Queering Methodologies to Understand Queer Families

Microaggression and discrimination experiences among diverse youth with LGBTQ+ parents in the United States

Family-based microaggressions and discrimination experienced by youth with LGBTQ+ parents are important to understand from their perspectives. Using mixed methods, we examined such experiences among 12- to 25-year-old youth (N = 51) with at least one LGBTQ+ parent in the United States. Youth were diverse in race/ethnicity, family structure, gender and sexual identities, socioeconomic status, and geographic region. Using interviews, we explored LGBTQ+ family-based microaggressions (reported through scale items with feedback) and discrimination (assessed via thematic analysis). Microaggressions and discrimination based on having LGBTQ+ parents were common, yet there were distinctions in direct and indirect stigma across the quantitative items and qualitative themes. These results underscore the value of mixed methods research with youth and implications for future research, practice, and policy.

Experiences and perceptions of military and emergency services personnel identifying as LGBTQIA+ and their families: a qualitative systematic review protocol

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review is to explore the perceptions and experiences of military and emergency personnel who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, intersex, asexual, or other (LGBTQIA+), and the perceptions and experiences of their families.

INTRODUCTION

LGBTQIA+ military and emergency first response personnel report disproportionately poorer career and personal outcomes than their cisgender and heterosexual counterparts. Research examining the underlying lived experiences and perceptions of people serving who are LGBTQIA+, particularly those of their family members, is sparse. Hence, the aim of this review is to identify, aggregate, and synthesize relevant qualitative research findings.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

This review will consider studies of LGBTQIA+ military or emergency first response personnel and their families that include qualitative data capturing their experiences and perceptions of navigating industrial institutions and service communities. Military personnel include those employed in any role within any military organization; emergency first response personnel will include ambulance workers, paramedics, police, firefighters, and other public safety roles. Families will be limited to any configuration of immediate family members of active or retired LGBTQIA+ service personnel. No limits will be applied to the age of service personnel or their family members, nor to duration or chronology of service.

METHODS

Databases searched will include PsycINFO, PubMed Central, ProQuest Central, Scopus, MEDLINE, Embase, and PTSDpubs. Domain-specific journals will be manually searched, and gray literature and unpublished studies will be searched via ProQuest Central. Study screening and selection against inclusion criteria will be performed in Covidence. Data extraction and critical appraisal will be performed using the standardized JBI templates and checklists for qualitative research. All stages will be performed by 2 independent reviewers, with conflicts resolved by a third reviewer.

REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42022323913.

"This Is To Help Me Move Forward": The Role of PrEp in Harnessing Sex Positivity and Empowerment Among Black Sexual Minority Men in the Southern United States

In the United States (U.S.), Black sexual minority men (BSMM) are disproportionately burdened by HIV. Prevention advances, such as HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), play a key role in reducing HIV transmission and improving our understanding of sexual expression and health. Despite these advances, little is known regarding the potential link between PrEP use and positive sexuality, including the benefits that BSMM see in accessing PrEP. We conducted a thematic analysis of 32 interviews with BSMM in the Southern U.S. regarding their PrEP beliefs. We developed five themes: (1) Sexual freedom, (2) Agency and empowerment, (3) Making PrEP normative, (4) Behavioral health practices, and (5) Committed relationship tensions. Our findings suggest that BSMM are increasingly concerned about freedom of choice and invested in sexual empowerment as related to their PrEP use. Further, unanticipated benefits, community support, and relationship tensions are salient factors in considerations of PrEP use among BSMM. These findings have implications for how we might understand a broader movement toward sexual empowerment and positivity, and the pivotal role that PrEP serves in this movement.

