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Guerra TJ, Braga RF, Camarota F, Neves FS, Fernandes GW. Avian Predators Avoid Attacking Fly-Mimicking Beetles: A Field Experiment on Evasive Mimicry Using Artificial Prey. Am Nat 2024; 204:96-104. [PMID: 38857342 DOI: 10.1086/730263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
AbstractMany Neotropical beetles present coloration patterns mimicking red-eyed flies, which are presumably evasive mimicry models. However, the role of predators in selecting for evasive mimics in nature remains untested. In a field experiment, we used nontoxic plasticine replicas of a specialized fly-mimicking beetle species, which we placed on the host plants of the beetles. We show that replicas painted with reddish patches simulating the eyes of flesh flies experienced a much lower predation rate than control replicas. We found that beak marks were the most frequent signs of attack on plasticine replicas, underlining the potential selective pressure exerted by birds. Replicas that matched the size of the beetles suffered higher predation than smaller or larger replicas. The predation rate was also higher for beetle replicas exposed during the warm and wet season, when adult beetles occur. Our results support predator-mediated selection of mimic beetles, highlighting that reddish spots resembling flies' eyes comprise an important trait in reducing attack by avian predators.
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2
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Gould J, McHenry C. It's not easy being green: Comparing typical skin colouration among amphibians with colour abnormalities associated with chromatophore deficits. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11438. [PMID: 38779532 PMCID: PMC11108801 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Amphibians can obtain their colour from a combination of several different pigment and light reflecting cell types called chromatophores, with defects in one or several of the cells leading to colour abnormalities. There is a need for better recording of colour abnormalities within wild amphibian populations, as this may provide baseline data that can be used to determine changes in environmental conditions and population dynamics, such as inbreeding. In this study, we provide records of several types of chromatophore deficiencies, including those involving iridophores, xanthophores and melanophores, among two Australian tree frog species; the green and golden bell frog, Litoria aurea, and the eastern dwarf tree frog, L. fallax. We explore these colour abnormalities in terms of the chromatophores that have likely been affected and associated with their expression, in combination with typical colour phenotypes, colour variations and colour changes for these species. We intend for our photographs to be used as a visual guide that addresses the need for more accessible information regarding the physical manifestation of different chromatophore defects among amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Gould
- School of Environmental and Life SciencesUniversity of NewcastleCallaghanNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Colin McHenry
- School of Environmental and Life SciencesUniversity of NewcastleCallaghanNew South WalesAustralia
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3
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Raška J, Chalušová K, Krajiček J, Čabala R, Bosáková Z, Štys P, Exnerová A. Ontogenetic change in effectiveness of chemical defence against different predators in Oxycarenus true bugs. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:1050-1064. [PMID: 37428808 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Many prey species change their antipredator defence during ontogeny, which may be connected to different potential predators over the life cycle of the prey. To test this hypothesis, we compared reactions of two predator taxa - spiders and birds - to larvae and adults of two invasive true bug species, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis and Oxycarenus lavaterae (Heteroptera: Oxycarenidae) with life-stage-specific chemical defence mechanisms. The reactions to larvae and adults of both true bug species strikingly differed between the two predator taxa. The spiders were deterred by the defences of adult bugs, but the larval defences were ineffective against them. By contrast, birds attacked the larvae considerably less often than the adult bugs. The results indicate a predator-specific ontogenetic change in defence effectiveness of both Oxycarenus species. The change in defence is likely linked to the life-stage-specific composition of secretions in both species: whereas secretions of larvae are dominated by unsaturated aldehydes, secretions of adults are rich in terpenoids, which probably serve dual function of defensive chemicals and pheromones. Our results highlight the variation in defence between different life stages and the importance of testing responses of different types of predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Chalušová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krajiček
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Radomír Čabala
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Bosáková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
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4
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Goßmann A, Ambrožová L, Cizek L, Drag L, Georgiev K, Neudam L, Perlík M, Seidel D, Thorn S. Habitat openness and predator abundance determine predation risk of warningly colored longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) in temperate forest. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2023; 23:7146570. [PMID: 37116058 PMCID: PMC10146197 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iead027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Organisms have evolved different defense mechanisms, such as crypsis and mimicry, to avoid detection and recognition by predators. A prominent example is Batesian mimicry, where palatable species mimic unpalatable or toxic ones, such as Clytini (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) that mimic wasps. However, scientific evidence for the effectiveness of Batesian mimicry in Cerambycids in natural habitats is scarce. We investigated predation of warningly and nonwarningly colored Cerambycids by birds in a temperate forest using beetle dummies. Dummies mimicking Tetropium castaneum, Leptura aethiops, Clytus arietis, and Leptura quadrifasciata were exposed on standing and laying deadwood and monitored predation events by birds over one season. The 20 surveyed plots differed in their structural complexity and canopy openness due to different postdisturbance logging strategies. A total of 88 predation events on warningly colored beetle dummies and 89 predation events on nonwarningly colored beetle dummies did not reveal the difference in predation risk by birds. However, predation risk increased with canopy openness, bird abundance, and exposure time, which peaked in July. This suggests that environmental factors have a higher importance in determining predation risk of warningly and nonwarningly colored Cerambycidae than the actual coloration of the beetles. Our study showed that canopy openness might be important in determining the predation risk of beetles by birds regardless of beetles' warning coloration. Different forest management strategies that often modify canopy openness may thus alter predator-prey interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika Goßmann
