Habitat openness and predator abundance determine predation risk of warningly colored longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) in temperate forest

Organisms have evolved different defense mechanisms, such as crypsis and mimicry, to avoid detection and recognition by predators. A prominent example is Batesian mimicry, where palatable species mimic unpalatable or toxic ones, such as Clytini (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) that mimic wasps. However, scientific evidence for the effectiveness of Batesian mimicry in Cerambycids in natural habitats is scarce. We investigated predation of warningly and nonwarningly colored Cerambycids by birds in a temperate forest using beetle dummies. Dummies mimicking Tetropium castaneum, Leptura aethiops, Clytus arietis, and Leptura quadrifasciata were exposed on standing and laying deadwood and monitored predation events by birds over one season. The 20 surveyed plots differed in their structural complexity and canopy openness due to different postdisturbance logging strategies. A total of 88 predation events on warningly colored beetle dummies and 89 predation events on nonwarningly colored beetle dummies did not reveal the difference in predation risk by birds. However, predation risk increased with canopy openness, bird abundance, and exposure time, which peaked in July. This suggests that environmental factors have a higher importance in determining predation risk of warningly and nonwarningly colored Cerambycidae than the actual coloration of the beetles. Our study showed that canopy openness might be important in determining the predation risk of beetles by birds regardless of beetles' warning coloration. Different forest management strategies that often modify canopy openness may thus alter predator-prey interactions.

Comparison of Individual Sensors in the Electronic Nose for Stress Detection in Forest Stands

Forests are increasingly exposed to natural disturbances, including drought, wildfires, pest outbreaks, and windthrow events. Due to prolonged droughts in the last years in Europe, European forest stands significantly lost vitality, and their health condition deteriorated, leading to high mortality rates, especially, but not limited to, Norway spruce. This phenomenon is growing, and new regions are being affected; thus, it is necessary to identify stress in the early stages when actions can be taken to protect the forest and living trees. Current detection methods are based on field walks by forest workers or deploying remote sensing methods for coverage of the larger territory. These methods are based on changes in spectral reflectance that can detect attacks only at an advanced stage after the significant changes in the canopy. An innovative approach appears to be a method based on odor mapping, specifically detecting chemical substances which are present in the forest stands and indicate triggering of constitutive defense of stressed trees. The bark beetle attacking a tree, for example, produces a several times higher amount of defense-related volatile organic compounds. At the same time, the bark beetle has an aggregation pheromone to attract conspecifics to overcome the tree defense by mass attack. These substances can be detected using conventional chemical methods (solid-phase microextraction fibers and cartridges), and it is proven that they are detectable by dogs. The disadvantage of classic chemical analysis methods is the long sampling time in the forest, and at the same time, the results must be analyzed in the laboratory using a gas chromatograph. A potential alternative novel device appears to be an electronic nose, which is designed to detect chemical substances online (for example, dangerous gas leaks or measure concentrations above landfills, volcanic activity, etc.). We tested the possibility of early-stage stress detection in the forest stands using an electronic nose Sniffer4D and compared the individual sensors in it for detecting the presence of attacked and dead trees. Our results indicate the promising applicability of the electronic nose for stress mapping in the forest ecosystem, and more data collection could prove this approach.

The effect of natural disturbances on forest biodiversity: an ecological synthesis