Measurement equivalence of family acceptance/rejection among sexual and gender minority youth by disclosure status

Family acceptance is a crucial component of healthy development during adolescence, especially for sexual and gender minority youth (SGMY) who often fear rejection from family members. Studies focused on SGMY family environments often utilize broad measures that fail to capture SGMY-specific aspects of family acceptance and rejection. Less research has considered how the measurement of family acceptance and rejection might differ depending on whether SGMY have disclosed their sexual and/or gender identities to their parents. We used data from a national nonprobability sample of 9,127 SGMY in the United States who had either disclosed (n = 6,683) or not disclosed (n = 2,444) their sexual and/or gender identities to parents to test the factor structure of an eight-item measure of family acceptance and rejection and differences by disclosure status. A two-factor, negatively correlated model reflecting constructs of family acceptance and family rejection was equivalent across disclosure groups. Youth who had disclosed their identity reported greater acceptance and less rejection and showed a stronger negative association between the two constructs than nondisclosed youth. Family acceptance, but not rejection, had higher variability among disclosed youth than nondisclosed youth. Results suggest that the family environments of SGMY are simultaneously characterized by accepting and rejecting behaviors. Though families of disclosed youth appear to be more accepting and less rejecting, the experiences of these youth are complex. Findings suggest that research on SGMY family environment must consider both supportive and undermining behaviors and that the measures assessed here operate similarly for youth based on disclosure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

A relational investigation of Israeli gay fathers' experiences of surrogacy, early parenthood, and mental health in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic

Perinatal distress affects approximately 10% of fathers, but little is known about how gay fathers experience the challenges surrounding childbirth and early parenting of a child. This study explored gay fathers' experiences of having a baby via transnational surrogacy, raising that baby as a gay parent, and the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 15 Israeli men to understand their experiences of surrogacy and early parenthood, focusing on the impact on their mental health and the relational factors involved. Secondary narrative analysis revealed that fathers constructed surrogacy as a perilous quest that required strong intentionality to undertake. The first year of parenthood was conceptualised alternately as a joyful experience and/or one that challenged fathers' identities and mental health. A relational framework was applied to better conceptualise the fathers' narratives, revealing that actual connections-and the potentials for links-considerably shaped experiences of surrogacy, perinatal distress and recovery. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Mental Health Disparities Between Lesbian Mothers and Heterosexual Parents: the Mediating Role of Positivity

Introduction

Previous evidence has shown better mental health outcomes for lesbian mothers, in comparison with heterosexual parents. The present study explored the mediating role of positivity (i.e., the tendency to view life with a positive outlook) in determining these mental health differences.

Methods

Seventy-two Israeli lesbian mothers by donor insemination (from 36 families) were compared with 72 Israeli heterosexual parents by assisted reproduction (without donated gametes; from 36 families) on positivity, life satisfaction, and depressive symptomatology. All parents were cisgender and had at least one child born through assisted reproduction, aged 3-10 years. Data were collected between December 2019 and February 2021.

Results

Mediational analyses indicated that lesbian mothers reported greater positivity, which was, in turn, associated with greater life satisfaction and less depressive symptomatology.

Conclusions

The results pinpoint the possible protective and strengthening role of positivity for lesbian mothers in the pronatalist and familistic environment of Israel. The research contributes to the literature on the mental health of parents with diverse sexual orientations living outside of the USA and Europe. Policy Implications Policymakers and mental health professional should be knowledgeable about the importance of improving positivity as a strategy for reducing depressive symptomatology and promoting life satisfaction among lesbian mothers. Moreover, policy makers and legislators are called to ease the access of sexual minority individuals to parenthood, as in this population parenthood associates with heightened mental health outcomes.

Assisted Conception Socialization Self-Efficacy Among Israeli Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parent Families and its Association with Child Externalizing Problems

This questionnaire-based study compared 36 Israeli lesbian mother families (n = 72 lesbian mothers) formed by donor insemination, 39 Israeli gay father families (n = 78 gay fathers) formed by gestational surrogacy, and 36 Israeli heterosexual parent families (n = 72 heterosexual parents) formed by assisted reproduction (without donated gametes), all with a target child aged 3-10 years. The families were examined for parents' assisted conception socialization self-efficacy, depression, negative and positive affect, life satisfaction, positivity, resilience, social support, and child externalizing problems. Multiple factors associated with child externalizing problems were also examined. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that parents' assisted conception socialization self-efficacy did not differ between family groups; however, lesbian mothers and gay fathers reported fewer child externalizing problems and greater social support, relative to heterosexual parents. Also, lesbian mothers-but not gay fathers-reported lower levels of depression, greater life satisfaction, and more positivity than did heterosexual parents. Finally, irrespective of family type, greater assisted conception socialization self-efficacy was associated with fewer parent-reported child externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in light of the cultural socialization framework and Israel's familistic and pronatalist environment. Implications for health professionals, educators, and policymakers working with diverse family forms are discussed.