- Field Station Fabrikschleichach, Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology (Zoology III), Julius Maximilians University Würzburg, Glashüttenstraße 5, 96181 Rauhenebrach, Germany
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agriculture, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lucie Ambrožová
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre CAS, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Lukas Cizek
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre CAS, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Lukas Drag
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre CAS, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Kostadin Georgiev
- Field Station Fabrikschleichach, Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology (Zoology III), Julius Maximilians University Würzburg, Glashüttenstraße 5, 96181 Rauhenebrach, Germany
- Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Biodiversity center, Europastrasse 10, D-35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Liane Neudam
- Department of Silviculture and Forest Ecology of the Temperate Zones, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michal Perlík
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre CAS, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Dominik Seidel
- Department for Spatial Structures and Digitization of Forests, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Simon Thorn
- Field Station Fabrikschleichach, Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology (Zoology III), Julius Maximilians University Würzburg, Glashüttenstraße 5, 96181 Rauhenebrach, Germany
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre CAS, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation, Environment and Geology, Biodiversity center, Europastrasse 10, D-35394 Giessen, Germany
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5
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Experimental evidence in a poison frog model suggests that tadpole transport on the dorsum may affects warning signal effectiveness in poison frogs. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10219-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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6
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McLellan CF, Scott-Samuel NE, Cuthill IC. Birds learn to avoid aposematic prey by using the appearance of host plants. Curr Biol 2021; 31:5364-5369.e4. [PMID: 34624210 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The conspicuous warning signal of aposematic animals is learned by their predators, and the resulting avoidance benefits both parties.1-4 Given evidence that birds can distinguish the profitability of prey from the environmental context in which they appear,5 aposematic insects' host plants might also provide an important cue to foraging predators.6 The aposematic cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae) larva is a specialist on its ragwort (Senecio spp.) host plant,7 presenting a consistent environment with which it could be reliably associated. Additionally, ragwort's defensive toxins prevent non-specialist, profitable insects from feeding on it.8 Thus, avian predators may recognize cues from ragwort, most likely its conspicuous yellow flowers,9,10 and use this information to avoid cinnabars. To test this hypothesis, we exposed artificial cinnabar and non-signaling "caterpillar" targets to wild avian predation by presenting them on ragwort and non-toxic host plants. We also manipulated the presence or absence of ragwort flowers on hosts. In doing so, we show that both targets are better protected on the cinnabar's natural ragwort host and that birds use ragwort's distinctive yellow flowers as the cue to avoidance. Additionally, we found that naive predators do not make prey host foraging distinctions, indicating that this avoidance behavior is learned through experience. Our findings are among the first to suggest that a host plant's features act as an extended phenotype that signals the toxicity of the prey that live on it. This prey-host relationship may facilitate the initial evolution of toxicity in non-signaling prey, but also inhibit the evolution of aposematic signals themselves. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Innes C Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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7
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Veselý P, Dobrovodský J, Fuchs R. Predation by avian predators may have initiated the evolution of myrmecomorph spiders. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17266. [PMID: 34446800 PMCID: PMC8390495 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96737-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Myrmecomorphy is a strategy utilized by a variety of species, among which spiders are the most common. It is supposed that myrmecomorphy tends to be selected by predator avoidance of preying on ants rather than by blind ant workers. To date, this hypothesis has been tested mainly on invertebrate predators (mantises and spiders). We are the first to test whether an imperfect myrmecomorph spider (Phrurolithus festivus) gains protection against avian predators (wild adult great tits—Parus major) through its appearance. In a set of preferential trials, we showed that the ant model and the myrmecomorph spider are equally well protected against attack, though the attacked myrmecomorphs are usually eaten. This suggests that the mimicry of the myrmecomorph spiders is effective against avian predators and works in a Batesian manner. In this study, we have provided evidence toward the evolution of myrmecomorphy in response to selective pressure elicited by visually-oriented predators like birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Veselý
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Juraj Dobrovodský
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Fuchs
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
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8
