min of automated driving in a fixed-base simulator. Half of the participants performed a verbal cognitive task to induce mental workload while the other half only had to monitor the environment of the car. Three classifiers, sensor fusion and levels of data segmentation were compared. Results show that the best model was able to successfully classify the condition of the driver with an accuracy of 95%. In some cases, the model benefited from sensors' fusion. Increasing the segmentation level (e.g., size of the time window to compute physiological indicators) increased the performance of the model for windows smaller than 4 min, but decreased for windows larger than 4 min. In conclusion, the study showed that a high level of drivers' mental workload can be accurately detected while driving in conditional automation based on 4-min recordings of respiration and skin conductance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Meteier
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Marine Capallera
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Simon Ruffieux
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Leonardo Angelini
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Omar Abou Khaled
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Elena Mugellini
- HumanTech Institute, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Haute École Spécialisée de Suisse Occidentale, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Marino Widmer
- Department of Informatics, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Sonderegger
- Bern University of Applied Sciences, Business School, Institute for New Work, Bern, Switzerland
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33
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Abstract
Sensory systems often suppress self-generated sensations in order to discriminate them from those arising in the environment. The suppression of visual sensitivity during rapid eye movements is well established, and although functionally beneficial most of the time, it can limit the performance of certain tasks. Here, we show that with repeated practice, mechanisms that suppress visual signals during eye movements can be modified. People trained to detect brief visual patterns learn to turn off suppression around the expected time of the target. These findings demonstrate an elegant form of plasticity, capable of improving the visibility of behaviorally relevant stimuli without compromising the wider functional benefits of suppression. Perceptual stability is facilitated by a decrease in visual sensitivity during rapid eye movements, called saccadic suppression. While a large body of evidence demonstrates that saccadic programming is plastic, little is known about whether the perceptual consequences of saccades can be modified. Here, we demonstrate that saccadic suppression is attenuated during learning on a standard visual detection-in-noise task, to the point that it is effectively silenced. Across a period of 7 days, 44 participants were trained to detect brief, low-contrast stimuli embedded within dynamic noise, while eye position was tracked. Although instructed to fixate, participants regularly made small fixational saccades. Data were accumulated over a large number of trials, allowing us to assess changes in performance as a function of the temporal proximity of stimuli and saccades. This analysis revealed that improvements in sensitivity over the training period were accompanied by a systematic change in the impact of saccades on performance—robust saccadic suppression on day 1 declined gradually over subsequent days until its magnitude became indistinguishable from zero. This silencing of suppression was not explained by learning-related changes in saccade characteristics and generalized to an untrained retinal location and stimulus orientation. Suppression was restored when learned stimulus timing was perturbed, consistent with the operation of a mechanism that temporarily reduces or eliminates saccadic suppression, but only when it is behaviorally advantageous to do so. Our results indicate that learning can circumvent saccadic suppression to improve performance, without compromising its functional benefits in other viewing contexts.
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Chen L, Liao HI. Microsaccadic Eye Movements but not Pupillary Dilation Response Characterizes the Crossmodal Freezing Effect. Cereb Cortex Commun 2020; 1:tgaa072. [PMID: 34296132 PMCID: PMC8153075 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgaa072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In typical spatial orienting tasks, the perception of crossmodal (e.g., audiovisual) stimuli evokes greater pupil dilation and microsaccade inhibition than unisensory stimuli (e.g., visual). The characteristic pupil dilation and microsaccade inhibition has been observed in response to "salient" events/stimuli. Although the "saliency" account is appealing in the spatial domain, whether this occurs in the temporal context remains largely unknown. Here, in a brief temporal scale (within 1 s) and with the working mechanism of involuntary temporal attention, we investigated how eye metric characteristics reflect the temporal dynamics of perceptual organization, with and without multisensory integration. We adopted the crossmodal freezing paradigm using the classical Ternus apparent motion. Results showed that synchronous beeps biased the perceptual report for group motion and triggered the prolonged sound-induced oculomotor inhibition (OMI), whereas the sound-induced OMI was not obvious in a crossmodal task-free scenario (visual localization without audiovisual integration). A general pupil dilation response was observed in the presence of sounds in both visual Ternus motion categorization and visual localization tasks. This study provides the first empirical account of crossmodal integration by capturing microsaccades within a brief temporal scale; OMI but not pupillary dilation response characterizes task-specific audiovisual integration (shown by the crossmodal freezing effect).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihan Chen
