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Wright I, Minshall G, Young N, Riggs C. Fractures in Thoroughbred racing and the potential for pre-race identification of horses at risk. Equine Vet J 2024; 56:424-436. [PMID: 38200406 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Risk rates for and predisposing factors to fractures occurring in Thoroughbred racing that have been published in peer reviewed journals are documented. The potential for currently available techniques to identify horses at increased risk for fracture is discussed on the bases of principles, practicalities, advantages, disadvantages and current data. All are reviewed in light of justifiable decision making and importance of fractures to horseracing's social license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Wright
- Newmarket Equine Referrals, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK
| | | | | | - Christopher Riggs
- Equine Welfare Research Foundation, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
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2
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Bergstrom TC, Spriet M, Carpenter RS, Jacques KL, Stover SM. Condylar fracture location is correlated to exercise history in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet J 2024. [PMID: 38584321 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Condylar fractures are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Thoroughbred racehorses. Condylar fractures have a variety of fracture configurations that suggest there may be differences in aetiopathogenesis. OBJECTIVE To determine if exercise history differs with condylar fracture location in a population of Thoroughbred racehorses. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective analysis of clinical and exercise data. METHODS Exercise history of Thoroughbred racehorses that had condylar fracture repair between 1 January 2018 and 28 February 2021 was compared between racehorses that had fractures located radiographically either within the parasagittal groove (PSG) or abaxial to the PSG (non-PSG). Age, sex, and last event (race, timed work) matched control groups were compared between the PSG and non-PSG groups. Additionally, exercise history variables of both groups were each compared with a group-specific control population, each consisting of three control racehorses of equivalent age and sex matched to each affected racehorse by last event (race or official timed work) before fracture. RESULTS Eighty-two horses with 84 fractures (45 PSG, 39 non-PSG) met inclusion criteria. Age was not different between groups (PSG: 3.4 ± 1.3 years [mean ± SD], non-PSG: 3.7 ± 1.3, p = 0.3). Number of races (PSG: 5.3 ± 7.1, non-PSG: 11.4 ± 8.9, p < 0.001), total race furlongs (PSG: 38.2 ± 54.7, non-PSG: 79.2 ± 64, p = 0.003), and number of active days (PSG: 304 ± 224, non-PSG: 488 ± 314, p = 0.003) before fracture were greater; while mean number of layups was fewer (PSG: 1.0 ± 1.2, non-PSG: 0.5 ± 0.7, p = 0.02) in horses with non-PSG fracture. Horses with non-PSG fracture had more differences compared with their respective control group than horses with PSG fractures. Outcomes following fracture repair were not different between groups. MAIN LIMITATIONS Retrospective study, one regional racehorse population, two-dimensional imaging and potential inherent bias for fracture localisation, low statistical power for return to performance analysis. CONCLUSIONS Thoroughbred racehorses with non-PSG condylar fractures have a more extensive exercise history than horses with PSG condylar fractures, suggesting differences in fracture aetiopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Bergstrom
- William R. Prichard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Mathieu Spriet
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Kevin L Jacques
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Susan M Stover
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Bergstrom TC, Spriet M, O'Brion J, Carpenter R. Positron emission tomography assessment of metacarpal/metatarsal condylar fractures post surgical repair: Prospective study in 14 racehorses. Vet Surg 2024; 53:131-142. [PMID: 37732635 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.14031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess 18F-sodium fluoride (18F-NaF) positron emission tomography (PET) findings associated with metacarpal/metatarsal condylar fractures at the time of fracture repair and through healing. STUDY DESIGN Prospective descriptive study. ANIMALS Fourteen Thoroughbred racehorses. METHODS 18F-NaF PET was performed within 4 days of surgical metacarpal/metatarsal condylar fracture repair, on both the injured and contralateral limb. Follow-up PET scans were offered at 3- and 5-months post fracture repair. Areas of abnormal uptake were assessed using a previously validated grading system. RESULTS Eight fractures were located in the parasagittal groove (PSG) (six lateral and two medial) and six fractures were located abaxial to the PSG (non-PSG) through the palmar/plantar condyle (all lateral). All horses in the latter group had uptake in the lateral palmar condyle of the contralateral limb suggestive of stress remodeling. Three horses with PSG fractures had uptake in a similar location in the contralateral limb. Horses with lateral condylar fracture only presented minimal or mild uptake in the medial condyle, which is considered atypical in the front limbs for horses in full training. Four horses developed periarticular uptake in the postoperative period suggestive of degenerative joint disease, three of these horses had persistent uptake at the fracture site. These four horses did not return to racing successfully. CONCLUSION The findings of this study provide evidence of pre-existing lesions and specific uptake patterns in racehorses suffering from metacarpal/metatarsal condylar fractures. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE PET has a possible role in the prevention, diagnosis, and postoperative monitoring of metacarpal/metatarsal condylar fractures in racehorses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Bergstrom
- William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Mathieu Spriet
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Julie O'Brion
- Southern California Equine Foundation, Arcadia, California, USA
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Nagy A, Boros K, Dyson S. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Computed Tomographic and Radiographic Findings in the Metacarpophalangeal Joints of 40 Non-Lame Thoroughbred Yearlings. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3466. [PMID: 38003084 PMCID: PMC10668665 DOI: 10.3390/ani13223466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Most catastrophic injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses involve the fetlock. There is no description of comparative imaging in Thoroughbreds entering racehorse training. The aim was to describe MRI, CT and radiographic findings in the metacarpophalangeal joint of non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings. Forty Thoroughbreds underwent low-field MRI, fan-beam CT and radiographic examinations of both metacarpophalangeal joints. Images were assessed subjectively. A hypoattenuating lesion of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal bone (McIII) was identified in 33/80 limbs in CT reconstructions. Cone-shaped mineralisation in the sagittal ridge was detected in MR images (n = 17) and in CT images (n = 5). Mild hyperattenuation was common in trabecular bone in the dorsomedial (36/80) and palmarolateral (25/80) metacarpal condyles in CT reconstructions. A focal lesion in the subchondral bone was seen in the proximal phalanx (n = 19) and in McIII (n = 11). Enlarged vascular channels were detected in the metacarpal condyles in 57/80 limbs and in the proximal sesamoid bones in all limbs. Signs of bone modelling are seen in yearling Thoroughbred fetlocks. Sagittal ridge lesions were common and are likely associated with osteochondrosis or other developmental osteochondral defects. Focal lesions in the subchondral bone of McIII and proximal phalanx can indicate developmental abnormalities or subtle subchondral bone injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Nagy
- Equine Department and Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Doramajor, 2225 Ullo, Hungary;