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Andrade P, Carneiro M. Pterin-based pigmentation in animals. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20210221. [PMID: 34403644 PMCID: PMC8370806 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pterins are one of the major sources of bright coloration in animals. They are produced endogenously, participate in vital physiological processes and serve a variety of signalling functions. Despite their ubiquity in nature, pterin-based pigmentation has received little attention when compared to other major pigment classes. Here, we summarize major aspects relating to pterin pigmentation in animals, from its long history of research to recent genomic studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying its evolution. We argue that pterins have intermediate characteristics (endogenously produced, typically bright) between two well-studied pigment types, melanins (endogenously produced, typically cryptic) and carotenoids (dietary uptake, typically bright), providing unique opportunities to address general questions about the biology of coloration, from the mechanisms that determine how different types of pigmentation evolve to discussions on honest signalling hypotheses. Crucial gaps persist in our knowledge on the molecular basis underlying the production and deposition of pterins. We thus highlight the need for functional studies on systems amenable for laboratory manipulation, but also on systems that exhibit natural variation in pterin pigmentation. The wealth of potential model species, coupled with recent technological and analytical advances, make this a promising time to advance research on pterin-based pigmentation in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Andrade
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Miguel Carneiro
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
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9
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Ord TJ, Blazek K, White TE, Das I. Conspicuous animal signals avoid the cost of predation by being intermittent or novel: confirmation in the wild using hundreds of robotic prey. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210706. [PMID: 34102889 PMCID: PMC8187999 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Social animals are expected to face a trade-off between producing a signal that is detectible by mates and rivals, but not obvious to predators. This trade-off is fundamental for understanding the design of many animal signals, and is often the lens through which the evolution of alternative communication strategies is viewed. We have a reasonable working knowledge of how conspecifics detect signals under different conditions, but how predators exploit conspicuous communication of prey is complex and hard to predict. We quantified predation on 1566 robotic lizard prey that performed a conspicuous visual display, possessed a conspicuous ornament or remained cryptic. Attacks by free-ranging predators were consistent across two contrasting ecosystems and showed robotic prey that performed a conspicuous display were equally likely to be attacked as those that remained cryptic. Furthermore, predators avoided attacking robotic prey with a fixed, highly visible ornament that was novel at both locations. These data show that it is prey familiarity-not conspicuousness-that determine predation risk. These findings replicated across different predator-prey communities not only reveal how conspicuous signals might evolve in high predation environments, but could help resolve the paradox of aposematism and why some exotic species avoid predation when invading new areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry J. Ord
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre and the School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Katrina Blazek
- School of Public Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Indraneil Das
- Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
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Galarza JA. Comparative transcriptomics of albino and warningly-coloured caterpillars. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:7507-7517. [PMID: 34188830 PMCID: PMC8216890 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Coloration is perhaps one of the most prominent adaptations for survival and reproduction of many taxa. Coloration is of particular importance for aposematic species, which rely on their coloring and patterning acting as a warning signal to deter predators. Most research has focused on the evolution of warning coloration by natural selection. However, little information is available for color mutants of aposematic species, particularly at the genomic level. Here, I compare the transcriptomes of albino mutant caterpillars of the aposematic wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis) to those of their full sibs having their distinctive orange-black warning coloration. The results showed >290 differentially expressed genes genome-wide. Genes involved in the immune system, structural constituents of cuticular, and immunity were mostly downregulated in the albino caterpillars. Surprisingly, higher expression was observed in core melanin genes from albino caterpillars, suggesting that melanin synthesis may be disrupted in terminal ends of the pathway during its final conversion. Taken together, these results suggest that caterpillar albinism may not be due to a depletion of melanin precursor genes. In contrast, the albino condition may result from the combination of faulty melanin conversion late in its synthesis and structural deficiencies in the cuticular preventing its deposition. The results are discussed in the context of how albinism may impact individuals of aposematic species in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan A. Galarza
- Dpartment of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
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Motyka M, Kusy D, Masek M, Bocek M, Li Y, Bilkova R, Kapitán J, Yagi T, Bocak L. Conspicuousness, phylogenetic structure, and origins of Müllerian mimicry in 4000 lycid beetles from all zoogeographic regions. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5961. [PMID: 33727670 PMCID: PMC7971032 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85567-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Biologists have reported on the chemical defences and the phenetic similarity of net-winged beetles (Coleoptera: Lycidae) and their co-mimics. Nevertheless, our knowledge has remained fragmental, and the evolution of mimetic patterns has not been studied in the phylogenetic context. We illustrate the general appearance of ~ 600 lycid species and ~ 200 co-mimics and their distribution. Further, we assemble the phylogeny using the transcriptomic backbone and ~ 570 species. Using phylogenetic information, we closely scrutinise the relationships among aposematically coloured species, the worldwide diversity, and the distribution of aposematic patterns. The emitted visual signals differ in conspicuousness. The uniform coloured dorsum is ancestral and was followed by the evolution of bicoloured forms. The mottled patterns, i.e. fasciate, striate, punctate, and reticulate, originated later in the course of evolution. The highest number of sympatrically occurring patterns was recovered in New Guinea and the Andean mountain ecosystems (the areas of the highest abundance), and in continental South East Asia (an area of moderate abundance but high in phylogenetic diversity). Consequently, a large number of co-existing aposematic patterns in a single region and/or locality is the rule, in contrast with the theoretical prediction, and predators do not face a simple model-like choice but cope with complex mimetic communities. Lycids display an ancestral aposematic signal even though they sympatrically occur with differently coloured unprofitable relatives. We show that the highly conspicuous patterns evolve within communities predominantly formed by less conspicuous Müllerian mimics and, and often only a single species displays a novel pattern. Our work is a forerunner to the detailed research into the aposematic signalling of net-winged beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Motyka