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Schools of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- Key Laboratory of Machine Perception (Ministry of Education), Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Hsin-I Liao
- NTT Communication Science Laboratories, NTT Corporation, Atsugi, Kanagawa, 243-0198, Japan
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35
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Abstract
Saccadic eye movements can allude to emotional states and visual attention. Recent studies have shown that microsaccadic responses (i.e., small fixational eye movements) reflect advanced brain activity during attentional and cognitive tasks. Moreover, the microsaccadic activity related to emotional attention provides new insights into this field. For example, emotional pictures attenuate the microsaccadic rate, and microsaccadic responses to covert attention occur in the direction opposite to a negative emotional target. However, the effects of various emotional events on microsaccadic activity remain debatable. This review introduces visual attention and eye movement studies that support findings on the modulation of microsaccadic responses to emotional events, comparing them with typical microsaccadic responses. This review also discusses the brain neuronal mechanisms governing microsaccadic responses to the attentional shifts triggered by emotion-related stimuli. It is hard to reveal the direct brain pathway of the microsaccadic modulation, especially in advanced (e.g., sustained anger, envy, distrust, guilt, frustration, delight, attraction, trust, and love), but also in basic human emotions (i.e., anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise). However, non-human primates and human studies can uncover the possible brain pathways of emotional attention and microsaccades, thus providing future research directions. In particular, the facilitated (or reduced) attention is common evidence that microsaccadic activities change under a variety of social modalities (e.g., cognition, music, mental illness, and working memory) that elicit emotions and feelings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Kashihara
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan.
- Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University, 2-1 Minamijyousanjima, Tokushima, 770-8506, Japan.
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Duchowski AT, Krejtz K, Zurawska J, House DH. Using Microsaccades to Estimate Task Difficulty During Visual Search of Layered Surfaces. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS 2020; 26:2904-2918. [PMID: 30835226 DOI: 10.1109/tvcg.2019.2901881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We develop an approach to using microsaccade dynamics for the measurement of task difficulty/cognitive load imposed by a visual search task of a layered surface. Previous studies provide converging evidence that task difficulty/cognitive load can influence microsaccade activity. We corroborate this notion. Specifically, we explore this relationship during visual search for features embedded in a terrain-like surface, with the eyes allowed to move freely during the task. We make two relevant contributions. First, we validate an approach to distinguishing between the ambient and focal phases of visual search. We show that this spectrum of visual behavior can be quantified by a single previously reported estimator, known as Krejtz's K coefficient. Second, we use ambient/focal segments based on K as a moderating factor for microsaccade analysis in response to task difficulty. We find that during the focal phase of visual search (a) microsaccade magnitude increases significantly, and (b) microsaccade rate decreases significantly, with increased task difficulty. We conclude that the combined use of K and microsaccade analysis may be helpful in building effective tools that provide an indication of the level of cognitive activity within a task while the task is being performed.
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Ávila-Gandía V, Alarcón F, Perales JC, López-Román FJ, Luque-Rubia AJ, Cárdenas D. Dissociable Effects of Executive Load on Perceived Exertion and Emotional Valence during Submaximal Cycling. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17155576. [PMID: 32748826 PMCID: PMC7432348 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17155576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Endurance physical exercise is accompanied by subjective perceptions of exertion (reported perceived exertion, RPE), emotional valence, and arousal. These constructs have been hypothesized to serve as the basis for the exerciser to make decisions regarding when to stop, how to regulate pace, and whether or not to exercise again. In dual physical-cognitive tasks, the mental (executive) workload generated by the cognitive task has been shown to influence these perceptions, in ways that could also influence exercise-related decisions. In the present work, we intend to replicate and extend previous findings that manipulating the amount of executive load imposed by a mental task, performed concomitantly with a submaximal cycling session, influenced emotional states but not perceived exertion. Participants (experienced triathletes) were asked to perform a submaximal cycling task in two conditions with different executive demands (a two-back version of the n-back task vs. oddball) but equated in external physical load. Results showed that the higher executive load condition elicited more arousal and less positive valence than the lower load condition. However, both conditions did not differ in RPE. This experimental dissociation suggests that perceived exertion and its emotional correlates are not interchangeable, which opens the possibility that they could play different roles in exercise-related decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Ávila-Gandía
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Catholic University San Antonio, 30107 Murcia, Spain; (V.Á.-G.); (F.J.L.-R.); (A.J.L.-R.)
