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Kumar M, Saadaoui M, Al Khodor S. Infections and Pregnancy: Effects on Maternal and Child Health. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:873253. [PMID: 35755838 PMCID: PMC9217740 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.873253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy causes physiological and immunological adaptations that allow the mother and fetus to communicate with precision in order to promote a healthy pregnancy. At the same time, these adaptations may make pregnant women more susceptible to infections, resulting in a variety of pregnancy complications; those pathogens may also be vertically transmitted to the fetus, resulting in adverse pregnancy outcomes. Even though the placenta has developed a robust microbial defense to restrict vertical microbial transmission, certain microbial pathogens have evolved mechanisms to avoid the placental barrier and cause congenital diseases. Recent mechanistic studies have begun to uncover the striking role of the maternal microbiota in pregnancy outcomes. In this review, we discuss how microbial pathogens overcome the placental barrier to cause congenital diseases. A better understanding of the placental control of fetal infection should provide new insights into future translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar
- Research Department, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
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2
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Rosa RB, da Costa MS, Teixeira SC, de Castro EF, Dantas WM, Ferro EAV, da Silva MV. Calomys callosus: An Experimental Animal Model Applied to Parasitic Diseases Investigations of Public Health Concern. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11030369. [PMID: 35335694 PMCID: PMC8948650 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11030369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The appearance and spread of parasitic diseases around the world aroused the interest of the scientific community to discover new animal models for improving the quality and specificity of surveys. Calomys callosus is a rodent native to South America, an easy handling model, with satisfactory longevity and reproducibility. C. callosus is susceptible to toxoplasmosis and can be used as experimental model for the study the pathogenesis, treatment, vertical transmission, and ocular toxoplasmosis. C. callosus can also be used to study cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, as the animals present cutaneous lesions, as well as parasites in the organs. C. callosus has epidemiological importance in Chagas disease, and since it is a Trypanosoma cruzi natural host in which rodents show high parasitemia and lethality, they are also effective as a model of congenital transmission. In the study of schistosomiasis, Schistosoma mansoni was proven to be a C. callosus natural host; thus, this rodent is a great model for fibrosis, hepatic granulomatous reaction, and celloma associated with lymphomyeloid tissue (CALT) during S. mansoni infection. In this review, we summarize the leading studies of parasitic diseases that used C. callosus as a rodent experimental model, describing the main uses and characteristics that led them to be considered an effective model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Borges Rosa
- Rodents Animal Facilities Complex, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38400-902, Brazil; (R.B.R.); (M.S.d.C.); (E.F.d.C.)
| | - Mylla Spirandelli da Costa
- Rodents Animal Facilities Complex, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38400-902, Brazil; (R.B.R.); (M.S.d.C.); (E.F.d.C.)
| | - Samuel Cota Teixeira
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38405-318, Brazil; (S.C.T.); (E.A.V.F.)
| | - Emilene Ferreira de Castro
- Rodents Animal Facilities Complex, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38400-902, Brazil; (R.B.R.); (M.S.d.C.); (E.F.d.C.)
| | | | - Eloisa Amália Vieira Ferro
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38405-318, Brazil; (S.C.T.); (E.A.V.F.)
| | - Murilo Vieira da Silva
- Rodents Animal Facilities Complex, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia 38400-902, Brazil; (R.B.R.); (M.S.d.C.); (E.F.d.C.)
- Correspondence:
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3
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Shmeleva EV, Colucci F. Maternal natural killer cells at the intersection between reproduction and mucosal immunity. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14:991-1005. [PMID: 33903735 PMCID: PMC8071844 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-020-00374-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Many maternal immune cells populate the decidua, which is the mucosal lining of the uterus transformed during pregnancy. Here, abundant natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages help the uterine vasculature adapt to fetal demands for gas and nutrients, thereby supporting fetal growth. Fetal trophoblast cells budding off the forming placenta and invading deep into maternal tissues come into contact with these and other immune cells. Besides their homeostatic functions, decidual NK cells can respond to pathogens during infection, but in doing so, they may become conflicted between destroying the invader and sustaining fetoplacental growth. We review how maternal NK cells balance their double duty both in the local microenvironment of the uterus and systemically, during toxoplasmosis, influenza, cytomegalovirus, malaria and other infections that threat pregnancy. We also discuss recent developments in the understanding of NK-cell responses to SARS-Cov-2 infection and the possible dangers of COVID-19 during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniya V Shmeleva
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, University of Cambridge, National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, CB2 0SW, UK
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Francesco Colucci
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, University of Cambridge, National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, CB2 0SW, UK.