| | - Koppány Boros
- Equine Department and Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Doramajor, 2225 Ullo, Hungary;
| | - Sue Dyson
- The Cottage, Church Road, Market Weston, Diss IP22 2NX, UK;
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Daniel CR, Taylor SE, McPhee S, Wolfram U, Schwarz T, Sommer S, Kershaw LE. Relationship between CT-Derived Bone Mineral Density and UTE-MR-Derived Porosity Index in Equine Third Metacarpal and Metatarsal Bones. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2780. [PMID: 37685045 PMCID: PMC10487176 DOI: 10.3390/ani13172780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatigue-related subchondral bone injuries of the third metacarpal/metatarsal (McIII/MtIII) bones are common causes of wastage, and they are welfare concerns in racehorses. A better understanding of bone health and strength would improve animal welfare and be of benefit for the racing industry. The porosity index (PI) is an indirect measure of osseous pore size and number in bones, and it is therefore an interesting indicator of bone strength. MRI of compact bone using traditional methods, even with short echo times, fail to generate enough signal to assess bone architecture as water protons are tightly bound. Ultra-short echo time (UTE) sequences aim to increase the amount of signal detected in equine McIII/MtIII condyles. Cadaver specimens were imaged using a novel dual-echo UTE MRI technique, and PI was calculated and validated against quantitative CT-derived bone mineral density (BMD) measures. BMD and PI are inversely correlated in equine distal Mc/MtIII bone, with a weak mean r value of -0.29. There is a statistically significant difference in r values between the forelimbs and hindlimbs. Further work is needed to assess how correlation patterns behave in different areas of bone and to evaluate PI in horses with and without clinically relevant stress injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carola Riccarda Daniel
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Sarah Elizabeth Taylor
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Samuel McPhee
- Institute of Mechanical, Process and Energy Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK; (S.M.)
| | - Uwe Wolfram
- Institute of Mechanical, Process and Energy Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK; (S.M.)
| | - Tobias Schwarz
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Stefan Sommer
- Siemens Healthcare, 8047 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Swiss Center for Musculoskeletal Imaging (SCMI), Balgrist Campus, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Advanced Clinical Imaging Technology (ACIT), Siemens Healthcare AG, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lucy E. Kershaw
- Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences and Edinburgh Imaging, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK;
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Dosi MCM, Riggs CM, May J, Lee A, Cillan-Garcia E, Pagan J, McGorum BC. Thoroughbred Racehorses in Hong Kong Require Vitamin D Supplementation to Mitigate the Risk of Low Vitamin D Status. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2145. [PMID: 37443942 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a paucity of data relating to the vitamin D status of racehorses. We hypothesised that the management of racehorses in Hong Kong (HK) predisposes to low vitamin D status unless they receive dietary supplementation. Serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 (25OHD2), 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) and total 25-hydroxyvitamin D (total 25OHD) for 79 non-grazing HK racehorses were compared with those for 22 racehorses training in the United Kingdom (UK) that grazed for ≥1 h/d, and for which published data exists. A nested group of 41 HK horses was sampled twice to determine the effect of the duration in HK on vitamin D status. The HK horses had significantly lower serum concentrations of total 25OHD and 25OHD2 than the UK horses; 25OHD2 was undetectable in 15/79 HK sera and serum concentrations of 25OHD2 declined with the duration in HK. The main determinants of vitamin D status were assessed using linear regression; the retained variables were the 25OHD3 concentration and the duration in HK. The inverse relationship between the serum concentrations of 25OHD2 and 25OHD3, previously identified in humans, was observed for the first time in horses. In conclusion, HK racehorses have low serum 25OHD2 and total 25OHD concentrations and rely on D3 supplementation to maintain adequate vitamin D status. Further study is required to determine the optimal form of dietary vitamin D supplementation for Thoroughbred racehorses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda C M Dosi
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Chris M Riggs
- The Hong Kong Jockey Club Equine Welfare Research Foundation, Sha Tin Racecourse, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jessica May
- The Hong Kong Jockey Club Equine Welfare Research Foundation, Sha Tin Racecourse, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Adele Lee
- The Hong Kong Jockey Club Equine Welfare Research Foundation, Sha Tin Racecourse, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Eugenio Cillan-Garcia
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Joe Pagan
- Kentucky Equine Research, Versailles, KY 40383, USA
| | - Bruce C McGorum
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK
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Noordwijk KJ, Chen L, Ruspi BD, Schurer S, Papa B, Fasanello DC, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Porter IR, Basran PS, Donnelly E, Reesink HL. Metacarpophalangeal Joint Pathology and Bone Mineral Density Increase with Exercise but Not with Incidence of Proximal Sesamoid Bone Fracture in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13050827. [PMID: 36899684 PMCID: PMC10000193 DOI: 10.3390/ani13050827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) fracture is the leading cause of fatal musculoskeletal injury in Thoroughbred racehorses in Hong Kong and the US. Efforts are underway to investigate diagnostic modalities that could help identify racehorses at increased risk of fracture; however, features associated with PSB fracture risk are still poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate third metacarpal (MC3) and PSB density and mineral content using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), computed tomography (CT), Raman spectroscopy, and ash fraction measurements, and (2) investigate PSB quality and metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) pathology using Raman spectroscopy and CT. Forelimbs were collected from 29 Thoroughbred racehorse cadavers (n = 14 PSB fracture, n = 15 control) for DXA and CT imaging, and PSBs were sectioned for Raman spectroscopy and ash fraction measurements. Bone mineral density (BMD) was greater in MC3 condyles and PSBs of horses with more high-speed furlongs. MCPJ pathology, including palmar osteochondral disease (POD), MC3 condylar sclerosis, and MC3 subchondral lysis were greater in horses with more high-speed furlongs. There were no differences in BMD or Raman parameters between fracture and control groups; however, Raman spectroscopy and ash fraction measurements revealed regional differences in PSB BMD and tissue composition. Many parameters, including MC3 and PSB bone mineral density, were strongly correlated with total high-speed furlongs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kira J. Noordwijk
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Leyi Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Bianca D. Ruspi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sydney Schurer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Brittany Papa
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Diana C. Fasanello
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sean P. McDonough
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Scott E. Palmer
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ian R. Porter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Parminder S. Basran
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Eve Donnelly
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Correspondence: (E.D.); (H.L.R.)