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Dominik Kusy
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Masek
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Matej Bocek
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Yun Li
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - R. Bilkova
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Josef Kapitán
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Department of Optics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Takashi Yagi
- grid.261455.10000 0001 0676 0594Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-2 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8570 Japan
| | - Ladislav Bocak
- grid.10979.360000 0001 1245 3953Laboratory of Diversity and Molecular Evolution, CATRIN-CRH, Palacky University, 17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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12
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Mora-Castro R, Alfaro-Córdoba M, Hernández-Jiménez M, Fernández Otárola M, Méndez-Rivera M, Ramírez-Morales D, Rodríguez-Rodríguez CE, Durán-Rodríguez A, Hanson PE. First evidence for an aposematic function of a very common color pattern in small insects. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0237288. [PMID: 33571212 PMCID: PMC7877781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many small parasitoid wasps have a black head, an orange mesosoma and a black metasoma (BOB color pattern), which is usually present in both sexes. A likely function of this widespread pattern is aposematic (warning) coloration, but this has never been investigated. To test this hypothesis, we presented spider predators (Lyssomanes jemineus), both field-captured and bred in captivity from eggs, to four wasp genera (Baryconus, Chromoteleia, Macroteleia and Scelio), each genus being represented by a BOB morphospecies and black morphospecies. We also used false prey, consisting of lures made of painted rice grains. Behavioral responses were analyzed with respect to presence or absence of the BOB pattern. In order to better understand the results obtained, two additional studies were performed. First, the reflection spectrum of the cuticle of the wasp and a theoretical visual sensibility of the spider were used to calculate a parameter we called "absorption contrast" that allows comparing the perception contrast between black and orange in each wasp genus as viewed by the spider. Second, acute toxicity trials with the water flea, Daphnia magna, were performed to determine toxicity differences between BOB and non-BOB wasps. At least some of the results suggest that the BOB color pattern may possibly play an aposematic role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Mora-Castro
- Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- * E-mail:
| | - Marcela Alfaro-Córdoba
- Centro de Investigación en Matemática Pura y Aplicada, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Estadística, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Marcela Hernández-Jiménez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Física, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauricio Fernández Otárola
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical (CIBET), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Michael Méndez-Rivera
- Centro de Investigación en Contaminación Ambiental (CICA), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Didier Ramírez-Morales
- Centro de Investigación en Contaminación Ambiental (CICA), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | | | | | - Paul E. Hanson
- Escuela de Biología, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Seeing red? Colour biases of foraging birds are context dependent. Anim Cogn 2020; 23:1007-1018. [PMID: 32621272 PMCID: PMC7415751 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01407-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Colours are commonly used as visual cues when measuring animals' cognitive abilities. However, animals can have innate biases towards certain colours that depend on ecological and evolutionary contexts, therefore potentially influencing their performance in experiments. For example, when foraging, the colour red can advertise profitable fruits or act as a warning signal about chemically defended prey, and an individual's propensity to take food of that colour may depend on experience, age or physical condition. Here, we investigate how these contexts influence blue tits' (Cyanistes caeruleus) and great tits' (Parus major) responses to red-coloured almond flakes. We found that juvenile birds preferred red both when it was presented simultaneously with green, and when it was presented with three alternative colours (orange, purple, green). Adult birds, however, only preferred red after a positive experience with the colour, or when it was presented with the three alternative colours. We then tested whether colour influenced avoidance learning about food unpalatability. Despite the prediction that red is a more salient warning signal than green, we found only weak evidence that birds discriminated red unpalatable almonds from a green palatable alternative more quickly than when the colours were reversed. Our results suggest that biases towards red food may depend on birds' age and previous experience, and this might influence their performance in experiments that use red stimuli. Considering the ecological relevance of colours is, therefore, important when designing experiments that involve colour cues.
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14
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Pattern contrast influences wariness in naïve predators towards aposematic patterns. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9246. [PMID: 32514003 PMCID: PMC7280217 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
An apparent and common feature of aposematic patterns is that they contain a high level of achromatic (luminance) contrast, for example, many warning signals combine black spots and stripes with a lighter colour such as yellow. However, the potential importance of achromatic contrast, as distinct from colour contrast, in reducing predation has been largely overlooked. Here, using domestic chicks as a model predator, we manipulated the degree of achromatic contrast in warning patterns to test if high luminance contrast in aposematic signals is important for deterring naïve predators. We found that the chicks were less likely to approach and eat prey with high contrast compared to low contrast patterns. These findings suggest that aposematic prey patterns with a high luminance contrast can benefit from increased survival through eliciting unlearned biases in naïve avian predators. Our work also highlights the importance of considering luminance contrast in future work investigating why aposematic patterns take the particular forms that they do.