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Arranz-Solís D, Mukhopadhyay D, Saeij JJP. Toxoplasma Effectors that Affect Pregnancy Outcome. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:283-295. [PMID: 33234405 PMCID: PMC7954850 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
As an immune-privileged organ, the placenta can tolerate the introduction of antigens without inducing a strong inflammatory response that would lead to abortion. However, for the control of intracellular pathogens, a strong Th1 response characterized by the production of interferon-γ is needed. Thus, invasion of the placenta by intracellular parasites puts the maternal immune system in a quandary: The proinflammatory response needed to eliminate the pathogen can also lead to abortion. Toxoplasma is a highly successful parasite that causes lifelong chronic infections and is a major cause of abortions in humans and livestock. Here, we discuss how Toxoplasma strain type and parasite effectors influence host cell signaling pathways, and we speculate about how this might affect the outcome of gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Arranz-Solís
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Debanjan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jeroen J P Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
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5
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Ursini T, Di Giacomo R, Caldrer S, Angheben A, Zammarchi L, Filipponi S, Pizio NR, Bisoffi Z, Buonfrate D. Neurocysticercosis-related seizures in the post-partum period: two cases and a review of the literature. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2020; 20:e204-e214. [PMID: 32569624 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30240-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neurocysticercosis, the infection of the CNS with larval cysts of Taenia solium, is a leading cause of seizures in low-income countries. The clinical presentation of neurocysticercosis is variable and depends on the number, size, and location of cysticerci, and on the immune response of the host. In most patients, the affected site is the brain parenchyma, where cysts can precipitate seizures. Neurocysticercosis has seldom been described in pregnant women. In this Grand Round, we report two cases of pregnant women who immigrated to Italy from Bolivia and Ecuador, and who developed seizures in the early post-partum period, due to calcified parenchymal neurocysticercosis lesions. We discuss the complex interactions between neurocysticercosis and the immune system in pregnancy and the post-partum period. Building on this scenario, we propose practices for the management of neurocysticercosis in pregnancy and the post-partum period, highlighting important gaps in the literature that should be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Ursini
- Department of Infectious - Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Italy.
| | - Roberta Di Giacomo
- Epilepsy Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Caldrer
- Department of Infectious - Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Italy
| | - Andrea Angheben
- Department of Infectious - Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Zammarchi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Referral Centre for Tropical Diseases of Tuscany, Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit, Careggi University Hospital, Florence, Italy
| | - Stefania Filipponi
- Stroke Unit, Department of Neurological Disorders, Santa Chiara Hospital, Trento, Italy
| | | | - Zeno Bisoffi
- Department of Infectious - Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Italy; Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Dora Buonfrate
- Department of Infectious - Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Italy
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Gómez-Chávez F, Cañedo-Solares I, Ortiz-Alegría LB, Flores-García Y, Figueroa-Damián R, Luna-Pastén H, Gómez-Toscano V, López-Candiani C, Arce-Estrada GE, Bonilla-Ríos CA, Mora-González JC, García-Ruiz R, Correa D. A Proinflammatory Immune Response Might Determine Toxoplasma gondii Vertical Transmission and Severity of Clinical Features in Congenitally Infected Newborns. Front Immunol 2020; 11:390. [PMID: 32231666 PMCID: PMC7082359 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis. Mother-to-child transmission of this parasite can occur during pregnancy. Newborns with congenital toxoplasmosis may develop central nervous system impairment, with severity ranging from subclinical manifestations to death. A proinflammatory/regulated specific immune profile is crucial in the defense against the parasite; nevertheless, its role in the infected pregnant women and the congenitally infected offspring has been poorly explored, and there is still no consensus about its relation to parasite vertical transmission or to severity and dissemination in the congenitally infected newborns. This work aimed to characterize these relations by means of principal component and principal factor analyses. For this purpose, we determined the specific production of the four immunoglobulin G antibody subclasses, cytokines, and lymphocyte proliferation in the T. gondii–infected pregnant women−10 who transmitted the infection to their offspring and seven who did not—as well as in 11 newborns congenitally infected and grouped according to disease severity (five mild and six moderate/severe) and dissemination (four local and seven disseminated). We found that the immune response of nontransmitter women differed from that of the transmitters, the latter having a stronger proinflammatory response, supporting a previous report. We also found that newborns who developed moderate/severe disease presented higher levels of lymphocyte proliferation, particularly of CD8+ and CD19+ cells, a high proportion of tumor necrosis factor α producers, and reduced expression of the immune modulator transforming growth factor β, as opposed to children who developed mild clinical complications. Our results suggest that a distinctive, not regulated, proinflammatory immune response might favor T. gondii vertical transmission and the development of severe clinical manifestations in congenitally infected newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Gómez-Chávez
- Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City, Mexico.,Cátedras CONACyT-Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Mexico City, Mexico.,Departamento de Formación Básica Disciplinaria, ENMyH-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | - Héctor Luna-Pastén
- Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ricardo García-Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Cannabinoides, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Dolores Correa
- Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City, Mexico
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Wang JL, Liang QL, Li TT, He JJ, Bai MJ, Cao XZ, Elsheikha HM, Zhu XQ. Toxoplasma gondii tkl1 Deletion Mutant Is a Promising Vaccine against Acute, Chronic, and Congenital Toxoplasmosis in Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1562-1570. [PMID: 31996457 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we generated a tkl1 deletion mutant in the Toxoplasma gondii type 1 RH (RHΔtkl1) strain and tested the protective efficacies of vaccination using RHΔtkl1 tachyzoites against acute, chronic, and congenital T. gondii infections in Kunming mice. Mice vaccinated with RHΔtkl1 mounted a strong humoral and cellular response as shown by elevated levels of anti-T. gondii-specific IgG, IL-2, IL-12, IFN-γ, and IL-10. All RHΔtkl1-vaccinated mice survived a lethal challenge with 1 × 103 tachyzoites of type 1 RH or ToxoDB#9 (PYS or TgC7) strain as well as 100 cysts or oocysts of Prugniuad strain. All mock-vaccinated plus infected mice have died. Vaccination also protected against cyst- or oocyst-caused chronic infection, reduced vertical transmission caused by oocysts, increased litter size, and maintained body weight of pups born to dams challenged with 10 oocysts on day 5 of gestation. In contrast, all mock-vaccinated plus oocysts-infected dams had aborted, and no fetus has survived. Vaccinated dams remained healthy postinfection, and their brain cyst burden was significantly reduced compared with mock-vaccinated dams infected with oocysts. In vivo depletion of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and B cells revealed that CD8+ T cells are involved in the protection of mice against T. gondii infection. Additionally, adoptive transfer of CD8+ T cells from RHΔtkl1-vaccinated mice significantly enhanced the survival of naive mice infected with the pathogenic strain. Together, these data reaffirm the importance of CD8+ T cell responses in future vaccine design for toxoplasmosis and present T. gondii tkl1 gene as a promising vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Qin-Li Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Jun-Jun He