Disturbances alter biodiversity via their specific characteristics, including severity and extent in the landscape, which act at different temporal and spatial scales. Biodiversity response to disturbance also depends on the community characteristics and habitat requirements of species. Untangling the mechanistic interplay of these factors has guided disturbance ecology for decades, generating mixed scientific evidence of biodiversity responses to disturbance. Understanding the impact of natural disturbances on biodiversity is increasingly important due to human-induced changes in natural disturbance regimes. In many areas, major natural forest disturbances, such as wildfires, windstorms, and insect outbreaks, are becoming more frequent, intense, severe, and widespread due to climate change and land-use change. Conversely, the suppression of natural disturbances threatens disturbance-dependent biota. Using a meta-analytic approach, we analysed a global data set (with most sampling concentrated in temperate and boreal secondary forests) of species assemblages of 26 taxonomic groups, including plants, animals, and fungi collected from forests affected by wildfires, windstorms, and insect outbreaks. The overall effect of natural disturbances on α-diversity did not differ significantly from zero, but some taxonomic groups responded positively to disturbance, while others tended to respond negatively. Disturbance was beneficial for taxonomic groups preferring conditions associated with open canopies (e.g. hymenopterans and hoverflies), whereas ground-dwelling groups and/or groups typically associated with shady conditions (e.g. epigeic lichens and mycorrhizal fungi) were more likely to be negatively impacted by disturbance. Across all taxonomic groups, the highest α-diversity in disturbed forest patches occurred under moderate disturbance severity, i.e. with approximately 55% of trees killed by disturbance. We further extended our meta-analysis by applying a unified diversity concept based on Hill numbers to estimate α-diversity changes in different taxonomic groups across a gradient of disturbance severity measured at the stand scale and incorporating other disturbance features. We found that disturbance severity negatively affected diversity for Hill number q = 0 but not for q = 1 and q = 2, indicating that diversity-disturbance relationships are shaped by species relative abundances. Our synthesis of α-diversity was extended by a synthesis of disturbance-induced change in species assemblages, and revealed that disturbance changes the β-diversity of multiple taxonomic groups, including some groups that were not affected at the α-diversity level (birds and woody plants). Finally, we used mixed rarefaction/extrapolation to estimate biodiversity change as a function of the proportion of forests that were disturbed, i.e. the disturbance extent measured at the landscape scale. The comparison of intact and naturally disturbed forests revealed that both types of forests provide habitat for unique species assemblages, whereas species diversity in the mixture of disturbed and undisturbed forests peaked at intermediate values of disturbance extent in the simulated landscape. Hence, the relationship between α-diversity and disturbance severity in disturbed forest stands was strikingly similar to the relationship between species richness and disturbance extent in a landscape consisting of both disturbed and undisturbed forest habitats. This result suggests that both moderate disturbance severity and moderate disturbance extent support the highest levels of biodiversity in contemporary forest landscapes.

Natural disturbance regimes as a guide for sustainable forest management in Europe

In Europe, forest management has controlled forest dynamics to sustain commodity production over multiple centuries. Yet over-regulation for growth and yield diminishes resilience to environmental stress as well as threatens biodiversity, leading to increasing forest susceptibility to an array of disturbances. These trends have stimulated interest in alternative management systems, including natural dynamics silviculture (NDS). NDS aims to emulate natural disturbance dynamics at stand and landscape scales through silvicultural manipulations of forest structure and landscape patterns. We adapted a "Comparability Index" (CI) to assess convergence/divergence between natural disturbances and forest management effects. We extended the original CI concept based on disturbance size and frequency by adding the residual structure of canopy trees after a disturbance as a third dimension. We populated the model by compiling data on natural disturbance dynamics and management from 13 countries in Europe, covering four major forest types (i.e., spruce, beech, oak, and pine-dominated forests). We found that natural disturbances are highly variable in size, frequency, and residual structure, but European forest management fails to encompass this complexity. Silviculture in Europe is skewed toward even-aged systems, used predominately (72.9% of management) across the countries assessed. The residual structure proved crucial in the comparison of natural disturbances and silvicultural systems. CI indicated the highest congruence between uneven-aged silvicultural systems and key natural disturbance attributes. Even so, uneven-aged practices emulated only a portion of the complexity associated with natural disturbance effects. The remaining silvicultural systems perform poorly in terms of retention compared to tree survivorship after natural disturbances. We suggest that NDS can enrich Europe's portfolio of management systems, for example where wood production is not the primary objective. NDS is especially relevant to forests managed for habitat quality, risk reduction, and a variety of ecosystem services. We suggest a holistic approach integrating NDS with more conventional practices.

Arthropod dark taxa provide new insights into diversity responses to bark beetle infestations

Natural disturbances are increasing around the globe, also impacting protected areas. Although previous studies have indicated that natural disturbances result in mainly positive effects on biodiversity, these analyses mostly focused on a few well established taxonomic groups, and thus uncertainty remains regarding the comprehensive impact of natural disturbances on biodiversity. Using Malaise traps and meta-barcoding, we studied a broad range of arthropod taxa, including dark and cryptic taxa, along a gradient of bark beetle disturbance severities in five European national parks. We identified order-level community thresholds of disturbance severity and classified barcode index numbers (BINs; a cluster system for DNA sequences, where each cluster corresponds to a species) as negative or positive disturbance indicators. Negative indicator BINs decreased above thresholds of low to medium disturbance severity (20%-30% of trees killed), whereas positive indicator BINs benefited from high disturbance severity (76%-98%). BINs allocated to a species name contained nearly as many positive as negative disturbance indicators, but dark and cryptic taxa, particularly Diptera and Hymenoptera in our data, contained higher numbers of negative disturbance indicator BINs. Analyses of changes in the richness of BINs showed variable responses of arthropods to disturbance severity at lower taxonomic levels, whereas no significant signal was detected at the order level due to the compensatory responses of the underlying taxa. We conclude that the analyses of dark taxa can offer new insights into biodiversity responses to disturbances. Our results suggest considerable potential for forest management to foster arthropod diversity, for example by maintaining both closed-canopy forests (>70% cover) and open forests (<30% cover) on the landscape.