| | - Heidi L. Reesink
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Correspondence: (E.D.); (H.L.R.)
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Posukonis MN, Daglish J, Wright IM, Kawcak CE. Novel computed tomographic analysis demonstrates differences in patterns of bone mineral content between fracture configurations in distal condylar fractures of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bones in 97 Thoroughbred racehorses. Am J Vet Res 2022; 83:ajvr.22.03.0060. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.22.03.0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate bone mineral content patterns between fracture configurations using novel CT image analysis.
ANIMALS
CT images from 97 Thoroughbred racehorses with third metacarpal/tarsal condyle fractures provide the case population for analysis.
PROCEDURES
Fractures were grouped by radiographic appearance. Image analysis objectively measured area of highly attenuating pixels (aHAP), areal density of highly attenuating pixels (dHAP) utilizing novel convex hull analysis, and subjective assessment of apparent attenuation intensity ranking (AAIR) for each fracture. Differences between fracture configuration groups were evaluated.
RESULTS
Analysis of dHAP identified lower-density regions of highly attenuating pixels in propagating fractures and higher-density regions of highly attenuating pixels in unicortical fractures (P = .028). Complete and incomplete configurations were almost indistinguishable in dHAP (P = 1.000). The ratio of dHAP between fractured and nonfractured condyles revealed higher density gradients between condyles in unicortical (P = .040) and incomplete (P = .031) fractures than propagating fractures.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Differences in patterns of bone mineral content were identified between propagating, bicortical (incomplete and complete), and unicortical fractures of third metacarpal/tarsal bone condyles. Computer-assisted geometric measurement of dHAP identified on CT images could help to assess fracture risk in equine athletes. This application may have greater relevance as standing CT screening becomes more available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan N. Posukonis
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
| | | | | | - Christopher E. Kawcak
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
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9
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Garrett KS. When radiography and ultrasonography are not enough: the use of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for equine lameness cases. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 260:1113-1123. [PMID: 35544423 DOI: 10.2460/javma.22.03.0136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
MRI and CT have enhanced our diagnostic abilities for equine lameness beyond what is available using radiography and ultrasonography. This has allowed veterinarians to better prognosticate and treat lameness conditions, improving patient outcomes. This article discusses the basic principles behind MRI and CT, their advantages and disadvantages, the different types of equipment available for clinical use in horses, the typical diagnostic workup prior to pursuing advanced imaging, and common regions where MRI and CT are used clinically. The companion Currents in One Health by Spriet, AJVR, July 2022, discusses even more advanced equine imaging in the form of positron emission tomography. Combined, these future directions of MRI, CT, and positron emission tomography may include improved ability to image standing horses or screen for injury prevention.
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10
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Cianci JM, Wulster KB, Richardson DW, Stefanovski D, Ortved KF. Computed tomographic assessment of fracture characteristics and subchondral bone injury in Thoroughbred racehorses with lateral condylar fractures and their relationship to outcome. Vet Surg 2022; 51:426-437. [PMID: 35165910 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of fracture characteristics and concurrent subchondral bone pathology identified with computed tomography (CT) on the racing performance of Thoroughbred racehorses with fractures of the MC3/MT3 lateral condyle. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. SAMPLE POPULATION Thoroughbred racehorses (n = 50) with a fracture of the MC3/MT3 lateral condyle, which had preoperative CT and internal fixation performed. METHODS Medical records were reviewed for age, sex, limb, and surgical treatment. Computed tomography scans were evaluated to determine fracture characteristics including length, whether the fracture was incomplete or complete, and displacement. The presence of subchondral bone injury (SBI), sesamoid bone fracture, articular comminution, and fragmentation in the joint was noted. Racing data was obtained from an online database. Univariable and multivariable analyses determined associations between independent variables and outcomes. RESULTS Thirty-three (66%) horses raced after surgery. Horses with sesamoid bone fractures (P = .021), MC3/MT3 comminution (P = .016) and intra-articular fragmentation (P = .015) were less likely to race postoperatively. Concurrent SBI did not affect outcome. In the final multivariable model, sex (P = .015) and whether a fracture was incomplete or complete (P = .007) were the most significant predictors of racing postoperatively with females and horses with complete fractures being less likely to race. CONCLUSION The prognosis for racing after a lateral condylar fracture is favorable but is decreased in horses with complete fractures and certain concurrent joint pathology. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Horses presenting with lateral condylar fractures commonly have concurrent joint pathology. Computed tomography can aid in preoperative evaluation and prognostication by enabling more complete fracture assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine M Cianci
- Department of Clinical Studies New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Kathryn B Wulster
- Department of Clinical Studies New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Dean W Richardson
- Department of Clinical Studies New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Darko Stefanovski
- Department of Clinical Studies New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Kyla F Ortved
- Department of Clinical Studies New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
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11