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Meng-Jie Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Xue-Zhen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, People's Republic of China; and
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8
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Wang JL, Li TT, Elsheikha HM, Chen K, Cong W, Yang WB, Bai MJ, Huang SY, Zhu XQ. Live Attenuated Pru:Δcdpk2 Strain of Toxoplasma gondii Protects Against Acute, Chronic, and Congenital Toxoplasmosis. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:768-777. [PMID: 29669003 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The threat of Toxoplasma gondii infection in immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women necessitates the development of a safe and effective vaccine. Here, we examined the immune protection conferred by a live attenuated strain of T. gondii. Methods We tested the efficacy of intraperitoneal vaccination using 500 Ca2+-dependent protein kinase 2 (cdpk2)-deficient tachyzoites of T. gondii Pru strain against acute, chronic, and congenital toxoplasmosis in mice. The kinetics of antibody response, cytokines, and other quantifiable correlates of protection against T. gondii infection were determined. Results Vaccination with Pru:Δcdpk2 induced a high level of anti-T. gondii immunoglobulin G titer, type 1 T-helper (Th1) response at 28 days postvaccination, and a mixed Th1/type 2 T-helper response at 70 days postvaccination. All vaccinated mice survived a heterologous challenge with 1000 tachyzoites of RH or ToxoDB#9 (PYS or TgC7) strains. Also, vaccination protected against homologous infection with 20 T. gondii Pru cysts, and improved pregnancy outcome by reducing parasite cyst load in the brain, maintaining litter size and body weight of pups born to vaccinated dams challenged with 10 Pru cysts compared to pups born to unvaccinated dams. Conclusions The use of T. gondii Pru:Δcdpk2 mutant strain represents a promising approach to protection against acute, chronic, and congenital toxoplasmosis in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Kai Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Cong
- College of Marine Science, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Bin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Jie Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Si-Yang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
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Aguado-Martínez A, Basto AP, Leitão A, Hemphill A. Neospora caninum in non-pregnant and pregnant mouse models: cross-talk between infection and immunity. Int J Parasitol 2017; 47:723-735. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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Wang JL, Elsheikha HM, Zhu WN, Chen K, Li TT, Yue DM, Zhang XX, Huang SY, Zhu XQ. Immunization with Toxoplasma gondii GRA17 Deletion Mutant Induces Partial Protection and Survival in Challenged Mice. Front Immunol 2017; 8:730. [PMID: 28706518 PMCID: PMC5489627 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis remains a world-threatening disease largely because of the lack of a fully effective vaccine. Here, we created a ΔGRA17 mutant by disrupting the virulence factor GRA17 using CRISPR-Cas9 method. Then, we tested whether ΔGRA17 tachyzoites can be used as a live-attenuated vaccine against acute, chronic, and congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice. Immune response evoked by ΔGRA17 immunization suggested a sequential Th1 and Th2 T cell response, indicated by high levels of Th1 and a mixed Th1/Th2 cytokines at 28 and 70 days after immunization, respectively. ΔGRA17-mediated immunity fully protected mice against lethal infection with wild-type (wt) RH strain, heterologous challenge with PYS, and TgC7 strains of the Chinese ToxoDB#9 genotype, and T. gondii Pru strain. Although parasite cysts were detected in 8 out of 10 immunized mice, cyst burden in the brain was significantly reduced (P < 0.05) in immunized mice (53 ± 15 cysts/brain) compared to non-immunized mice (4,296 ± 687 cysts/brain). In respect to congenital infection, the litter size, survival rate, and body weight (BW) of pups born to ΔGRA17-immunized dams were not different compared to pups born to naïve control dams (P = 0.24). However, a marked reduction in the litter size (P < 0.001), survival rate, and BW (P < 0.01) of pups born to non-immunized and infected dams was detected. Also, immunized dams infected with type II Pru strain had significantly (P < 0.001) less cyst burden in the brain compared with non-immunized and infected dams. These findings show that immunization with ΔGRA17 strain evokes cell-mediated and neutralizing antibody responses and confers some degree of protection against challenge with homologous and heterologous virulent T. gondii strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Wei-Ning Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China.,College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, China
| | - Kai Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dong-Mei Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Xuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Si-Yang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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11
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Type I interferons induced by endogenous or exogenous viral infections promote metastasis and relapse of leishmaniasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:4987-4992. [PMID: 28439019 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1621447114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of the endogenous Leishmania RNA virus 1 (LRV1) replicating stably within some parasite species has been associated with the development of more severe forms of leishmaniasis and relapses after drug treatment in humans. Here, we show that the disease-exacerbatory role of LRV1 relies on type I IFN (type I IFNs) production by macrophages and signaling in vivo. Moreover, infecting mice with the LRV1-cured Leishmania guyanensis (LgyLRV1- ) strain of parasites followed by type I IFN treatment increased lesion size and parasite burden, quantitatively reproducing the LRV1-bearing (LgyLRV1+ ) infection phenotype. This finding suggested the possibility that exogenous viral infections could likewise increase pathogenicity, which was tested by coinfecting mice with L. guyanensis and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), or the sand fly-transmitted arbovirus Toscana virus (TOSV). The type I IFN antiviral response increased the pathology of L. guyanensis infection, accompanied by down-regulation of the IFN-γ receptor normally required for antileishmanial control. Further, LCMV coinfection of IFN-γ-deficient mice promoted parasite dissemination to secondary sites, reproducing the LgyLRV1+ metastatic phenotype. Remarkably, LCMV coinfection of mice that had healed from L. guyanensis infection induced reactivation of disease pathology, overriding the protective adaptive immune response. Our findings establish that type I IFN-dependent responses, arising from endogenous viral elements (dsRNA/LRV1), or exogenous coinfection with IFN-inducing viruses, are able to synergize with New World Leishmania parasites in both primary and relapse infections. Thus, viral infections likely represent a significant risk factor along with parasite and host factors, thereby contributing to the pathological spectrum of human leishmaniasis.