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15
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Briolat ES, Burdfield‐Steel ER, Paul SC, Rönkä KH, Seymoure BM, Stankowich T, Stuckert AMM. Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:388-414. [PMID: 30152037 PMCID: PMC6446817 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency-dependent learning. However, widespread variation in warning signals is observed across closely related species, populations and, most problematically for evolutionary biologists, among individuals in the same population. Recent research has yielded an increased awareness of this diversity, challenging the paradigm of signal monomorphy in aposematic animals. Here we provide a comprehensive synthesis of these disparate lines of investigation, identifying within them three broad classes of explanation for variation in aposematic warning signals: genetic mechanisms, differences among predators and predator behaviour, and alternative selection pressures upon the signal. The mechanisms producing warning coloration are also important. Detailed studies of the genetic basis of warning signals in some species, most notably Heliconius butterflies, are beginning to shed light on the genetic architecture facilitating or limiting key processes such as the evolution and maintenance of polymorphisms, hybridisation, and speciation. Work on predator behaviour is changing our perception of the predator community as a single homogenous selective agent, emphasising the dynamic nature of predator-prey interactions. Predator variability in a range of factors (e.g. perceptual abilities, tolerance to chemical defences, and individual motivation), suggests that the role of predators is more complicated than previously appreciated. With complex selection regimes at work, polytypisms and polymorphisms may even occur in Müllerian mimicry systems. Meanwhile, phenotypes are often multifunctional, and thus subject to additional biotic and abiotic selection pressures. Some of these selective pressures, primarily sexual selection and thermoregulation, have received considerable attention, while others, such as disease risk and parental effects, offer promising avenues to explore. As well as reviewing the existing evidence from both empirical studies and theoretical modelling, we highlight hypotheses that could benefit from further investigation in aposematic species. Finally by collating known instances of variation in warning signals, we provide a valuable resource for understanding the taxonomic spread of diversity in aposematic signalling and with which to direct future research. A greater appreciation of the extent of variation in aposematic species, and of the selective pressures and constraints which contribute to this once-paradoxical phenomenon, yields a new perspective for the field of aposematic signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S. Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
| | - Emily R. Burdfield‐Steel
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
| | - Sarah C. Paul
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
- Department of Chemical EcologyBielefeld UniversityUniversitätsstraße 25, 33615, BielefeldGermany
| | - Katja H. Rönkä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental SciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki, 00014Finland
| | - Brett M. Seymoure
- Department of BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological SciencesCalifornia State UniversityLong BeachCA 90840U.S.A.
| | - Adam M. M. Stuckert
- Department of BiologyEast Carolina University1000 E Fifth St, GreenvilleNC 27858U.S.A.
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16
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Briolat ES, Zagrobelny M, Olsen CE, Blount JD, Stevens M. No evidence of quantitative signal honesty across species of aposematic burnet moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae). J Evol Biol 2018; 32:31-48. [PMID: 30317689 PMCID: PMC6378400 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many defended species use conspicuous visual warning signals to deter potential predators from attacking. Traditional theory holds that these signals should converge on similar forms, yet variation in visual traits and the levels of defensive chemicals is common, both within and between species. It is currently unclear how the strength of signals and potency of defences might be related: conflicting theories suggest that aposematic signals should be quantitatively honest, or, in contrast, that investment in one component should be prioritized over the other, while empirical tests have yielded contrasting results. Here, we advance this debate by examining the relationship between defensive chemicals and signal properties in a family of aposematic Lepidoptera, accounting for phylogenetic relationships and quantifying coloration from the perspective of relevant predators. We test for correlations between toxin levels and measures of wing colour across 14 species of day‐flying burnet and forester moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae), protected by highly aversive cyanogenic glucosides, and find no clear evidence of quantitative signal honesty. Significant relationships between toxin levels and coloration vary between sexes and sampling years, and several trends run contrary to expectations for signal honesty. Although toxin concentration is positively correlated with increasing luminance contrast in forewing pattern in 1 year, higher toxin levels are also associated with paler and less chromatically salient markings, at least in females, in another year. Our study also serves to highlight important factors, including sex‐specific trends and seasonal variation, that should be accounted for in future work on signal honesty in aposematic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carl E Olsen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonathan D Blount
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
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17
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Rojas B, Burdfield-Steel E, De Pasqual C, Gordon S, Hernández L, Mappes J, Nokelainen O, Rönkä K, Lindstedt C. Multimodal Aposematic Signals and Their Emerging Role in Mate Attraction. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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18
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Forthman M, Weirauch C. Phylogenetic comparative analysis supports aposematic colouration-body size association in millipede assassins (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae). J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1071-1078. [PMID: 29742313 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The diversity of colour patterns and its importance in interactions with the environment make colouration in animals an intriguing research focus. Aposematic colouration is positively correlated with body size in certain groups of animals, suggesting that warning colours are more effective or that crypsis is harder to achieve in larger animals. Surprisingly, this relationship has not been recovered in studies investigating insects, which may have been confounded by a focus on aposematic taxa that are also gregarious. Millipede assassin bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae) comprise species with cryptic and aposematic colour patterns across a range of body sizes, are typically solitary as adults and are thus an excellent model for investigating a possible association between colouration and body size. Here, we use a comprehensive phylogeny for Ectrichodiinae, ancestral state reconstruction of colouration, and phylogenetic comparative methods to test for a colouration-body size association. The ancestor of Ectrichodiinae is reconstructed as cryptically coloured, with multiple subsequent transitions between aposematic and cryptic colouration. Aposematic colouration is positively associated with male body length and supports the hypothesis that selection on Ectrichodiinae body size may influence evolutionary transitions between aposematic and cryptic colouration or alternatively that selection for aposematic colouration influences body size evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Forthman