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Crawford KL, Finnane A, Greer RM, Barnes TS, Phillips CJC, Woldeyohannes SM, Bishop EL, Perkins NR, Ahern BJ. Survival Analysis of Training Methodologies and Other Risk Factors for Musculoskeletal Injury in 2-Year-Old Thoroughbred Racehorses in Queensland, Australia. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:698298. [PMID: 34796223 PMCID: PMC8593238 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.698298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Musculoskeletal injuries remain a global problem for the Thoroughbred racing industry and there is conflicting evidence regarding the effect of age on the incidence of injuries. The ideal time to commence race training is strongly debated, with limited supporting literature. There is also conflicting evidence regarding the effect of high-speed exercise on musculoskeletal injuries. There is a strong interest in developing training and management strategies to reduce the frequency of injuries. The types of musculoskeletal injuries vary between 2-year-old and older horses, with dorsal metacarpal disease the most common injury in 2-year-old horses. It is likely that risk factors for injury in 2-year-old horses are different than those for older horses. It is also likely that the risk factors may vary between types of injury. This study aimed to determine the risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries and dorsal metacarpal disease. We report the findings of a large scale, prospective observational study of 2-year-old horses in Queensland, Australia. Data were collected weekly for 56-weeks, from 26 trainers, involving 535 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses, 1, 258 training preparations and 7, 512-weeks of exercise data. A causal approach was used to develop our statistical models, to build on the existing literature surrounding injury risk, by incorporating the previously established causal links into our analyses. Where previous data were not available, industry experts were consulted. Survival analyses were performed using Cox proportional hazards or Weibull regression models. Analysis of musculoskeletal injuries overall revealed the hazard was reduced with increased exposure to high-speed exercise [Hazard ratio (HR) 0.89, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.84, 0.94, p < 0.001], increased number of training preparations (HR 0.58, 95% CI 0.50, 0.67, p < 0.001), increased rest before the training preparation (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.83, 0.96, p = 0.003) and increased dam parity (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.77, 0.97, p = 0.01). The hazard of injury was increased with increasing age that training commenced (HR 1.13, 95% CI 1.06, 1.19, p < 0.001). Analyses were then repeated with the outcome of interest dorsal metacarpal disease. Factors that were protective against dorsal metacarpal disease and musculoskeletal injuries overall included: increased total cumulative distance (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.82, 0.97, p = 0.001) and total cumulative days exercised as a gallop (HR 0.96, 95% CI 0.92, 0.99, p = 0.03), the number of the training preparations (HR 0.43, 95% CI 0.30, 0.61, p < 0.001). The age that training commenced was harmful for both dorsal metacarpal disease (HR 1.17, 95% CI 1.07, 1.28, p < 0.001 and overall musculoskeletal injuries.). The use of non-ridden training modalities was protective for dorsal metacarpal disease (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.81, 0.97, p = 0.008), but not musculoskeletal injuries overall. The male sex increased the hazard of DMD compared to females (HR 2.58, 95% CI 1.20, 5.56, p = 0.02), but not MSI overall. In summary, the hazard of musculoskeletal injury is greatest for 2-year-old horses that are born from uniparous mares, commence training at a later age, are in their first training preparation, have undertaken little high-speed exercise or had limited rest before their training preparation. The hazard of dorsal metacarpal disease is greatest for 2-year-old horses that are males, commence training at a later age, are in their first training preparation, have undertaken little high-speed exercise or had limited use of non-ridden training modalities. Close monitoring of these high-risk horses during their training program could substantially reduce the impact of MSI. Furthermore, an understanding of how training methodologies affect the hazard of MSI facilitates modification of training programs to mitigate the risk impact of injury. The strengths of this study include a large sample size, a well-defined study protocol and direct trainer interviews. The main limitation is the inherent susceptibility to survival bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie L Crawford
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia.,School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Anna Finnane
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Ristan M Greer
- Torus Research, Bridgeman Downs, QLD, Australia.,Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Tamsin S Barnes
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Clive J C Phillips
- Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | | | - Emma L Bishop
- Garrards Equine Veterinary Practice, Albion, QLD, Australia
| | - Nigel R Perkins
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Benjamin J Ahern
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
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12
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Lewandowski K, Kaczmarczyk Ł, Athanasiadis I, Marshall JF, Pearce CJ. A computational framework for crack propagation in spatially heterogeneous materials. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20200291. [PMID: 34148414 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a mathematical formulation and numerical modelling framework for brittle crack propagation in heterogeneous elastic solids. Such materials are present in both natural and engineered scenarios. The formulation is developed in the framework of configurational mechanics and solved numerically using the finite-element method. We show the methodology previously established for homogeneous materials without the need for any further assumptions. The proposed model is based on the assumption of maximal dissipation of energy and uses the Griffith criterion; we show that this is sufficient to predict crack propagation in brittle heterogeneous materials, with spatially varying Young's modulus and fracture energy. Furthermore, we show that the crack path trajectory orientates itself such that it is always subject to Mode-I. The configurational forces and fracture energy release rate are both expressed exclusively in terms of nodal quantities, avoiding the need for post-processing and enabling a fully implicit formulation for modelling the evolving crack front and creation of new crack surfaces. The proposed formulation is verified and validated by comparing numerical results with both analytical solutions and experimental results. Both the predicted crack path and load-displacement response show very good agreement with experiments where the crack path was independent of material heterogeneity for those cases. Finally, the model is successfully used to consider the real and challenging scenario of fracture of an equine bone, with spatially varying material properties obtained from CT scanning. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'A cracking approach to inventing new tough materials: fracture stranger than friction'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Lewandowski