Fire disturbance effects on plant taxonomic and functional β-diversity mediated by topographic exposure

Although the diversity-disturbance relationship has been extensively studied, the differences in responses of taxonomic vs. functional diversity to natural disturbances (i.e., fire) call for an improved understanding of this relationship. Here, we investigated how fire disturbance influenced plant taxonomic and functional diversity in Golestan National Park, in northeastern Iran. We evaluated the response of α- and β-plant diversity considering both taxonomic and functional diversity and different β-diversity components (i.e., turnover and nestedness) as a function of fire regime, topographic exposure, and their interactive effect. We considered different indices of functional diversity including functional richness, functional evenness, functional divergence, functional dispersion, Rao's quadratic entropy, and community-weighted mean (CWM). Functional diversity indices were computed using four leaf traits related to species growth strategy and fire response including leaf thickness and leaf length, specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC). Taxonomic and functional diversity had contrasting response to fire disturbance. Fire significantly decreased taxonomic α-diversity similarly in both north and south exposures. β-diversity increased in south exposures but decreased in north exposures. Fire decreased functional richness, increased CWM of SLA, and decreased CWM of LDMC. In contrast, abundance-weighted metrics of functional diversity (functional evenness, functional divergence, functional dispersion, Rao's quadratic entropy) were not impacted by fire disturbance. Finally, the main contributors to heterogeneity were driven by a fire × exposure interaction, suggesting that fire disturbance interacts with topographic exposure. Our results suggest that taxonomic and functional α- and β-diversity have contrasting responses to fire illustrating the need to consider both dimensions to understand how disturbance impacts plant communities. At large spatial scale, species turnover and nestedness appear as essential parameters to maintain species-rich communities in response to fire disturbance.

Lake microbial communities are not resistant or resilient to repeated large-scale natural pulse disturbances

Opportunities to study community level responses to extreme natural pulse disturbances in unaltered ecosystems are rare. Lake sediment records that span thousands of years can contain well resolved sediment pulses, triggered by earthquakes. These paleo-records provide a means to study repeated pulse disturbance and processes of resistance (insensitivity to disturbance) and ecological resilience (capacity to regain structure, function and process). In this study, sedimentary DNA was extracted from a sediment core from Lake Paringa (New Zealand) that is situated in a near natural catchment. Metabarcoding and inferred functions were used to assess the lake microbial community over the past 1,100 years - a period that included four major earthquakes. Microbial community composition and function differed significantly between highly perturbed (postseismic, c. 50 yrs) phases directly after the earthquakes and more stable (interseismic, c. 250 yr) phases, indicating a lack of community resistance. Although community structure differed significantly in successive postseismic phases, function did not, suggesting potential functional redundancy. Significant differences in composition and function in successive interseismic phases demonstrates communities are not resilient to large-scale natural pulse disturbances. The clear difference in structure and function, and high number of indicator taxa (responsible for driving differences in communities between phases) in the fourth interseismic phase likely represents a regime shift, possibly due to the two-fold increase in sediment and terrestrial biospheric organic carbon fluxes recorded following the fourth earthquake. Large pulse disturbances that enhance sediment inputs into lake systems may produce an underappreciated mechanism that destabilises lake ecosystem processes.