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA.,Department of Entomology & Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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19
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Rönkä K, Mappes J, Michalis C, Kiviö R, Salokannas J, Rojas B. Can multiple-model mimicry explain warning signal polymorphism in the wood tiger moth, Arctia plantaginis (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Rönkä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI, Finland
| | - J Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI, Finland
| | - C Michalis
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - R Kiviö
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI, Finland
| | - J Salokannas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI, Finland
| | - B Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI, Finland
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20
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Rönkä K, De Pasqual C, Mappes J, Gordon S, Rojas B. Colour alone matters: no predator generalization among morphs of an aposematic moth. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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21
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Tan EJ, Reid CAM, Symonds MRE, Jurado-Rivera JA, Elgar MA. The Role of Life-History and Ecology in the Evolution of Color Patterns in Australian Chrysomeline Beetles. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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22
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Lindstedt C, Boncoraglio G, Cotter S, Gilbert J, Kilner RM. Aposematism in the burying beetle? Dual function of anal fluid in parental care and chemical defense. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arx100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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23
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Raška J, Štys P, Exnerová A. How variation in prey aposematic signals affects avoidance learning, generalization and memory of a salticid spider. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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24
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Wee JLQ, Monteiro A. Yellow and the Novel Aposematic Signal, Red, Protect Delias Butterflies from Predators. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0168243. [PMID: 28060944 PMCID: PMC5218396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterflies of the South Asian and Australian genus Delias possess striking colours on the ventral wings that are presumed to serve as warning signals to predators. However, this has not been shown empirically. Here we experimentally tested whether the colours of one member of this diverse genus, Delias hyparete, function as aposematic signals. We constructed artificial paper models with either a faithful colour representation of D. hyparete, or with all of its colours converted to grey scale. We also produced models where single colours were left intact, while others were converted to grey-scale or removed entirely. We placed all model types simultaneously in the field, attached to a live mealworm, and measured relative attack rates at three separate field sites. Faithful models of D. hyparete, suffered the least amount of attacks, followed by grey-scale models with unaltered red patches, and by grey-scale models with unaltered yellow patches. We conclude that red and yellow colours function as warning signals. By mapping dorsal and ventral colouration onto a phylogeny of Delias, we observed that yellow and red colours appear almost exclusively on the ventral wing surfaces, and that basal lineages have mostly yellow, white, and black wings, whereas derived lineages contain red colour in addition to the other colours. Red appears to be, thus, a novel adaptive trait in this lineage of butterflies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Liang Qi Wee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
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25
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Effects of directionality, signal intensity, and short-wavelength components on iridescent warning signal efficacy. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2141-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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26
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Rojas B. Behavioural, ecological, and evolutionary aspects of diversity in frog colour patterns. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2016; 92:1059-1080. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyvaskyla; PO Box 35 Jyväskylä FI 40001 Finland
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27
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Su S, Lim M, Kunte K. Prey from the eyes of predators: Color discriminability of aposematic and mimetic butterflies from an avian visual perspective. Evolution 2015; 69:2985-94. [PMID: 26477885 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 09/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Predation exerts strong selection on mimetic butterfly wing color patterns, which also serve other functions such as sexual selection. Therefore, specific selection pressures may affect the sexes and signal components differentially. We tested three predictions about the evolution of mimetic resemblance by comparing wing coloration of aposematic butterflies and their Batesian mimics: (a) females gain greater mimetic advantage than males and therefore are better mimics, (b) due to intersexual genetic correlations, sexually monomorphic mimics are better mimics than female-limited mimics, and (c) mimetic resemblance is better on the dorsal wing surface that is visible to predators in flight. Using a physiological model of avian color vision, we quantified mimetic resemblance from predators' perspective, which showed that female butterflies were better mimics than males. Mimetic resemblance in female-limited mimics was comparable to that in sexually monomorphic mimics, suggesting that intersexual genetic correlations did not constrain adaptive response to selection for female-limited mimicry. Mimetic resemblance on the ventral wing surface was better than that on the dorsal wing surface, implying stronger natural and sexual selection on ventral and dorsal surfaces, respectively. These results suggest that mimetic resemblance in butterfly mimicry rings has evolved under various selective pressures acting in a sex- and wing surface-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Su
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India. .,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Matthew Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India.