- Glasgow Computational Engineering Centre, The James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Łukasz Kaczmarczyk
- Glasgow Computational Engineering Centre, The James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Ignatios Athanasiadis
- Glasgow Computational Engineering Centre, The James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - John F Marshall
- Weipers Centre Equine Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Chris J Pearce
- Glasgow Computational Engineering Centre, The James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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13
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Crawford KL, Finnane A, Phillips CJC, Greer RM, Woldeyohannes SM, Perkins NR, Kidd LJ, Ahern BJ. The Risk Factors for Musculoskeletal Injuries in Thoroughbred Racehorses in Queensland, Australia: How These Vary for Two-Year-Old and Older Horses and with Type of Injury. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020270. [PMID: 33494508 PMCID: PMC7910838 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) continue to affect Thoroughbred racehorses internationally, despite over thirty years of research into this problem. Studies of risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries report inconsistent findings. Consequently, developing training strategies to mitigate the risk of MSI is difficult. We identified factors associated with particularly high odds of injury in this population of racehorses. Two-year-old horses from primiparous mares (first foals born) are at increased odds of MSI, particularly dorsal metacarpal disease (“shinsoreness”). Two-year-old horses that have had a total preparation length of between 10 and 14 weeks also have increased odds of injury. Horses of all ages that travelled a total distance of 2.4–3.8 km (12–19 furlongs) at a gallop (faster than 15 m/s; 13 s/furlong; 900 m/min; 55 km/h) in the last four weeks and horses three years and older that travelled 3.0–4.8 km (15–24 furlongs) at three-quarter pace and above (faster than 13 m/s; 15 s/furlong; 800 m/min; 48 km/h) also have increased odds of injury. We recommend that these horses should be monitored closely for impending signs of injury. We also observed a non-linear relationship between high-speed exercise and musculoskeletal injuries. This highlights the importance of high-speed exercise to enable tissue adaptation to training. Finally, in some situations, increasing the number of days worked at a slow pace may be more effective for preventing MSI, if horses are perceived at a higher risk, than resting the horse altogether. Early identification of horses at increased risk of injury and appropriate intervention could substantially reduce the impact of musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses. Abstract Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) continue to affect Thoroughbred racehorses internationally. There is a strong interest in developing training and management strategies to reduce their impact, however, studies of risk factors report inconsistent findings. Furthermore, many injuries and fatalities occur during training rather than during racing, yet most studies report racing data only. By combining racing and training data a larger exposure to risk factors and a larger number of musculoskeletal injuries are captured and the true effect of risk factors may be more accurately represented. Furthermore, modifications to reduce the impact of MSI are more readily implemented at the training level. Our study aimed to: (1) determine the risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries and whether these are different for two-year-old and older horses and (2) determine whether risk factors vary with type of injury. This was performed by repeating analyses by age category and injury type. Data from 202 cases and 202 matched controls were collected through weekly interviews with trainers and analysed using conditional logistic regression. Increasing dam parity significantly reduced the odds of injury in horses of all age groups because of the effect in two-year-old horses (odds ratio (OR) 0.08; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.02, 0.36; p < 0.001). Increasing total preparation length is associated with higher odds of injury in horses of all ages (OR 5.56; 95% CI 1.59, 19.46; p = 0.01), but particularly in two-year-old horses (OR 8.05; 95% CI 1.92, 33.76; p = 0.004). Increasing number of days exercised at a slow pace decreased the odds of injury in horses of all ages (OR 0.09; 95% CI 0.03, 0.28; p < 0.001). The distance travelled at three-quarter pace and above (faster than 13 m/s; 15 s/furlong; 800 m/min; 48 km/h) and the total distance travelled at a gallop (faster than 15 m/s; 13 s/furlong; 900 m/min; 55 km/h) in the past four weeks significantly affected the odds of injury. There was a non-linear association between high-speed exercise and injury whereby the odds of injury initially increased and subsequently decreased as accumulated high-speed exercise distance increased. None of the racing career and performance indices affected the odds of injury. We identified horses in this population that have particularly high odds of injury. Two-year-old horses from primiparous mares are at increased odds of injury, particularly dorsal metacarpal disease. Two-year-old horses that have had a total preparation length of between 10 and 14 weeks also have increased odds of injury. Horses of all ages that travelled a total distance of 2.4–3.8 km (12–19 furlongs) at a gallop in the last four weeks and horses three years and older that travelled 3.0–4.8 km (15–24 furlongs) at three-quarter pace and above also have increased odds of injury. We recommend that these horses should be monitored closely for impending signs of injury. Increasing the number of days worked at a slow pace may be more effective for preventing injury, if horses are perceived at a higher risk, than resting the horse altogether. Early identification of horses at increased risk and appropriate intervention could substantially reduce the impact of musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie L. Crawford
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia; (S.M.W.); (N.R.P.); (L.J.K.); (B.J.A.)
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston 4006, Australia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Anna Finnane
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston 4006, Australia;
| | - Clive J. C. Phillips
- Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute, Curtin University, Perth 6845, Australia;
| | - Ristan M. Greer
- Torus Research, Bridgeman Downs 4035, Australia;
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston 4006, Australia
| | - Solomon M. Woldeyohannes
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia; (S.M.W.); (N.R.P.); (L.J.K.); (B.J.A.)
| | - Nigel R. Perkins
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia; (S.M.W.); (N.R.P.); (L.J.K.); (B.J.A.)
| | - Lisa J. Kidd
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia; (S.M.W.); (N.R.P.); (L.J.K.); (B.J.A.)
| | - Benjamin J. Ahern
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia; (S.M.W.); (N.R.P.); (L.J.K.); (B.J.A.)