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Vom Steeg LG, Klein SL. Sex Steroids Mediate Bidirectional Interactions Between Hosts and Microbes. Horm Behav 2017; 88:45-51. [PMID: 27816626 PMCID: PMC6530912 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The outcome of microbial infections in mammals, including humans, is affected by the age, sex, and reproductive status of the host suggesting a role for sex steroid hormones. Testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone, signaling through their respective steroid receptors, affect the functioning of immune cells to cause differential susceptibility to parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections. Microbes, including fungi, bacteria, parasites, and viruses, can also use sex steroid hormones and manipulate sex steroid receptor signaling mechanisms to increase their own survival and replication rate. The multifaceted use of sex steroid hormones by both microbes and hosts during infection forms the basis of this review. In the arms race between microbes and hosts, both hosts and microbes have evolved to utilize sex steroid hormone signaling mechanisms for survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landon G Vom Steeg
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sabra L Klein
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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13
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Vargas-Villavicencio JA, Besné-Mérida A, Correa D. Vertical transmission and fetal damage in animal models of congenital toxoplasmosis: A systematic review. Vet Parasitol 2016; 223:195-204. [PMID: 27198800 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In humans, the probability of congenital infection and fetal damage due to Toxoplasma gondii is dependent on the gestation period at which primary infection occurs. Many animal models have been used for vaccine, drug testing, or studies on host or parasite factors that affect transmission or fetal pathology, but few works have directly tested fetal infection and damage rates along gestation. So, the purpose of this work was to perform a systematic review of the literature to determine if there is a model which reflects these changes as they occur in humans. We looked for papers appearing between 1970 and 2014 in major databases like Medline and Scopus, as well as gray literature. From almost 11,000 citations obtained, only 49 papers fulfilled the criteria of having data of all independent variables and at least one dependent datum for control (untreated) groups. Some interesting findings could be extracted. For example, pigs seem resistant and sheep susceptible to congenital infection. Also, oocysts cause more congenitally infected offspring than tissue cysts, bradyzoites or tachyzoites. In spite of these interesting findings, very few results on vertical transmission or fetal damage rates were similar to those described for humans and only for one of the gestation thirds, not all. Moreover, in most designs tissue cysts - with unknown number of bradyzoites - were used, so actual dose could not be established. The meta-analysis could not be performed, mainly because of great heterogeneity in experimental conditions. Nevertheless, results gathered suggest that a model could be designed to represent the increase in vertical transmission and decrease in fetal damage found in humans under natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Vargas-Villavicencio
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Besné-Mérida
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico
| | - Dolores Correa
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico.
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Vargas-Villavicencio JA, Cedillo-Peláez C, Rico-Torres CP, Besné-Mérida A, García-Vázquez F, Saldaña JI, Correa D. Mouse model of congenital infection with a non-virulent Toxoplasma gondii strain: Vertical transmission, "sterile" fetal damage, or both? Exp Parasitol 2016; 166:116-23. [PMID: 27068784 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Congenital transmission of Toxoplasma gondii may occur if the mother gets infected for the first time while pregnant. The risk of mother-to-child transmission depends on the gestation trimester at infection, being lowest in the first and highest in the last. Conversely, fetal damage is frequent and more severe at the beginning of pregnancy. The objective of this study was to evaluate congenital transmission and pathological aspects in the placenta and the fetus using a mouse model of congenital infection of the second gestation third. Forty-five female BALB/c mice were infected intravenously with 2.5-10.0 × 10(6) tachyzoites of the ME49 strain at middle gestation. Samples of maternal spleen and fetal/placental units were taken 72 h later. We determined parasite load and vertical transmission by qPCR, as well as damage macroscopically and by histopathology. With the lowest dose, 18% of the fetuses were infected. Also, 40% of fetuses/litter were altered, while this value was 10% in the control group (P < 0.05). These results are similar to those described in humans in terms of vertical transmission and fetal damage during the second third of gestation. The maternal spleen had 10-1000 times more tachyzoites than the placenta, and the later retained 90-99% of the parasites that could reach the fetus. Nevertheless, we found resorptions, abortions or fetal tissue damage in the presence but also in the absence of parasites. Our data indicate a strong protective effect of maternal organs and the placenta against fetal infection, but extensive damage of the later may led to resorption or abortion without vertical transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Vargas-Villavicencio
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - C Cedillo-Peláez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - C P Rico-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - A Besné-Mérida
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; Doctorado en Ciencias de la Salud y Reproducción Animal, FMVZ, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - F García-Vázquez
- Departamento de Anatomía Patológica, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - J I Saldaña
- Investigador Cátedra CONACyT en el Instituto Nacional de pediatría, Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - D Correa
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico.