Habitat filtering drives the local distribution of congeneric species in a Brazilian white-sand flooded tropical forest

The investigation of ecological processes that maintain species coexistence is revealing in naturally disturbed environments such as the white-sand tropical forest, which is subject to periodic flooding that might pose strong habitat filtering to tree species. Congeneric species are a good model to investigate the relative importance of ecological processes that maintain high species diversity because they tend to exploit the same limiting resources and/or have similar tolerance limits to the same environmental conditions due to their close phylogenetic relationship. We aim to find evidence for the action and relative importance of different processes hypothesized to maintain species coexistence in a white-sand flooded forest in Brazil, taking advantage of data on the detailed spatial structure of populations of congeneric species. Individuals of three Myrcia species were tagged, mapped, and measured for diameter at soil height in a 1-ha plot. We also sampled seven environmental variables in the plot. We employed several spatial point process models to investigate the possible action of habitat filtering, interspecific competition, and dispersal limitation. Habitat filtering was the most important process driving the local distribution of the three Myrcia species, as they showed associations, albeit of different strength, to environmental variables related to flooding. We did not detect spatial patterns, such as spatial segregation and smaller size of nearby neighbors, that would be consistent with interspecific competition among the three congeneric species and other co-occurring species. Even though congeners were spatially independent, they responded to differences in the environment. Last, dispersal limitation only led to spatial associations of different size classes for one of the species. Given that white-sand flooded forests are highly threatened in Brazil, the preservation of their different habitats is of utmost importance to the maintenance of high species richness, as flooding drives the distribution of species in the community.

Linking radial growth patterns and moderate-severity disturbance dynamics in boreal old-growth forests driven by recurrent insect outbreaks: A tale of opportunities, successes, and failures

In boreal landscapes, emphasis is currently placed on close-to-nature management strategies, which aim to maintain the biodiversity and ecosystem services related to old-growth forests. The success of these strategies, however, depends on an accurate understanding of the dynamics within these forests. While moderate-severity disturbances have recently been recognized as important drivers of boreal forests, little is known about their effects on stand structure and growth. This study therefore aimed to reconstruct the disturbance and postdisturbance dynamics in boreal old-growth forests that are driven by recurrent moderate-severity disturbances. We studied eight primary old-growth forests in Québec, Canada, that have recorded recurrent and moderately severe spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana [Clem.]) outbreaks over the 20th century. We applied an innovative dendrochronological approach based on the combined study of growth patterns and releases to reconstruct stand disturbance and postdisturbance dynamics. We identified nine growth patterns; they represented trees differing in age, size, and canopy layer. These patterns highlighted the ability of suppressed trees to rapidly fill gaps created by moderate-severity disturbances through a single and significant increase in radial growth and height. Trees that are unable to attain the canopy following the disturbance tend to remain in the lower canopy layers, even if subsequent disturbances create new gaps. This combination of a low stand height typical of boreal forests, periodic disturbances, and rapid canopy closure often resulted in stands constituted mainly of dominant and codominant trees, similar to even-aged forests. Overall, this study underscored the resistance of boreal old-growth forests owing to their capacity to withstand repeated moderate-severity disturbances. Moreover, the combined study of growth patterns and growth release demonstrated the efficacy of such an approach for improving the understanding of the fine-scale dynamics of natural forests. The results of this research will thus help develop silvicultural practices that approximate the moderate-severity disturbance dynamics observed in primary and old-growth boreal forests.

[Effects of disturbances on animal-mediated seed dispersal effectiveness of forest plants: A review]

Disturbances commonly exist in forest ecosystems and play a critical role in the forest regeneration and succession. Animal-mediated seed dispersal is an essential stage of seed regeneration for most plants. To some extent, the responses of animal-mediated seed dispersal to forest disturbances can predict the changes in community composition and structure, and consequently, the succession direction of forests. In the present study, we systematically discussed the ecological significance of the effects of disturbances on animal-mediated seed dispersal effectiveness (i.e., quantity and quality of seed dispersal) of forest plants. We also revealed the research progresses on the effects of natural disturbances (e.g., fire and forest gaps) and human disturbances (e.g., habitat fragmentation, hunting and logging) on the seed dispersal quantity, distance and seedling rege-neration after seed dispersal. The responses of seed dispersal quantity to disturbances were embodied in the dynamic changes of animal population. In addition, there was a slightly negative correlation between seed dispersal distance and interference. However, it was much more complicated for the influences of disturbance on seedling regeneration due to the various types of disturbances, and the environmental factors in disturbed areas also affected seed germination and seedling regeneration after seed dispersal. There were some problems of the study on the effects of disturbances on animal-mediated seed dispersal effectiveness of forest plants. Little was known about the effects of recovery processes of fire disturbance region and positive disturbances (e.g., tending, thinning and forest gaps) on the seed dispersal effectiveness, especially in the temperate forest ecosystems. In the future, long-term research on seed dispersal effectiveness of forest plants by animals after disturbances should be carried out, and the effects of positive disturbances on animal-mediated seed dispersal should be emphasized for the forest regions prone to disturbance.