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14
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Page AE, Adam E, Arthur R, Barker V, Franklin F, Friedman R, Grande T, Hardy M, Howard B, Partridge E, Rutledge M, Scollay M, Stewart JC, Vale A, Horohov DW. Expression of select mRNA in Thoroughbreds with catastrophic racing injuries. Equine Vet J 2021; 54:63-73. [PMID: 33438228 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to identify horses at risk for catastrophic injuries continues to be a pressing issue for the racing industry, especially given recent events in North America. OBJECTIVES Since most catastrophic injuries occur in areas of existing pathology and this pathology is likely to elicit an inflammatory response, it was hypothesised that analysis of messenger RNA (mRNA) expression would detect significant changes in select genes in horses at risk for a catastrophic injury. STUDY DESIGN Prospective cohort study. METHODS Five racing jurisdictions across the United States participated in this study. A total of 686 Tempus® RNA Blood Tube samples were collected for mRNA analysis from 107 catastrophically injured horses, as well as from noninjured horses sampled either prerace (n = 374) or postrace (n = 205). A subset of horses (n = 37) were sampled both prerace and postrace for analysis of expression changes during the postrace period. RESULTS Of 21 genes analysed via RT-qPCR, the expression of 12 genes (ALOX5AP, CD14, IL-10, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, MMP1, PTGS2, TLR4, TNFα, TNFSF13B and VEGFA) changed significantly within 45 minutes after a race and were excluded. Of the remaining nine genes (BMP-2, IGF-1, IL1RN, MMP2, MMP9, Osteoprotegrin, RANKL, SAA1 and TGFβ), three genes (IGF-1, IL1RN and MMP2) were found to be significantly different between catastrophically injured and noninjured horses using multiple logistic regression modelling. Receiver operating characteristic analysis of models, which included mRNA expression, demonstrated sensitivities from 76%-82% (95% CI: 67%-93%) and specificities from 84%-88% (95% CI: 71%-94%) at the Youden Index. MAIN LIMITATIONS Samples were collected as soon as possible postinjury (within 30 minutes). CONCLUSIONS Analysis of mRNA expression of specific genes in the future may be considered as an economical, accessible and noninvasive means by which horses at risk for catastrophic injury can be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen E Page
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Emma Adam
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Rick Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Virginia Barker
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | | | - Ron Friedman
- Washington Horse Racing Commission, Olympia, WA, USA
| | | | - Michael Hardy
- Indiana Grand Racing and Casino, Shelbyville, IN, USA
| | - Bruce Howard
- Kentucky Horse Racing Commission, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Emma Partridge
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Matthew Rutledge
- Department of Statistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Mary Scollay
- Kentucky Horse Racing Commission, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - John C Stewart
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alina Vale
- California Horse Racing Board, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - David W Horohov
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
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15
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Basran PS, Gao J, Palmer S, Reesink HL. A radiomics platform for computing imaging features from µCT images of Thoroughbred racehorse proximal sesamoid bones: Benchmark performance and evaluation. Equine Vet J 2020; 53:277-286. [PMID: 32654167 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) fractures are the most common fatal musculoskeletal injury in North American racehorses. Computed tomography has the potential to detect morphological changes in bone structure but can be challenging to analyse reliably and quantitatively. OBJECTIVES To develop a radiomics platform that allows the comparison of features from micro-CTs (µCT) of PSBs in horses that sustained catastrophic fractures with horses that did not. To compare features calculated with a radiomics approach with features calculated from a previously published study that used quantitative µCT in the same specimens. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective study of cadaver specimens of µCT images of PSBs using prospectively applied radiomics. METHODS Radiomics features were computed on standardised CT datasets to benchmark the software. Features from µCT images of PSBs from eight horses that sustained PSB fracture and eight controls were computed using the contralateral, intact forelimb from horses sustaining PSB fracture (cases, n = 19) and all available forelimbs for controls (n = 30). Two-hundred and fifteen radiomic features were calculated, and similar or comparable features were compared with those reported in a previous study that used the same specimens. RESULTS Morphologic features computed with the radiomics approach, such as volume, minor axis dimensions and anisotropy were highly correlated with previously published data. A high number of imperceptible radiomic features, such as entropy, coarseness and histogram features were also found to be significantly different (P < .01). The extent of the differences in image features for the cases and controls PSBs depends on radiomic calculation settings. MAIN LIMITATIONS Only datasets obtained from cadaver specimens were included in the study. CONCLUSIONS A radiomics approach for analysing µCT images of PSBs was able to identify and reproduce differences in image features in cases and controls. Furthermore, radiomics revealed many more imperceptible image features between cases and control PSBs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan Gao
- Clinical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Scott Palmer
- Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Heidi L Reesink
- Clinical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Equine and Farm Animal Hospital, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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16
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Colgate VA, Marr CM. Science-in-brief: Risk assessment for reducing injuries of the fetlock bones in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:482-488. [PMID: 32525619 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Celia M Marr
- Equine Veterinary Journal, BEVA Journals, Ely, Cambridgeshire, UK
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17
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Denoix J, Coudry V. Clinical insights: Imaging of the equine fetlock in Thoroughbred racehorses: Identification of imaging changes to predict catastrophic injury. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:342-343. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.13226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.‐M. Denoix
- CIRALE Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort Goustranville France
- INRA USC BPLC 957 Université Paris‐Est CréteilEcole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort Maisons‐Alfort France
| | - V. Coudry
- CIRALE Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort Goustranville France
- INRA USC BPLC 957 Université Paris‐Est CréteilEcole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort Maisons‐Alfort France
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18