How Do LGBTQ+ Parents Raise Well-Adjusted, Resilient, and Thriving Children?

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) parents raise well-adjusted children. How do they accomplish this feat despite stigma and discrimination? Psychological scholarship (often based in the United States and other Westernized countries) has typically used atheoretical, deficit models based on biased assumptions to compare the outcomes of children of LGBTQ+ parents and children of cisgender heterosexual parents. However, research on processes and socialization within LGBTQ+-parent families suggests that LGBTQ+ parents demonstrate flexibility, creativity, and intentionality, which are associated with children’s positive outcomes and resilience. We recommend moving from deficits-based, comparative approaches to intersectional, queer-theory-based, and strengths-based alternatives. We argue that this conceptual shift will generate new questions and thus new knowledge about the unique strengths of LGBTQ+ parenting that positively influence children’s development. Such findings may provide insights about parenting practices and ways to support effective parenting that could benefit all children and families.

Latent Class Analysis of Victimization Patterns and Associated Protective Factors among LGBTQ Youth

Youth victimization in schools remains a fervent public health issue, despite increased awareness of this issue, and this is especially true for marginalized populations like lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth. Youth violence has been studied widely, but less research has sought to understand factors protective of violence victimization, particularly protective factors shared across multiple forms of violence. In the current study, we utilized latent class analysis to test patterns of three types of victimization: peer victimization (PV), homophobic name-calling victimization (HNCV), and sexual harassment victimization (SHV). In addition, we tested protective factors associated with experiencing these types of violence. Our sample included 4778 9-11th graders in the United States, of which about 15% identified as LGBTQ. Three unique classes of victimization emerged, suggesting that concurrent forms of violence occur among some groups of adolescents. LGBTQ youth were more likely to be members of classes which demonstrated higher levels of victimization. Consistent with previous literature, medical access, counseling access, family support, peer support, and spirituality emerged as significant protective factors associated with a lower risk of victimization. We discuss the implications of our findings with specific attention to protecting the wellbeing of SGM youth.

Higher Levels of Postnatal Depressive Symptomatology, Post-Traumatic Growth, and Life Satisfaction among Gay Fathers through Surrogacy in Comparison to Heterosexual Fathers: A Study in Israel in Times of COVID-19

This study aimed to explore the psychological welfare, as indicated by postnatal depressive symptomatology, life satisfaction, and posttraumatic growth (growth after contending with stressful birth events), of Israeli gay fathers through surrogacy in comparison to heterosexual fathers. For that purpose, a sample of 167 Israeli fathers (M = 35.6, SD = 4.4) was recruited (68 identified as gay fathers through surrogacy and 99 as heterosexual fathers). Participants completed questionnaires assessing their postnatal depressive symptomatology, life satisfaction, and sense of posttraumatic growth after becoming fathers. Results indicated that gay fathers through surrogacy reported higher levels of life satisfaction and posttraumatic growth than heterosexual fathers. Yet, gay fathers also reported higher levels of postnatal depressive symptomatology than heterosexual fathers when life satisfaction or posttraumatic growth values were low or medium. The findings were interpreted in light of the hardships associated with cross-border surrogacy and the psychological outcomes associated with succeeding to become fathers after contending with them. The study contributes to the limited literature on postnatal depressive symptomatology and posttraumatic growth among gay fathers through surrogacy and provides clinicians and policymakers with relevant information on the psychological strengths and potential difficulties associated with cross-border surrogacy among gay fathers.