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15
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Franco PS, da Silva NM, de Freitas Barbosa B, de Oliveira Gomes A, Ietta F, Shwab EK, Su C, Mineo JR, Ferro EAV. Calomys callosus chronically infected by Toxoplasma gondii clonal type II strain and reinfected by Brazilian strains is not able to prevent vertical transmission. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:181. [PMID: 25806028 PMCID: PMC4354403 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Considering that Toxoplasma gondii has shown high genetic diversity in Brazil, the aim of this study was to determine whether Calomys callosus chronically infected by the ME-49 strain might be susceptible to reinfection by these Brazilian strains, including vertical transmission of the parasite. Survival curves were analyzed in non-pregnant females chronically infected with ME-49 and reinfected with the TgChBrUD1 or TgChBrUD2 strain, and vertical transmission was analyzed after reinfection of pregnant females with these same strains. On the 19th day of pregnancy (dop), placentas, uteri, fetuses, liver, spleen, and lung were processed for detection of the parasite. Blood samples were collected for humoral and cellular immune response analyses. All non-pregnant females survived after reinfection and no changes were observed in body weight and morbidity scores. In pregnant females, parasites were detected in the placentas of ME-49 chronically infected females and reinfected females, but were only detected in the fetuses of reinfected females. TgChBrUD2 reinfected females showed more impaired pregnancy outcomes, presenting higher numbers of animals with fetal loss and a higher resorption rate, in parallel with higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and IgG2a subclass antibodies. Vertical transmission resulting from chronic infection of immunocompetent C. callosus is considered a rare event, being attributed instead to either reactivation or reinfection. That is, the pregnancy may be responsible for reactivation of the latent infection or the reinfection may promote T. gondii vertical transmission. Our results clearly demonstrate that, during pregnancy, protection against T. gondii can be breached after reinfection with parasites belonging to different genotypes, particularly when non-clonal strains are involved in this process and in this case the reinfection promoted vertical transmission of both type II and Brazilian T. gondii strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila S Franco
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Department of Histology and Embryology, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Neide M da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Bellisa de Freitas Barbosa
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Department of Histology and Embryology, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Angelica de Oliveira Gomes
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Department of Histology and Embryology, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Francesca Ietta
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena , Siena, Italy
| | - E K Shwab
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee , Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Chunlei Su
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee , Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - José R Mineo
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Eloisa A V Ferro
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Department of Histology and Embryology, Federal University of Uberlândia , Uberlândia, Brazil
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16
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Interleukin-6-driven inflammatory response induces retinal pathology in a model of ocular toxoplasmosis reactivation. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2109-17. [PMID: 25754200 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02985-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular inflammation is one of the consequences of infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Even if lesions are self-healing in immunocompetent persons, they pose a lifetime risk of reactivation and are a serious threat to vision. As there are virtually no immunological data on reactivating ocular toxoplasmosis, we established a model of direct intravitreal injection of parasites in previously infected mice with a homologous type II strain. Two different mouse strains with variable ability to control retinal infection were studied in order to describe protective and deleterious reaction patterns. In Swiss-Webster mice, which are already relatively resistant to primary infection, no peak of parasite load was observed upon reinfection. In contrast, the susceptible inbred strain C57BL/6 showed high parasite loads after 7 days, as well as marked deterioration of retinal architecture. Both parameters were back to normal on day 21. C57BL/6 mice also reacted with a strong local production of inflammatory and Th1-type cytokines, like interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-17A, and gamma interferon (IFN-γ), while Swiss-Webster mice showed only moderate expression of the Th2 cytokine IL-31. Interestingly, rapid intraocular production of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies was observed in Swiss-Webster but not in C57BL/6 mice. We then localized the cellular source of different immune mediators within the retina by immunofluorescence. Finally, neutralization experiments of IFN-γ or IL-6 demonstrated the respective protective and deleterious roles of these cytokines for parasite control and retinal integrity during reinfection. In conclusion, we developed and immunologically characterized a promising mouse model of reactivating ocular toxoplasmosis.
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17
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Fu X, Wu B, Huang B, Zheng H, Huang S, Gan Y, Shen J, Lun ZR, Lu F. The correlation of Tim-3 and IFN-γ expressions in mice infected with Toxoplasma gondii during gestation. Parasitol Res 2014; 114:125-32. [PMID: 25270237 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4167-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The immunoinhibitory receptor T cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-1 (Tim-1) and Tim-3 participate in the regulation of Th immune response as well as innate immunity. However, there is no report about the expression of Tim genes in Toxoplasma gondii-infected experimental models during pregnancy. In this study, Kunming outbred pregnant mice were infected with RH strain of T. gondii through vagina at days 10 to 16 of gestation, and the mRNA expressions of Tim-1, Tim-3, interleukin (IL)-4, and interferon (IFN)-γ in the placentas, uteri, and draining lumber aortic lymph nodes (LALNs) at day 18 of gestation were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Compared with uninfected pregnant controls, significantly increased levels of IFN-γ and Tim-3 were detected in the placentas (P < 0.001), uteri (P = 0.003 and P = 0.017, respectively), and LALNs (P = 0.003 and P = 0.025, respectively) of T. gondii-infected mice; there were positive and significant correlations between Tim-3 and IFN-γ mRNA expression levels in the placentas (R(2) = 0.6331, P = 0.0011), uteri (R(2) = 0.5658, P = 0.003), and LALNs (R(2) = 0.5583, P = 0.0033) of infected mice. Tim-1 (P = 0.002) and IL-4 (P = 0.003) expressions were significantly increased in the placentas, but Tim-1 were significantly decreased in the uteri (P = 0.013) and LALNs (P < 0.001) of infected pregnant mice in comparison of uninfected pregnant controls. Our data suggested that Tim-3 may play a regulatory role in T. gondii-infected pregnant mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyin Fu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