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Mouloodi S, Rahmanpanah H, Burvill C, Davies H. Converging-diverging shape configuration of the diaphysis of equine third metacarpal bone through computer-aided design. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/cep190010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The shape of the diaphysis of the equine third metacarpal bone (MC3) has a substantial influence on its mechanical properties. The connection between bone shape and bone adaptive responses is likely to be useful in forecasting the response of MC3 to a training program as well as predicting its internal loading. A variety of geometrical parameters including cortical area (A), width of dorsal cortex (D), palmar cortex (P), medial cortex (M), lateral cortex (L), medulla in dorsopalmar plane (Md), and medulla in lateromedial plane (M1) in three main cross sections (slices) within the diaphysis of 27 Thoroughbred horses aged from 12 hours to 15 years were measured using computer-aided-design and were analysed using t-tests and ANOVA test (performed in statistical MATLAB codes). Shape indices ([D/P] × [(D+P)/ Md]), H (D+Md +P), and V (M+ M1 +L) were also calculated. For all the samples, the values were plotted for a slice taken from around the mid-point of the shaft, and from two others taken at 3 cm proximally and distally from the middle slice. Cortical area decreased from proximal to distal slices in the majority of the specimens, except for all the foal samples where the area fluctuated and showed a converging-diverging shape. A similar trend was observed for one of the adult horses. To investigate converging-diverging shape configuration, a two-degree polynomial function was fitted to the plots of geometrical parameters and then the curvature (k) of these fitted curves was quantified and compared to assess the significant changes. Previous research showed that 0.5 mm differences in thickness of the midshaft dorsal cortex have a significant effect on local strain in vivo. Variations in the geometrical parameters of the midshaft metacarpus have a dramatic impact on the internal loading of the MC3 and should be considered in designing equine training programs in attempts to predict and prevent bone damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Mouloodi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - H. Rahmanpanah
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - C. Burvill
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - H.M.S. Davies
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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19
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Reesink HL, Palmer SE. Letter to the Editor: Selection of appropriate controls for studying fatal musculoskeletal injury in racehorses. Equine Vet J 2019; 51:559-560. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.13121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. L. Reesink
- Department of Clinical Sciences Cornell University Ithaca New York USA
| | - S. E. Palmer
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences Cornell University Ithaca New York USA
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20
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Accuracy Quantification of the Reverse Engineering and High-Order Finite Element Analysis of Equine MC3 Forelimb. J Equine Vet Sci 2019; 78:94-106. [PMID: 31203991 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Shape is a key factor in influencing mechanical responses of bones. Considered to be smart viscoelastic and inhomogeneous materials, bones are stimulated to change shape (model and remodel) when they experience changes in the compressive strain distribution. Using reverse engineering techniques via computer-aided design (CAD) is crucial to create a virtual environment to investigate the significance of shape in biomechanical engineering. Nonetheless, data are lacking to quantify the accuracy of generated models and to address errors in finite element analysis (FEA). In the present study, reverse engineering through extrapolating cross-sectional slices was used to reconstruct the diaphysis of 15 equine third metacarpal bones (MC3). The reconstructed geometry was aligned with, and compared against, computed tomography-based models (reference models) of these bones and then the error map of the generated surfaces was plotted. The minimum error of reconstructed geometry was found to be +0.135 mm and -0.185 mm (0.407 mm ± 0.235, P > .05 and -0.563 mm ± 0.369, P > .05 for outside [convex] and inside [concave] surface position, respectively). Minor reconstructed surface error was observed on the dorsal cortex (0.216 mm ± 0.07, P > .05) for the outside surface and -0.185 mm ± 0.13, P > .05 for the inside surface. In addition, a displacement-based error estimation was used on 10 MC3 to identify poorly shaped elements in FEA, and the relations of finite element convergence analysis were used to present a framework for minimizing stress and strain errors in FEA. Finite element analysis errors of 3%-5% provided in the literature are unfortunate. Our proposed model, which presents an accurate FEA (error of 0.12%) in the smallest number of iterations possible, will assist future investigators to maximize FEA accuracy without the current runtime penalty.
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21
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Peloso JG, Cohen ND, Vogler JB, Marquis PA, Hilt L. Association of catastrophic condylar fracture with bony changes of the third metacarpal bone identified by use of standing magnetic resonance imaging in forelimbs from cadavers of Thoroughbred racehorses in the United States. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80:178-188. [PMID: 30681352 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.80.2.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare bony changes of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) of Thoroughbred racehorse cadavers with (cases) or without (controls) catastrophic condylar fracture by use of standing MRI. SAMPLE 140 forelimbs from 26 case horses (both forelimbs) and 88 control horses (single forelimb). PROCEDURES Bone marrow lesions (BMLs), identified as a decrease in T1-weighted (T1W) signal and increases in T2*-weighted (T2*W) and short tau inversion recovery (STIR) signals, and dense bone volume percentage (DBVP), identified as decreases in T1W, T2*W, and STIR signals, in the distopalmar aspect of MC3 were recorded. Logistic regression was used to compare fractured and nonfractured limbs of cases and fractured limbs of cases with randomly selected limbs of controls. RESULTS Among cases, fractured limbs were significantly more likely to have BMLs (26/26 [100%]) than were nonfractured limbs (7/26 [27%]). Fractured limbs of cases were significantly more likely to have BMLs (26/26 [100%]) than were limbs of controls (6/88 [7%]). Among cases, there was no significant difference in DBVP between fractured and nonfractured limbs in lateral (26% vs 21%, respectively) or medial (25% vs 20%, respectively) condyles. However, DBVP was significantly greater in fractured limbs of cases than in limbs of controls for lateral (26% vs 16%, respectively) and medial (25% vs 18%, respectively) condyles. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Standing MRI revealed a significantly greater degree of bone change in racehorses with condylar fracture when comparing fractured and nonfractured limbs of case horses and fractured limbs of case horses with randomly selected limbs of control horses.