Family-Based Interventions with Transgender and Gender Expansive Youth: Systematic Review and Best Practice Recommendations

Research on transgender and gender expansive (TGE) youth has highlighted the disproportionate and challenging mental health and developmental outcomes faced by these young people. Research also largely suggests that family acceptance of TGE youth's gender identity and expression is crucial to preventing poor psychosocial outcomes in this community. Recently, family-based treatment has become common practice with TGE youth whose families are available for care, but it is unclear whether research provides outcome data for family interventions with TGE youth. This study follows Preferred Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to systematically review articles that provide outcome data or clinical recommendations for family-based interventions with TGE youth and their families. No quantitative outcome data for family therapy with TGE youth were found, but numerous articles spanning decades (n=32) provided clinical practice recommendations for family-based interventions with this population. Very few articles provided outcome data for family therapy with sexual minority youth (n=2). Over time, clinical strategies have moved from pathologizing to affirming of TGE youths' gender journey. Common clinical strategies of affirming interventions include (1) providing psychoeducation, (2) allowing space for families to express reactions to their child's gender, (3) emphasizing the protective power of family acceptance, (4) utilizing multiple modalities of support, (5) giving families opportunities for allyship and advocacy, (6) connecting families to TGE community resources, and (7) centering intersectional approaches and concerns. Future research should examine the efficacy of family-based interventions that incorporate these clinical strategies and collect quantitative data to systematically determine their effect on psychosocial outcomes.

Support in Response to a Spouse's Distress: Comparing Women and Men in Same-sex and Different-sex Marriages

Support for a spouse with psychological distress can be expressed in many different ways. Previous research indicates that support expression is shaped by gender, but we do not know much about how support within marriage is provided in response to a spouse's distress outside of a different-sex couple context. In this study, we analyze dyadic data from 378 midlife married couples (35-65 years; N = 756 individuals) within the U.S. to examine how men and women in same- and different-sex relationships provide support when they perceive that their spouse is experiencing distress. We find women in different-sex couples are less likely to report taking care of their distressed spouse's tasks or giving their distressed spouse more personal time and space compared to women in same-sex couples and men. We also find that men in different-sex couples are less likely to report encouraging their spouse to talk compared to men in same-sex couples and women. Being personally stressed by a spouse's distress is positively associated with providing support to that spouse, whereas feeling that a spouse's distress is stressful for the marriage is negatively associated with providing support. This study advances understanding of gendered provisions of support in response to psychological distress in marriage, moving beyond a framing of women as fundamentally more supportive than men to a consideration of how these dynamics may be different or similar in same- and different-sex marital contexts.

Long-Term Effects of Homophobic Stigmatization During Adolescence on Problem Behavior in Emerging Adult Offspring of Lesbian Parents

The long-term impact of homophobic stigmatization on adolescents with lesbian parents has not been explored. This longitudinal study investigated the effects of homophobia experienced during adolescence on problem behavior among emerging adult offspring of lesbian parents. The 72 offspring (37 females and 35 males; all cisgender and 25 years old) were predominantly White, heterosexual, and highly educated. As 17-year-old adolescents, 40.3% (n = 29) reported that they had been treated unfairly because of having lesbian parents. Experienced homophobia during adolescence was indirectly associated with internalizing problems during emerging adulthood through psychological problems during adolescence and meaning in life in emerging adulthood. Adolescent experiences of homophobia were also indirectly related to externalizing problems during emerging adulthood through adolescent psychological problems, but not through meaning in life in emerging adulthood. These findings indicate that long-term effects of homophobic stigmatization during adolescence persist into adulthood. School and community interventions should include all types of families in their diversity appreciation programs.

Single LBQ women of the baby boom planning for later life

The aim of this study was to understand how sexual minority women of the baby boom cohort viewed their social connections and planned for their later years. Framed by feminist and life course perspectives, this study used semi-structured interviews and constructivist grounded theory. Thirteen single sexual minority baby boom women from across the U.S. were interviewed. The women were active in their communities and viewed their social connections with local community, family of origin and of choice. The women had formal and informal plans for their future, anticipating the possibilities of aging-related issues, related to housing and support.

Children with Trans Parents: Parent-Child Relationship Quality and Psychological Well-being

Objective. Families with trans parents are an increasingly visible family form, yet little is known about parenting and child outcomes in these families. This exploratory study offers the first quantitative assessment of parent-child relationship quality and child socio-emotional and behavioral adjustment in families with a self-identified trans parent with school-aged children. Design. A sample of 35 families (37 trans parents, 13 partners, and 25 children aged 8-18 years) was recruited primarily through social media. Parents, children, and teachers were administered a range of standardized interview and questionnaire assessments of parent-child relationship quality, quality of parenting, psychological adjustment, and gender-related minority stress. Results. Parents and children had good quality relationships, as assessed by both parents and children, and children showed good psychological adjustment. Child age at the time the parent communicated their gender identity to the child was unrelated to child outcomes. Conclusions. Parents and children in trans parent families had good quality relationships and children showed good psychological adjustment. The findings of this exploratory study challenge commonly held concerns about the potentially negative effects on children of growing up with a trans parent.