| | - Francisco Alarcón
- Department of General and Specific Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - José C. Perales
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain;
| | - F. Javier López-Román
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Catholic University San Antonio, 30107 Murcia, Spain; (V.Á.-G.); (F.J.L.-R.); (A.J.L.-R.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), 30107 Murcia, Spain
| | - Antonio J. Luque-Rubia
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Catholic University San Antonio, 30107 Murcia, Spain; (V.Á.-G.); (F.J.L.-R.); (A.J.L.-R.)
| | - David Cárdenas
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain;
- Sport and Health University Research Institute (iMUDS), University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
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38
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Abeles D, Amit R, Tal-Perry N, Carrasco M, Yuval-Greenberg S. Oculomotor inhibition precedes temporally expected auditory targets. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3524. [PMID: 32665559 PMCID: PMC7360783 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17158-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye movements are inhibited prior to the onset of temporally-predictable visual targets. This oculomotor inhibition effect could be considered a marker for the formation of temporal expectations and the allocation of temporal attention in the visual domain. Here we show that eye movements are also inhibited before predictable auditory targets. In two experiments, we manipulate the period between a cue and an auditory target to be either predictable or unpredictable. The findings show that although there is no perceptual gain from avoiding gaze-shifts in this procedure, saccades and blinks are inhibited prior to predictable relative to unpredictable auditory targets. These findings show that oculomotor inhibition occurs prior to auditory targets. This link between auditory expectation and oculomotor behavior reveals a multimodal perception action coupling, which has a central role in temporal expectations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dekel Abeles
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
| | - Roy Amit
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
| | - Noam Tal-Perry
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
| | - Marisa Carrasco
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Shlomit Yuval-Greenberg
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. .,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel.
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39
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Badde S, Myers CF, Yuval-Greenberg S, Carrasco M. Oculomotor freezing reflects tactile temporal expectation and aids tactile perception. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3341. [PMID: 32620746 PMCID: PMC7335189 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17160-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The oculomotor system keeps the eyes steady in expectation of visual events. Here, recording microsaccades while people performed a tactile, frequency discrimination task enabled us to test whether the oculomotor system shows an analogous preparatory response for unrelated tactile events. We manipulated the temporal predictability of tactile targets using tactile cues, which preceded the target by either constant (high predictability) or variable (low predictability) time intervals. We find that microsaccades are inhibited prior to tactile targets and more so for constant than variable intervals, revealing a tight crossmodal link between tactile temporal expectation and oculomotor action. These findings portray oculomotor freezing as a marker of crossmodal temporal expectation. Moreover, microsaccades occurring around the tactile target presentation are associated with reduced task performance, suggesting that oculomotor freezing mitigates potential detrimental, concomitant effects of microsaccades and revealing a crossmodal coupling between tactile perception and oculomotor action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Badde
- Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
| | - Caroline F Myers
- Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Shlomit Yuval-Greenberg
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
| | - Marisa Carrasco
- Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA