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22
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Hitchens PL, Morrice-West AV, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. Meta-analysis of risk factors for racehorse catastrophic musculoskeletal injury in flat racing. Vet J 2018; 245:29-40. [PMID: 30819423 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2018.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Studies of racehorse injury or fatality in various countries have identified common, and in some cases conflicting, risk factors. We conducted a systematic search of the relevant literature published from 1990 to 2017. Peer-reviewed articles were included if they reported the incidence of fatal or catastrophic musculoskeletal injury (CMI) in Thoroughbred flat races (n=21) or risk factors for CMI (n=65). Pooled effect sizes were estimated using the random-effects DerSimonian-Laird model. The pooled incidence of CMI was 1.17 (95% confidence interval 0.90, 1.44) per 1000 race starts. Almost 300 factors have been investigated in epidemiological studies for potential associations with CMI. Factors found to have consistent evidence of increasing risk of CMI are: (1) Horse-level factors such as older horse age and age at first start, male sex, and higher race class or lower claiming price; (2) Race-level factors such as firmer track conditions on turf and wetter conditions on dirt, longer race distance, and a greater number of starters; and (3) Management-related factors including more time since previous start, greater number of starts, longer career length, issues identified at pre-race examination, previous injury, and recent administration of medication or injections. Studies investigating recent cumulative distance of high-speed exercise were conflicting and suggestive of at least two mechanisms of injury related to the accumulation of bone damage: (1) In well adapted bone following a period of intense training; and (2) In poorly adapted bone at relatively low levels of training intensity. Future studies should evaluate success of interventions and mechanisms for injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- P L Hitchens
- Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, 3030, Australia.
| | - A V Morrice-West
- Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, 3030, Australia
| | - M A Stevenson
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - R C Whitton
- Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, 3030, Australia
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23
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Wulster KB. Diagnosis of Skeletal Injury in the Sport Horse. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2018; 34:193-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2018.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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24
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Whitton RC, Ayodele BA, Hitchens PL, Mackie EJ. Subchondral bone microdamage accumulation in distal metacarpus of Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet J 2018; 50:766-773. [PMID: 29660153 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microdamage accumulation leads to subchondral bone injury and/or fracture in racehorses. An understanding of this process is essential for developing strategies for injury prevention. OBJECTIVES To quantify subchondral bone microdamage in the third metacarpal bone of Thoroughbred racehorses at different stages of the training cycle. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional. METHODS Bone blocks from the palmar aspect of the medial condyles of third metacarpal bones from 46 racing Thoroughbred horses undergoing post-mortem were examined with micro computed tomography (microCT) to detect calcified microcracks, and light microscopy to quantify bulk stained microcracks. Racing and training histories were obtained for comparison with microdamage data using regression modelling. RESULTS Subchondral bone microcracks were observed in all bones with at least one method. Microdamage grade was greater in older horses, levelling-off for horses 5 years and older (quadratic term P = 0.01), and with lower bone material density in the parasagittal groove (P = 0.02). Microcrack density was higher in older horses (P = 0.004), and with higher bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the parasagittal groove in horses in training (interaction effect, P = 0.01) and lower in horses resting from training (P = 0.02). MAIN LIMITATIONS Cross-sectional data only. Incomplete detection of microdamage due to the limits of resolution of microCT and lack of three-dimensional imaging with microscopy. Multicollinearity between variables that indicated career progression (e.g. age, number of career starts, duration of training period) was detected. CONCLUSIONS Fatigue damage in the distal metacarpal subchondral bone is common in Thoroughbred racehorses undergoing post-mortem and appears to accumulate throughout a racing career. Reduced intensity or duration of training and racing and/or increased duration of rest periods may limit microdamage accumulation. Focal subchondral bone sclerosis indicates the presence of microdamage.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Whitton
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - B A Ayodele
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - P L Hitchens
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - E J Mackie
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Hopper N, Singer E, Henson F. Increased sclerostin associated with stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Bone Joint Res 2018; 7:94-102. [PMID: 29363519 PMCID: PMC5805827 DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.bjr-2016-0202.r4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The exact aetiology and pathogenesis of microdamage-induced long bone fractures remain unknown. These fractures are likely to be the result of inadequate bone remodelling in response to damage. This study aims to identify an association of osteocyte apoptosis, the presence of osteocytic osteolysis, and any alterations in sclerostin expression with a fracture of the third metacarpal (Mc-III) bone of Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods A total of 30 Mc-III bones were obtained; ten bones were fractured during racing, ten were from the contralateral limb, and ten were from control horses. Each Mc-III bone was divided into a fracture site, condyle, condylar groove, and sagittal ridge. Microcracks and diffuse microdamage were quantified. Apoptotic osteocytes were measured using TUNEL staining. Cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13), HtrA1, and sclerostin expression were analyzed. Results In the fracture group, microdamage was elevated 38.9% (sd 2.6) compared with controls. There was no difference in the osteocyte number and the percentage of apoptotic cells between contralateral limb and unraced control; however, there were significantly fewer apoptotic cells in fractured samples (p < 0.02). Immunohistochemistry showed that in deep zones of the fractured samples, sclerostin expression was significantly higher (p < 0.03) than the total number of osteocytes. No increase in cathepsin K, MMP-13, or HtrA1 was present. Conclusion There is increased microdamage in Mc-III bones that have fractured during racing. In this study, this is not associated with osteocyte apoptosis or osteocytic osteolysis. The finding of increased sclerostin in the region of the fracture suggests that this protein may be playing a key role in the regulation of bone microdamage during stress adaptation. Cite this article: N. Hopper, E. Singer, F. Henson. Increased sclerostin associated with stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:94–102. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.BJR-2016-0202.R4.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hopper
- Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge
| | - E Singer
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, School of Veterinary Medicine, Leahurst, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 6SW, UK
| | - F Henson
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK and Division of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge BC2 0QQ, UK
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