The Gender-as-Relational Approach for Theorizing About Romantic Relationships of Sexual and Gender Minority Mid- to Later-Life Adults

We deploy the "gender-as-relational" (GAR) approach to enhance the study of the long-term romantic relationships of sexual and gender minority mid- to later-life adults. The GAR approach states that gender within relationships is shaped by three key factors: own gender, partner's gender, and the gendered relational context. This approach highlights that the relationship dynamics of men, women, and gender nonconforming people are highly diverse, reflecting that gender is a social construct formed within interactions and institutions. We explicate how GAR can reorganize the study of sexual and gender diversity in three research areas related to aging and relationships-caregiving, marital health benefits, and intimacy-and discuss theory-driven methods appropriate for a GAR research agenda. A GAR framework reorients research by complicating taken-for-granted assumptions about how gender operates within mid- to later-life romantic relationships and queering understandings of aging and romantic relationships to include experiences outside of heteronormative and cisnormative categories.

Stigma Experiences, Mental Health, Perceived Parenting Competence, and Parent-Child Relationships Among Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Adoptive Parents in the United States

Adoptive parents often face stigma related to "non-traditional" family structures. Lesbian and gay (LG) adoptive parents often face additional stigmatization based on sexual identity, which in turn may negatively affect parents' mental health. Despite controversy about LG parenting, research demonstrates that family processes are more strongly associated with individual outcomes than family structure. Thus, family systems and minority stress theories provided our conceptual foundation in examining how adoptive LG parents' stigma experiences were associated with mental health, parenting competence, and parent-child relationships. Participating families (N = 106; n = 56 LG parent families) were originally recruited from five US domestic private infant adoption agencies and completed two waves of data collection (W1, W2; 91% retention) when children were preschool-age (M age = 3.01 years) and school-age (M age = 8.36 years), respectively. Data for the current study are largely drawn from W2. Via Qualtrics, parents completed assessments of mental health symptoms, adoption stigma, and perceived childcare competence. LG parents also reported on their experiences of homonegative microaggressions, and children responded to a measure about their relationships with parents. No significant differences emerged as a function of parental sexual orientation and gender except that lesbian mothers, heterosexual mothers, and gay fathers all reported higher parenting competence than heterosexual fathers. Although parents' mental health did not significantly predict parent-child relationship quality, parents' perceived competence and LG parents' current homonegative microaggression experiences did (e.g., greater competence, greater closeness; more microaggressions, lower closeness). Consistent with our conceptual framework, our results-derived from parent and child reports-demonstrate that although adoptive and LG parent families experience stigma, family processes (rather than structure) are most associated with individual outcomes. Researchers, policy makers, and practitioners should work together to employ identity-affirming practices to reduce stigma and support adoptive family functioning and well-being.

"Go See Somebody": How Spouses Promote Mental Health Care

This study considers when, whether, and how spouses encourage professional mental health care by analyzing qualitative data from 90 in-depth interviews with gay, lesbian, and heterosexual spouses. Findings show that a majority of spouses are engaged in promoting each other's mental health care but that the strategies used to promote care vary by gender and the gender composition of the couple. The majority of gay men and lesbian women promote care by framing mental health problems as largely biochemical, fixable only with professional care or medicine, and work to destigmatize this care. Lesbian women uniquely emphasize the influence of a spouse's symptoms on marital quality as a reason to pursue care. Some heterosexual women and men also report seeing their spouse's mental health care as something for them to deal with on their own and thus do not encourage care. This study has important implications for researchers looking to understand why some individuals seek mental health care and others do not and provides policymakers insight into mental health interventions via spouses.