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18
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Beiting DP. Protozoan parasites and type I interferons: a cold case reopened. Trends Parasitol 2014; 30:491-8. [PMID: 25153940 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2014.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, trypanosomes, and Leishmania, are a major cause of disease in both humans and other animals, highlighting the need to understand the full spectrum of strategies used by the host immune system to sense and respond to parasite infection. Although type II interferon (IFN-γ) has long been recognized as an essential antiparasite immune effector, much less is known about the role of type I interferons (IFN-α and -β) in host defense, particularly in vivo. Recent studies are reviewed which collectively highlight that type I IFN can be induced in response to parasite infection and influence the outcome of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Beiting
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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19
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Krishnan L, Nguyen T, McComb S. From mice to women: the conundrum of immunity to infection during pregnancy. J Reprod Immunol 2013; 97:62-73. [PMID: 23432873 PMCID: PMC3748615 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2012.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Revised: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to infection is the ability of the host to evoke a strong immune response sufficient to eliminate the infectious agent. In contrast, maternal tolerance to the fetus necessitates careful regulation of immune responses. Successful pregnancy requires the maternal host to effectively balance the opposing processes of maternal immune reactivity and tolerance to the fetus. However, this balance can be perturbed by infections which are recognized as the major cause of adverse pregnancy outcome including pre-term labor. Select pathogens also pose a serious threat of severe maternal illness. These include intracellular and chronic pathogens that have evolved immune evasive strategies. Murine models of intracellular bacteria and parasites that mimic pathogenesis of infection in humans have been developed. While human epidemiological studies provide insight into maternal immunity to infection, experimental infection in pregnant mice is a vital tool to unravel the complex molecular mechanisms of placental infection, congenital transmission and maternal illness. We will provide a comprehensive review of the pathogenesis of several infection models in pregnant mice and their clinical relevance. These models have revealed the immunological function of the placenta in responding to, and resisting infection. Murine feto-placental infection provides an effective way to evaluate new intervention strategies for managing infections during pregnancy, adverse fetal outcome and long-term effects on the offspring and mother.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Krishnan
- Human Health Therapeutics, Division of Life Sciences, National Research Council, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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20
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Cañedo-Solares I, Calzada-Ruiz M, Ortiz-Alegría LB, Ortiz-Muñiz AR, Correa D. Endothelial cell invasion by Toxoplasma gondii: differences between cell types and parasite strains. Parasitol Res 2013; 112:3029-33. [PMID: 23749089 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3476-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii disseminates and causes congenital infection by invasion of the endothelial cells. The aim of this study was to analyze the ability of two strains to invade two endothelial cell types. Tachyzoites of the RH and ME49 strains were expanded in Balb/c and C57BL6-RAG2-/- mice, respectively. Tachyzoites were harvested from 72 h Vero cell cultures and incubated for 30 min to 4 h at 10:1 parasite/cell ratio in 24-well plates, containing monolayers of either HMEC-1 line or human umbilical cells (HUVECs). The number of infected cells and parasitic vacuoles per infected cell were counted in Wright stained slides. A slow increase in the proportion of infected cells occurred but varied according to cell type-parasite strain combination: ME49 tachyzoites invaded up to 63% HMEC-1 cells, while RH parasites infected up to 19% HUVECs. ME49 and RH tachyzoites invaded 49 and 46% HUVECs and HMEC-1 cells, respectively. Reinvasion and formation of new parasitophorous vacuoles of infected cells was more frequent than invasion of noninfected cells. The results support that the factors influencing invasion, and thus dissemination and vertical transmission, are parasite type, host cell type/subtype, and activation state. Interestingly, T. gondii virulence does not seem to relay on its invasion efficiency, but probably on replication speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma Cañedo-Solares
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Subdirección de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría Secretaría de Salud, Mexico, Distrito Federal, Mexico
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21
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The local immune response to intraocular Toxoplasma re-challenge: less pathology and better parasite control through Treg/Th1/Th2 induction. Int J Parasitol 2013; 43:721-8. [PMID: 23702129 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis is a major cause of blindness world-wide. Ocular involvement is frequently seen following congenital infection. Many of these infections are quiescent but pose a life-time risk of reactivation. However, the physiopathology of ocular toxoplasmosis reactivation is largely unexplored. We previously developed a Swiss-Webster outbred mouse model for congenital toxoplasmosis by neonatal injection of Toxoplasma gondii cysts. We also used a mouse model of direct intraocular infection to show a deleterious local T helper 17 type response upon primary infection. In the present study, our two models were combined to study intravitreal re-challenge of neonatally infected mice, as an approximate model of reactivation, in comparison with a primary ocular infection. Using BioPlex proteomic assays in aqueous humour and reverse transcription-PCR for T helper cell transcription factors, we observed diminished T helper 17 type reaction in reinfection, compared with primary infection. In contrast, T helper 2 and T regulatory responses were enhanced. Interestingly, this was also true for T helper 1 markers such as IFN-γ, which was paralleled by better parasite control. Secretion of IL-27, a central cytokine for shifting the immune response from T helper 17 to T helper 1, was also greatly enhanced. We observed a similar protective immune reaction pattern in the eye upon reinfection with the virulent RH strain, with the notable exception of IFN-γ. In summary, our results show that the balance is shifted from T helper 17 to a less pathogenic but more effective anti-parasite Treg/T helper 1/T helper 2 pattern in a reactivation setting.