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28
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Dreher CE, Cummings ME, Pröhl H. An Analysis of Predator Selection to Affect Aposematic Coloration in a Poison Frog Species. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130571. [PMID: 26110826 PMCID: PMC4481408 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural selection is widely noted to drive divergence of phenotypic traits. Predation pressure can facilitate morphological divergence, for example the evolution of both cryptic and conspicuous coloration in animals. In this context Dendrobatid frogs have been used to study evolutionary forces inducing diversity in protective coloration. The polytypic strawberry poison frog (Oophaga pumilio) shows strong divergence in aposematic coloration among populations. To investigate whether predation pressure is important for color divergence among populations of O. pumilio we selected four mainland populations and two island populations from Costa Rica and Panama. Spectrometric measurements of body coloration were used to calculate color and brightness contrasts of frogs as an indicator of conspicuousness for the visual systems of several potential predators (avian, crab and snake) and a conspecific observer. Additionally, we conducted experiments using clay model frogs of different coloration to investigate whether the local coloration of frogs is better protected than non-local color morphs, and if predator communities vary among populations. Overall predation risk differed strongly among populations and interestingly was higher on the two island populations. Imprints on clay models indicated that birds are the main predators while attacks of other predators were rare. Furthermore, clay models of local coloration were equally likely to be attacked as those of non-local coloration. Overall conspicuousness (and brightness contrast) of local frogs was positively correlated with attack rates by birds across populations. Together with results from earlier studies we conclude that conspicuousness honestly indicates toxicity to avian predators. The different coloration patterns among populations of strawberry poison frogs in combination with behavior and toxicity might integrate into equally efficient anti-predator strategies depending on local predation and other ecological factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna E Dreher
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Molly E Cummings
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Heike Pröhl
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
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29
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Exnerová A, Ježová D, Štys P, Doktorovová L, Rojas B, Mappes J. Different reactions to aposematic prey in 2 geographically distant populations of great tits. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
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30
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Differential detectability of polymorphic warning signals under varying light environments. Behav Processes 2014; 109 Pt B:164-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 08/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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31
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Willink B, García-Rodríguez A, Bolaños F, Pröhl H. The interplay between multiple predators and prey colour divergence. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Willink
- Escuela de Biología; Universidad de Costa Rica; Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio 2060 San José Costa Rica
- Department of Biology; Lund University; SE-223 62 Lund Sweden
| | - Adrián García-Rodríguez
- Museo de Zoología; Universidad de Costa Rica; Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio 2060 San José Costa Rica
- Departamento de Botanica, Ecologia e Zoologia; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; Natal Rio Grande do Norte Brazil
| | - Federico Bolaños
- Escuela de Biología; Universidad de Costa Rica; Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio 2060 San José Costa Rica
| | - Heike Pröhl
- Institute of Zoology; University of Veterinary Medicine of Hannover; Bünteweg 17 30559 Hannover Germany
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32
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Ajuria Ibarra H, Reader T. Female-limited colour polymorphism in the crab spiderSynema globosum(Araneae: Thomisidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helena Ajuria Ibarra
- School of Life Sciences; University Park; University of Nottingham; Nottingham NG7 2RD UK
| | - Tom Reader
- School of Life Sciences; University Park; University of Nottingham; Nottingham NG7 2RD UK
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33
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Arenas LM, Troscianko J, Stevens M. Color contrast and stability as key elements for effective warning signals. Front Ecol Evol 2014. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2014.00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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34
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Relative effectiveness of blue and orange warning colours in the contexts of innate avoidance, learning and generalization. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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35
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Fabricant SA, Exnerová A, Ježová D, Štys P. Scared by shiny? The value of iridescence in aposematic signalling of the hibiscus harlequin bug. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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36
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Importance of conspicuous colours in warning signals: the great tit’s (Parus major) point of view. Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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37
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Hotová Svádová K, Exnerová A, Kopečková M, Štys P. How Do Predators Learn to Recognize a Mimetic Complex: Experiments with Naive Great Tits and Aposematic Heteroptera. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Hotová Svádová
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Michala Kopečková
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
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38
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Interacting selection diversifies warning signals in a polytypic frog: an examination with the strawberry poison frog. Evol Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-013-9648-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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39
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Sexual dimorphism and intra-populational colour pattern variation in the aposematic frog Dendrobates tinctorius. Evol Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-013-9640-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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40
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Fabricant SA, Kemp DJ, Krajíček J, Bosáková Z, Herberstein ME. Mechanisms of color production in a highly variable shield-back stinkbug, Tectocoris diophthalmus [corrected] (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae), and why it matters. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64082. [PMID: 23675520 PMCID: PMC3646777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory suggests that aposematism, specifically the learned avoidance of unprofitable prey via memorable color patterns, should result in selection for pattern uniformity. However, many examples to the contrary are seen in nature. Conversely, honest sexual signals are likely to exhibit greater variation because they reflect underlying variation in mate quality. Here we aim to characterize and quantify the mechanistic causes of color in Tectocoris diopthalmus to shed light on the costs of color production, and thus the potential information content of its color signals. We use Tectocoris diopthalmus because it is a weakly-defended stinkbug, and presents elements that have classically been studied in the context of aposematism (red coloring), and sexual selection (sexual dichromatism and iridescent coloring). Pigment analysis reveals that variation in orange coloration is due to the amount of erythropterin pigment, stored in intracellular granules. This pigment is common in Heteroptera, and as an endogenously produced excretory byproduct is unlikely to reflect mate quality or variation in unprofitability of the bug. Electron microscopy reveals the iridescent patches are caused by an epicuticular multilayer reflector, and the hue and patch size are directly related to the layer widths and extent of coverage of this layering. Furthermore, we identified melanin as an essential component of the multilayer reflector system; therefore, the quality of the iridescent patches may be affected by aspects of rearing environment and immunocompetence. We posit that T. diopthalmus has co-opted the melanic patches of a ‘typical’ red and black aposematic signal, transforming it into a complex and variable iridescent signal that may enhance its capacity to display individual quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Fabricant
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia.