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Krejtz K, Żurawska J, Duchowski AT, Wichary S. Pupillary and Microsaccadic Responses to Cognitive Effort and Emotional Arousal During Complex Decision Making. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 13:10.16910/jemr.13.5.2. [PMID: 33828808 PMCID: PMC8008282 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.5.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of literature documents the sensitivity of pupil response to cognitive load (1)and emotional arousal (2). Recent empirical evidence also showed that microsaccade characteristics and dynamics can be modulated by mental fatigue and cognitive load (3). Very little is known about the sensitivity of microsaccadic characteristics to emotional arousal. The present paper demonstrates in a controlled experiment pupillary and microsaccadic responses to information processing during multi-attribute decision making under affective priming. Twenty-one psychology students were randomly assigned into three affective priming conditions (neutral, aversive, and erotic). Participants were tasked to make several discriminative decisions based on acquired cues. In line with the expectations, results showed microsaccadic rate inhibition and pupillary dilation depending on cognitive effort (number of acquired cues) prior to decision. These effects were moderated by affective priming. Aversivepriming strengthened pupillary and microsaccadic response to information processing effort.In general, results suggest that pupillary response is more biased by affective priming than microsaccadic rate. The results are discussed in the light of neuropsychological mechanisms of pupillary and microsaccadic behavior generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Krejtz
- Institute of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Justyna Żurawska
- Institute of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
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Otero-Millan J, Langston RE, Costela F, Macknik SL, Martinez-Conde S. Microsaccade generation requires a foveal anchor. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 12. [PMID: 33828756 PMCID: PMC7962683 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual scene characteristics can affect various aspects of saccade and microsaccade dynamics. For example, blank visual scenes are known to elicit diminished saccade and microsaccade production, compared to natural scenes. Similarly, microsaccades are less frequent in the dark. Yet, the extent to which foveal versus peripheral visual information contribute to microsaccade production remains unclear: because microsaccade directions are biased towards covert attention locations, it follows that peripheral visual stimulation could suffice to produce regular microsaccade dynamics, even without foveal stimulation being present. Here we determined the characteristics of microsaccades as a function of foveal and/or peripheral visual stimulation, while human subjects conducted four types of oculomotor tasks (fixation, free viewing, guided viewing and passive viewing). Foveal information was either available, or made unavailable, by the presentation of simulated scotomas. We found foveal stimulation to be critical for microsaccade production, and peripheral stimulation, by itself, to be insufficient to yield normal microsaccades. In each oculomotor task, microsaccade production decreased when scotomas blocked foveal stimulation. Across comparable foveal stimulation conditions, the type of peripheral stimulation (static versus dynamic) moreover affected microsaccade production, with dynamic backgrounds resulting in lower microsaccadic rates than static backgrounds. These results indicate that a foveal visual anchor is necessary for normal microsaccade generation. Whereas peripheral visual stimulation, on its own, does not suffice for normal microsaccade production, it can nevertheless modulate microsaccadic characteristics. These findings extend our current understanding of the links between visual input and ocular motor control, and may therefore help improve the diagnosis and treatment of ophthalmic conditions that degrade central vision, such as age-related macular degeneration.
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Alexander RG, Macknik SL, Martinez-Conde S. Microsaccades in Applied Environments: Real-World Applications of Fixational Eye Movement Measurements. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 12:10.16910/jemr.12.6.15. [PMID: 33828760 PMCID: PMC7962687 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Across a wide variety of research environments, the recording of microsaccades and other fixational eye movements has provided insight and solutions into practical problems. Here we review the literature on fixational eye movements-especially microsaccades-in applied and ecologically-valid scenarios. Recent technical advances allow noninvasive fixational eye movement recordings in real-world contexts, while observers perform a variety of tasks. Thus, fixational eye movement measures have been obtained in a host of real-world scenarios, such as in connection with driver fatigue, vestibular sensory deprivation in astronauts, and elite athletic training, among others. Here we present the state of the art in the practical applications of fixational eye movement research, examine its potential future uses, and discuss the benefits of including microsaccade measures in existing eye movement detection technologies. Current evidence supports the inclusion of fixational eye movement measures in real-world contexts, as part of the development of new or improved oculomotor assessment tools. The real-world applications of fixational eye movement measurements will only grow larger and wider as affordable high-speed and high-spatial resolution eye trackers become increasingly prevalent.