Pathways to Fatherhood: Psychological Well-Being Among Israeli Gay Fathers Through Surrogacy, Gay Fathers Through Previous Heterosexual Relationships, and Heterosexual Fathers

This study explored differences in psychological well-being as assessed by life satisfaction, parenthood satisfaction, depressive symptoms and the Big Five personality dimensions among 219 Israeli fathers; 76 gay men who had become fathers through a heterosexual relationship, 63 gay men who had become fathers through surrogacy, and 78 heterosexual men. After controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, gay fathers through surrogacy reported greater satisfaction with parenthood, greater satisfaction with their lives, and reported higher levels of extraversion when compared to heterosexual fathers. No significant differences emerged between the three groups on depressive symptoms, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. These findings emphasize the predominant similarities and some possible differences on psychological well-being between the different paths to fatherhood. This study is one of the first to compare several paths to fatherhood on psychological well-being, thus illuminating the contribution of fatherhood route to psychological well-being in an era where gay men are increasingly becoming fathers in diverse ways.

Introduction to the special issue: Social science perspectives on contemporary lesbian family life, 2009-2019

It has been over ten years since the last special issue regarding lesbian family lives appeared in the Journal of Lesbian Studies (volume 12, issue 2-3). In my introduction to this special issue, I offer perspectives on contemporary lesbian family lives from 2009-2019, considering three key questions: (1) What important social and legal changes have occurred over the last decade? (2) What have we learned about lesbian family lives during this time period? (3) What do we still not yet know?

Homophobic Bullying and Sexual Minority Youth Alcohol Use: Do Sex and Race/Ethnicity Matter?

PURPOSE

Sexual minority youth (SMY) are more likely to use alcohol than their heterosexual peers, yet a lack of research on within-group differences and modifiable mechanisms has hindered efforts to address alcohol use disparities. The purpose of the current study was to examine differences in the mediating role of homophobic bullying on the association between sexual orientation identity and drinking frequency and heavy episodic drinking frequency by sex and race/ethnicity.

METHODS

We used data from a subsample of 20,744 youth in seven states from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, a population-based data set of 9-12th grade high school students in the United States. We included youth who self-identified as male or female; heterosexual, lesbian/gay, bisexual, or unsure of their sexual orientation identity; and White, Black, or Latino.

RESULTS

Within-group comparisons demonstrated that SMY alcohol use disparities were concentrated among Latino bisexual and unsure youth. All subgroups of SMY at the intersection of race/ethnicity and sex were more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to report homophobic bullying. Homophobic bullying mediated alcohol use disparities for some, but not all, subgroups of SMY.

CONCLUSION

Homophobic bullying is a serious risk factor for SMY alcohol use, although youths' multiple identities may differentiate degrees of risk. Sexual orientation identity-related disparities in alcohol use among Latino, bisexual, and unsure youth were not fully attenuated when adjusted for homophobic bullying, which suggests that there may be additional factors that contribute to rates of alcohol use among these specific subgroups of SMY.

Anticipatory Minority Stressors among Same-sex Couples: A Relationship Timeline Approach

The authors build on previous stress theories by drawing attention to the concept of anticipatory couple-level minority stressors (i.e., stressors expected to occur in the future that emanate from the stigmatization of certain relationship forms). A focus on anticipatory couple-level minority stressors brings with it the potential for important insight into vulnerabilities and resiliencies of people in same-sex relationships, the focus of this study. The authors use relationship timelines to examine stressors among a diverse sample of same-sex couples (n = 120). Respondents in same-sex relationships anticipated stressors that are likely not unique to same-sex couples (e.g., purchasing a home together) but labeled many of these anticipatory stressors as reflecting the stigmatization of their same-sex relationship. Respondents rated anticipatory minority stressors as more stressful than other anticipatory stressors. Moreover, stressors varied by gender, age, and relationship duration although not race/ethnicity or geographic site. This analysis is a preliminary step in examining how unique anticipatory couple-level minority stressors function as determinants of relationship quality, mental and physical health, and health disparities faced by sexual minority populations. Attempts to understand current stress levels should consider anticipatory stressors alongside past and current life events, chronic strains, daily hassles, and minority stressors, as these processes are impossible to disentangle and may be consequential for current well-being.