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Ruiz-Rodríguez M, Avilés JM, Cuervo JJ, Parejo D, Ruano F, Zamora-Muñoz C, Sergio F, López-Jiménez L, Tanferna A, Martín-Vivaldi M. Does avian conspicuous colouration increase or reduce predation risk? Oecologia 2013; 173:83-93. [PMID: 23386048 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-013-2599-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Animals often announce their unprofitability to predators through conspicuous coloured signals. Here we tested whether the apparently conspicuous colour designs of the four European Coraciiformes and Upupiformes species may have evolved as aposematic signals, or whether instead they imply a cost in terms of predation risk. Because previous studies suggested that these species are unpalatable, we hypothesized that predators could avoid targeting them based on their colours. An experiment was performed where two artificial models of each bird species were exposed simultaneously to raptor predators, one painted so as to resemble the real colour design of these birds, and the other one painted using cryptic colours. Additionally, we used field data on the black kite's diet to compare the selection of these four species to that of other avian prey. Conspicuous models were attacked in equal or higher proportions than their cryptic counterparts, and the attack rate on the four species increased with their respective degree of contrast against natural backgrounds. The analysis of the predator's diet revealed that the two least attacked species were negatively selected in nature despite their abundance. Both conspicuous and cryptic models of one of the studied species (the hoopoe) received fewer attacks than cryptic models of the other three species, suggesting that predators may avoid this species for characteristics other than colour. Globally, our results suggest that the colour of coraciiforms and upupiforms does not function as an aposematic signal that advises predators of their unprofitability, but also that conspicuous colours may increase predation risk in some species, supporting thus the handicap hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ruiz-Rodríguez
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Biology, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas, Almería, Spain.
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Colour and pattern similarity in mimicry: evidence for a hierarchical discriminative learning of different components. Anim Behav 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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IHALAINEN EIRA, LINDSTEDT CARITA. Do avian predators select for seasonal polyphenism in the European map butterfly Araschnia levana (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01922.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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BOHLIN TITTI, GAMBERALE-STILLE GABRIELLA, MERILAITA SAMI, EXNEROVÁ ALICE, ŠTYS PAVEL, TULLBERG BIRGITTAS. The detectability of the colour pattern in the aposematic firebug, Pyrrhocoris apterus: an image-based experiment with human ‘predators’. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01834.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Bonansea MI, Vaira M. Geographic and intrapopulational variation in colour and patterns of an aposematic toad, Melanophryniscus rubriventris (Amphibia, Anura, Bufonidae). AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2012. [DOI: 10.1163/156853811x619754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aposematic toad genus Melanophryniscus is a polymorphic group with noticeable variation in colour and pattern. Here, we objectively evaluate variation in spectral reflectance and quantify variation in patterning within and among populations of the species M. rubriventris in NW Argentina. We conducted spectrophotometric analysis on 69 individuals and recorded dorsal and ventral pattern morphs of 727 individuals from six populations. We found high divergence in the reflectance spectra, the extent of brightly coloured areas, and the skin alkaloid profiles with no correlation among coloration varieties, alkaloid profiles, and the geographic distance between populations. Our analyses imply subdivision of sampled populations groupings based mostly on different dorsal colorations. Our results also reveal that populations with very similar patterns may differ markedly in colour and vice versa. It is striking that these aposematic toads show a pronounced variation in colour and patterning among and within populations showing individuals with a conspicuous bright dorsal colouration but also morphs with a rather cryptic black or drab colouration. However, the known presence of several alkaloids classes in all populations suggests that all morphs might be equally unpalatable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ines Bonansea
- 1CONICET – Centro de Investigaciones Básicas y Aplicadas, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Gorriti 237, Jujuy, Argentina e Instituto de Bio y Geociencias, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Mendoza 2, 4400, Salta, Argentina
- 2Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina
| | - Marcos Vaira
- 1CONICET – Centro de Investigaciones Básicas y Aplicadas, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Gorriti 237, Jujuy, Argentina e Instituto de Bio y Geociencias, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Mendoza 2, 4400, Salta, Argentina
- 2Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina
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Pretending to be venomous: is a snake's head shape a trustworthy signal to a predator? JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467411000095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The difficulty of observing interactions between predators and their prey in natural systems has promoted the use of artificial replicas (Exnerováet al. 2006, Smith 1977). Plasticine replicas have been successfully used because they retain imprints of predation attempts and enable the identification of the predator (Brodie 1993).
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Lindstedt C, Eager H, Ihalainen E, Kahilainen A, Stevens M, Mappes J. Direction and strength of selection by predators for the color of the aposematic wood tiger moth. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Disengtangling the evolution of weak warning signals: high detection risk and low production costs of chemical defences in gregarious pine sawfly larvae. Evol Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-010-9456-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Williams BL, Hanifin CT, Brodie ED, Brodie III ED. Tetrodotoxin affects survival probability of rough-skinned newts (Taricha granulosa) faced with TTX-resistant garter snake predators (Thamnophis sirtalis). CHEMOECOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-010-0057-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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