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43
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Redondo B, Vera J, Molina R, Davies LN, Jiménez R. Accommodative dynamics and attention: the influence of manipulating attentional capacity on accommodative lag and variability. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2020; 40:510-518. [DOI: 10.1111/opo.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jesús Vera
- Department of Optics University of Granada Granada Spain
| | - Rubén Molina
- Department of Optics University of Granada Granada Spain
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Hauperich AK, Young LK, Smithson HE. What makes a microsaccade? A review of 70 years of research prompts a new detection method. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 12. [PMID: 33828754 PMCID: PMC7962681 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A new method for detecting microsaccades in eye-movement data is presented, following a review of reported microsaccade properties between the 1940s and today. The review focuses on the parameter ranges within which certain physical markers of microsaccades are thought to occur, as well as any features of microsaccades that have been stably reported over time. One feature of microsaccades, their binocularity, drives the new microsaccade detection method. The binocular correlation method for microsaccade detection is validated on two datasets of binocular eye-movements recorded using video-based systems: one collected as part of this study, and one from Nyström et al, 2017. Comparisons between detection methods are made using precision-recall statistics. This confirms that the binocular correlation method performs well when compared to manual coders and performs favourably compared to the commonly used Engbert & Kliegl (2003) method with subsequent modifications (Engbert & Mergenthaler, 2006). The binocular correlation microsaccade detection method is easy to implement and MATLAB code is made available to download.
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45
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Roberts MJ, Lange G, Van Der Veen T, Lowet E, De Weerd P. The Attentional Blink is Related to the Microsaccade Rate Signature. Cereb Cortex 2019; 29:5190-5203. [PMID: 30941400 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The reduced detectability of a target T2 following discrimination of a preceding target T1 in the attentional blink (AB) paradigm is classically interpreted as a consequence of reduced attention to T2 due to attentional allocation to T1. Here, we investigated whether AB was related to changes in microsaccade rate (MSR). We found a pronounced MSR signature following T1 onset, characterized by MSR suppression from 200 to 328 ms and enhancement from 380 to 568 ms. Across participants, the magnitude of the MSR suppression correlated with the AB effect such that low T2 detectability corresponded to reduced MSR. However, in the same task, T1 error trials coincided with the presence of microsaccades. We discuss this apparent paradox in terms of known neurophysiological correlates of MS whereby cortical excitability is suppressed both during the microsaccade and MSR suppression, in accordance to poor T1 performance with microsaccade occurrence and poor T2 performance with microsaccade absence. Our data suggest a novel low-level mechanism contributing to AB characterized by reduced MSR, thought to cause suppressed visual cortex excitability. This opens the question of whether attention mediates T2 performance suppression independently from MSR, and if not, how attention interacts with MSR to produce the T2 performance suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Roberts
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Gesa Lange
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Tracey Van Der Veen
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Eric Lowet
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Peter De Weerd
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Maastricht Centre for Systems Biology (MaCSBio), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Intraocular Pressure as an Indicator of the Level of Induced Anxiety in Basketball. Optom Vis Sci 2019; 96:164-171. [PMID: 30801503 DOI: 10.1097/opx.0000000000001350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Our data demonstrate that intraocular pressure (IOP) is sensitive to anxiety manipulation in sport scenarios, specifically in a basketball free throw task. The present outcomes may be of special relevance because of its practical advantages for the objective control of athletes' anxiety levels. PURPOSE Athletes experience high levels of anxiety during sport competition, and IOP has demonstrated to reflect autonomous nervous system changes during mentally demanding situations. We tested whether different levels of induced anxiety during basketball free throw shooting alter IOP. METHODS We followed a repeated-measures design to test the effects of anxiety-induced manipulation during basketball free throw shooting on IOP, shooting performance, and perceived anxiety. Eighteen amateur basketball players performed three experimental sessions consisting of 100 free throws each. However, we gave three different instructions to participants regarding the score assigned to each free throw, allowing us to manipulate the level of induced anxiety (low, medium, and high). RESULTS Confirming a successful anxiety manipulation, basketball players reported more perceived anxiety with higher levels of induced anxiety (P < .001, η = 0.37). Our data show that higher levels of induced anxiety provoke an acute IOP rise (P < .001, η = 0.44), with the low-, medium-, and high-anxiety-induced conditions promoting an average IOP rise of 0.21, 1.63, and 18.46%, respectively. Also, there was a linear IOP rise over time in the high-anxiety-induced condition (r = 0.82). Nevertheless, we found no effect of anxiety-induced manipulation on basketball free throw performance (P = .93). CONCLUSIONS Intraocular pressure is sensitive to anxiety-induced manipulation during basketball free throw shooting, showing an increase in parallel with accumulated anxiety. Based on these findings, IOP may be considered a promising tool for the assessment of the level of anxiety in certain sport situations. Future studies are required to explore the generalizability of these results in other scenarios with different physical and mental demands.