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22
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Robinson DP, Klein SL. Pregnancy and pregnancy-associated hormones alter immune responses and disease pathogenesis. Horm Behav 2012; 62:263-71. [PMID: 22406114 PMCID: PMC3376705 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
During pregnancy, it is evolutionarily advantageous for inflammatory immune responses that might lead to fetal rejection to be reduced and anti-inflammatory responses that promote transfer of maternal antibodies to the fetus to be increased. Hormones modulate the immunological shift that occurs during pregnancy. Estrogens, including estradiol and estriol, progesterone, and glucocorticoids increase over the course of pregnancy and affect transcriptional signaling of inflammatory immune responses at the maternal-fetal interface and systemically. During pregnancy, the reduced activity of natural killer cells, inflammatory macrophages, and helper T cell type 1 (Th1) cells and production of inflammatory cytokines, combined with the higher activity of regulatory T cells and production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, affects disease pathogenesis. The severity of diseases caused by inflammatory responses (e.g., multiple sclerosis) is reduced and the severity of diseases that are mitigated by inflammatory responses (e.g., influenza and malaria) is increased during pregnancy. For some infectious diseases, elevated inflammatory responses that are necessary to control and clear a pathogen have a negative consequence on the outcome of pregnancy. The bidirectional interactions between hormones and the immune system contribute to both the outcome of pregnancy and female susceptibility to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionne P. Robinson
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Sabra L. Klein
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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23
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Zhang R, Zhang H, Liu X, Fu Q, Xu X, Hu X. The immunoprotective role of interleukin-10 in abnormal pregnancy outcome induced by Toxoplasma gondii infection. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2011; 73:223-9. [PMID: 22156631 DOI: 10.1159/000333310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the immunoprotective effect of IL-10 on pregnancy in Toxoplasma gondii-infected C57BL/6 mice. METHODS Twenty-four pregnant mice were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, i.e. a control group (CG), an infected group (IG) and an infected group treated with IL-10 (IPTG). Each IPTG and IG mouse was infected with 400 T. gondii trophozoites on gestational day (GD) 8. Each IPTG mouse was injected with 1 μg recombinant mouse IL-10 via a tail vein on GD 10 and 12. The mice were sacrificed on day 7 postinfection. Qa-1 and NKG2A were analyzed in the placenta by flow cytometry and real-time PCR. IL-4, IL-10 and IFN-γ in the placenta supernatant were analyzed by ELISA. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA. RESULTS IPTG mice showed a better mental state, had larger fetuses and placentas with a better blood supply and a lower resorption ratio compared to IG mice. NKG2A and Qa-1 were significantly increased in IPTG mice compared to IG mice (p < 0.05). IL-4 and IL-10 in IPTG placenta supernatant were increased (p < 0.05), but IFN-γ was decreased (p < 0.05) compared to IG placenta supernatant. The ratios of IFN-γ/IL-4 and IFN-γ/IL-10 were decreased in IPTG mice compared to IG mice (p < 0.05, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION IL-10 plays an immunoprotective role and improves the pregnancy outcome of T. gondii-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijin Zhang
- Department of Immunology, Binzhou Medical College, 346 Guan-hai Road, Lai-shan, Yantai, PR China
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24
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Ortiz-Alegría LB, Caballero-Ortega H, Cañedo-Solares I, Rico-Torres CP, Sahagún-Ruiz A, Medina-Escutia ME, Correa D. Congenital toxoplasmosis: candidate host immune genes relevant for vertical transmission and pathogenesis. Genes Immun 2010; 11:363-73. [PMID: 20445562 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2010.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infects a variety of vertebrate hosts, including humans. Transplacental passage of the parasite leads to congenital toxoplasmosis. A primary infection during the first weeks of gestation causes vertical transmission at low rate, although it causes major damage to the embryo. Transmission frequency increases to near 80% by the end of pregnancy, but the proportion of ill newborns is low. For transmission and pathogenesis, the parasite genetics is certainly important. Several host innate and adaptative immune response genes are induced during infection in adults, which control the rapidly replicating tachyzoite. The T helper 1 (Th1) response is protective, although it has to be modulated to avoid inflammatory damage. Paradoxical observations on this response pattern in congenital toxoplasmosis have been reported, as it may be protective or deleterious, inducing sterile abortion or favoring parasite transplacental passage. Regarding pregnancy, an early Th1 microenvironment is important for control of infectious diseases and successful implantation, although it has to be regulated to support trophoblast survival. Polymorphism of genes involved in these parallel phenomena, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), adhesins, cytokines, chemokines or their receptors, immunoglobulins or Fc receptors (FcRs), might be important in susceptibility for T. gondii vertical transmission, abortion or fetal pathology. In this study some examples are presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L B Ortiz-Alegría
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Subdirección de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSA, México DF, Mexico
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Senegas A, Villard O, Neuville A, Marcellin L, Pfaff AW, Steinmetz T, Mousli M, Klein JP, Candolfi E. Toxoplasma gondii-induced foetal resorption in mice involves interferon-gamma-induced apoptosis and spiral artery dilation at the maternofoetal interface. Int J Parasitol 2009; 39:481-7. [PMID: 18838076 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2008] [Revised: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 08/18/2008] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