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Babu MD, JeevithaShree DV, Prabhakar G, Saluja KPS, Pashilkar A, Biswas P. Estimating Pilots' Cognitive Load From Ocular Parameters Through Simulation and In-Flight Studies. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12. [PMID: 33828735 PMCID: PMC7880144 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.3.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze (where one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. This paper investigated use of eye gaze trackers in military aviation environment to automatically estimate pilot’s cognitive load from ocular parameters. In the first study, we used a fixed base variable stability flight simulator with longitudinal tracking task and collected data from 14 military pilots. In a second study, we undertook four test flights with BAES Hawk Trainer and Jaguar aircrafts doing air to ground attack training missions and constant G level turn maneuvers up to +5G. Our study found that ocular parameters like rate of fixation is significantly different in different flying conditions. It also significantly correlated with rate of descent during air to ground dive training task, normal load factor (G) of the aircraft during constant G level turn maneuvers and pilot’s control inceptor and tracking error in simulation tasks. Results from our studies can be used for real time estimation of pilots’ cognitive load, providing suitable warnings and alerts to the pilot in cockpit and training of military pilots on cognitive load management during operational missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dilli Babu
- Aircraft System and Testing Establishment, Indian Air Force, Bangalore, India.,National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (ACSIR), Ghaziabad - 201002, India
| | | | | | | | - Abhay Pashilkar
- National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (ACSIR), Ghaziabad - 201002, India
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Barnhart AS, Costela FM, Martinez-Conde S, Macknik SL, Goldinger SD. Microsaccades reflect the dynamics of misdirected attention in magic. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12:10.16910/jemr.12.6.7. [PMID: 33828753 PMCID: PMC7962680 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The methods of magicians provide powerful tools for enhancing the ecological validity of laboratory studies of attention. The current research borrows a technique from magic to explore the relationship between microsaccades and covert attention under near-natural viewing conditions. We monitored participants' eye movements as they viewed a magic trick where a coin placed beneath a napkin vanishes and reappears beneath another napkin. Many participants fail to see the coin move from one location to the other the first time around, thanks to the magician's misdirection. However, previous research was unable to distinguish whether or not participants were fooled based on their eye movements. Here, we set out to determine if microsaccades may provide a window into the efficacy of the magician's misdirection. In a multi-trial setting, participants monitored the location of the coin (which changed positions in half of the trials), while engaging in a delayed match-to-sample task at a different spatial location. Microsaccades onset times varied with task difficulty, and microsaccade directions indexed the locus of covert attention. Our combined results indicate that microsaccades may be a useful metric of covert attentional processes in applied and ecologically valid settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francisco M Costela
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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49
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Krueger E, Schneider A, Sawyer BD, Chavaillaz A, Sonderegger A, Groner R, Hancock PA. Microsaccades Distinguish Looking From Seeing. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12. [PMID: 33828752 PMCID: PMC7962679 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding our visual world requires both looking and seeing. Dissociation of these processes can result in the phenomenon of inattentional blindness or 'looking without seeing'. Concomitant errors in applied settings can be serious, and even deadly. Current visual data analysis cannot differentiate between just 'looking' and actual processing of visual information, i.e., 'seeing'. Differentiation may be possible through the examination of microsaccades; the involuntary, smallmagnitude saccadic eye movements that occur during processed visual fixation. Recent work has suggested that microsaccades are post-attentional biosignals, potentially modulated by task. Specifically, microsaccade rates decrease with increased mental task demand, and increase with growing visual task difficulty. Such findings imply that there are fundamental differences in microsaccadic activity between visual and nonvisual tasks. To evaluate this proposition, we used a high-speed eye tracker to record participants in looking for differences between two images or, doing mental arithmetic, or both tasks in combination. Results showed that microsaccade rate was significantly increased in conditions that require high visual attention, and decreased in conditions that require less visual attention. The results support microsaccadic rate reflecting visual attention, and level of visual information processing. A measure that reflects to what extent and how an operator is processing visual information represents a critical step for the application of sophisticated visual assessment to real world tasks.
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