The severity of congenital toxoplasmosis depends on the stage of the pregnancy at which infection takes place. Infection during the first trimester generally leads to miscarriage, through an unknown mechanism. Toxoplasma gondii infection is normally controlled by a strong Th1-type response with IFN-gamma production. To investigate the mechanisms of foetal resorption induced by T. gondii, pregnant Swiss-Webster mice were infected 1 day post coïtum with the avirulent Me49 strain. Mated recipients were examined at mid-gestation. Few parasites and no cytolytic effects were detected 10 days post coïtum in implantation sites undergoing resorption. Resorption was accompanied by haemorrhage, spiral artery dilation, hypocellularity of the decidua basalis, apoptosis of placental cells, a decline in uterine mature natural killer cell numbers, increased indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA levels and reduced IL-15 mRNA levels. Given the role of IFN-gammaR(-/-) in non-infectious abortive processes, IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice were used to investigate its local role in T. gondii-induced foetal resorption. IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice showed 50% less foetal resorption than their wild-type counterparts, and spiral artery dilation and placental cell apoptosis were both abolished. These results strongly suggest that, at least in mice, T. gondii-induced abortion in early gestation is not due to a direct action of the parasite at the maternofoetal interface but rather to massive IFN-gamma release.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Senegas
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, UPRES-EA 3950, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg F-67000, France
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Cellular and molecular physiopathology of congenital toxoplasmosis: the dual role of IFN-gamma. Parasitology 2008; 134:1895-902. [PMID: 17958925 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182007000200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is one of the few pathogens that can cross the placenta. Frequency and severity of transmission vary with gestational age. While the control of acquired toxoplasmosis is already well explored, the control of materno-foetal transmission of the parasite remains almost unknown. This is partly due to the lack of an animal model to study this process. This review summarises the studies which have been undertaken and shows that the mouse is a valuable model despite obvious differences to the human case. The paramount role of the cellular immune response has been shown by several experiments. However, IFN-gamma has a dual role in this process. While its beneficial effects in the control of toxoplasmosis are well known, it also seems to have transmission-enhancing effects and can also directly harm the developing foetus. The ultimate goal of these studies is to develop a vaccine which protects both mother and foetus. Therefore, it is useful to study the mechanisms of natural resistance against transmission during a secondary infection. In this setting, the process is more complicated, involving both cellular and also humoral components of the immune system. In summary, even if the whole process is far from being elucidated, important insights have been gained so far which will help us to undertake rational vaccine research.
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Immunological control of congenital toxoplasmosis in the murine model. Immunol Lett 2008; 115:83-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2007.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Lee YH, Shin DW, Lee JH, Nam HW, Ahn MH. Vaccination against murine toxoplasmosis using recombinant Toxoplasma gondii SAG3 antigen alone or in combination with Quil A. Yonsei Med J 2007; 48:396-404. [PMID: 17594146 PMCID: PMC2628080 DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2007.48.3.396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Surface antigen 3 (SAG3) of Toxoplasma gondii is very similar in structure to the major surface antigen 1 (SAG1). Although numerous studies have supported the importance of SAG1 in protection against T. gondii infection, few reports exist on SAG3. MATERIALS AND METHODS Glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-fused SAG3 of T. gondii (rSAG3) were immunized into BALB/c mice alone or in combination with Quil A (rSAG3/Quil A), and then evaluated the protective immunity in vivo and in vitro against murine toxoplasmosis. RESULTS Immunization with rSAG3 or rSAG3/Quil A resulted in significantly more survival days and fewer brain cysts after challenge with T. gondii compared to an infected control group. Mice immunized with rSAG3 alone or in combination with Quil A produced significantly more specific IgG2a antibody, whereas specific IgG1 antibody titers did not increase. The percentage of CD8+ T cells, IFN-gamma mRNA expression, and nitric oxide production significantly increased in rSAG3- and rSAG3/Quil A-immunized mice. CONCLUSION These results indicate that vaccination with Toxoplasma rSAG3 results in partial protective immunity against T. gondii infection through induction of a Th1-type immune response, and that protective immunity is accelerated by the modulating effects of Quil A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Ha Lee
- Department of Infection Biology, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, 6 Munwha-dong, Jung-gu, Daejeon 301-131, Korea.
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Pfaff AW, Villard O, Klein JP, Mousli M, Candolfi E. Regulation of Toxoplasma gondii multiplication in BeWo trophoblast cells: cross-regulation of nitric oxide production and polyamine biosynthesis. Int J Parasitol 2005; 35:1569-76. [PMID: 16185692 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2005] [Revised: 08/02/2005] [Accepted: 08/03/2005] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Materno-foetal transmission causes one of the most severe forms of infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Several studies have shown T. gondii in placental trophoblast cells, which form the barrier between maternal blood circulation and foetal tissue. Parasite multiplication in trophoblast cells is thus a critical step leading to infection of the foetus. Here, we show that multiplication of T. gondii tachyzoites was slow in BeWo trophoblast cells, compared with MRC-5 fibroblast cells. However, unlike MRC-5 cells, even combined stimulation with interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha did not reduce T. gondii replication in BeWo cells. This was associated with a lack of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase induction by these cytokines. Neither low availability of iron salts, nor an immunosuppressive action of cyclooxygenase-2 could be attributed to the low T. gondii multiplication rate in BeWo cells. However, treatment with the nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor N(G)-methyl-l-arginine and addition of ornithine enhanced the proliferation rate of the intracellular pathogen. Despite detection of inducible nitric oxide synthase-II mRNA in BeWo cells, nitric oxide production could not be detected during cell culture. Thus, inhibition of arginase activity by nitric oxide synthesis may be partially responsible for the lower multiplication rate in BeWo cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander W Pfaff
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale de Strasbourg, EA 1330 de la Faculté de Médecine: Interaction Cellulaire et Moléculaire Hôte-Parasite, Université Louis Pasteur, 3 rue Koeberlé, France.
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