Natural disturbances are spatially diverse but temporally synchronized across temperate forest landscapes in Europe

Natural disturbance regimes are changing substantially in forests around the globe. However, large-scale disturbance change is modulated by a considerable spatiotemporal variation within biomes. This variation remains incompletely understood particularly in the temperate forests of Europe, for which consistent large-scale disturbance information is lacking. Here, our aim was to quantify the spatiotemporal patterns of forest disturbances across temperate forest landscapes in Europe using remote sensing data and determine their underlying drivers. Specifically, we tested two hypotheses: (1) Topography determines the spatial patterns of disturbance, and (2) climatic extremes synchronize natural disturbances across the biome. We used novel Landsat-based maps of forest disturbances 1986-2016 in combination with landscape analysis to compare spatial disturbance patterns across five unmanaged forest landscapes with varying topographic complexity. Furthermore, we analyzed annual estimates of disturbances for synchronies and tested the influence of climatic extremes on temporal disturbance patterns. Spatial variation in disturbance patterns was substantial across temperate forest landscapes. With increasing topographic complexity, natural disturbance patches were smaller, more complex in shape, more dispersed, and affected a smaller portion of the landscape. Temporal disturbance patterns, however, were strongly synchronized across all landscapes, with three distinct waves of high disturbance activity between 1986 and 2016. All three waves followed years of pronounced drought and high peak wind speeds. Natural disturbances in temperate forest landscapes of Europe are thus spatially diverse but temporally synchronized. We conclude that the ecological effect of natural disturbances (i.e., whether they are homogenizing a landscape or increasing its heterogeneity) is strongly determined by the topographic template. Furthermore, as the strong biome-wide synchronization of disturbances was closely linked to climatic extremes, large-scale disturbance episodes are likely in Europe's temperate forests under climate changes.

Optimal climate for large trees at high elevations drives patterns of biomass in remote forests of Papua New Guinea

Our ability to model global carbon fluxes depends on understanding how terrestrial carbon stocks respond to varying environmental conditions. Tropical forests contain the bulk of the biosphere's carbon. However, there is a lack of consensus as to how gradients in environmental conditions affect tropical forest carbon. Papua New Guinea (PNG) lies within one of the largest areas of contiguous tropical forest and is characterized by environmental gradients driven by altitude; yet, the region has been grossly understudied. Here, we present the first field assessment of aboveground biomass (AGB) across three main forest types of PNG using 193 plots stratified across 3,100-m elevation gradient. Unexpectedly, AGB had no direct relationship to rainfall, temperature, soil, or topography. Instead, natural disturbances explained most variation in AGB. While large trees (diameter at breast height > 50 cm) drove altitudinal patterns of AGB, resulting in a major peak in AGB (2,200-3,100 m) and some of the most carbon-rich forests at these altitudes anywhere. Large trees were correlated to a set of climatic variables following a hump-shaped curve. The set of "optimal" climatic conditions found in montane cloud forests is similar to that of maritime temperate areas that harbor the largest trees in the world: high ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration (2.8), moderate mean annual temperature (13.7°C), and low intra-annual temperature range (7.5°C). At extreme altitudes (2,800-3,100 m), where tree diversity elsewhere is usually low and large trees are generally rare or absent, specimens from 18 families had girths >70 cm diameter and maximum heights 20-41 m. These findings indicate that simple AGB-climate-edaphic models may not be suitable for estimating carbon storage in forests where optimal climate niches exist. Our study, conducted in a very remote area, suggests that tropical montane forests may contain greater AGB than previously thought and the importance of securing their future under a changing climate is therefore enhanced.

Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: a meta-analysis

Logging to "salvage" economic returns from forests affected by natural disturbances has become increasingly prevalent globally. Despite potential negative effects on biodiversity, salvage logging is often conducted, even in areas otherwise excluded from logging and reserved for nature conservation, inter alia because strategic priorities for post-disturbance management are widely lacking.A review of the existing literature revealed that most studies investigating the effects of salvage logging on biodiversity have been conducted less than 5 years following natural disturbances, and focused on non-saproxylic organisms.A meta-analysis across 24 species groups revealed that salvage logging significantly decreases numbers of species of eight taxonomic groups. Richness of dead wood dependent taxa (i.e. saproxylic organisms) decreased more strongly than richness of non-saproxylic taxa. In contrast, taxonomic groups typically associated with open habitats increased in the number of species after salvage logging.By analysing 134 original species abundance matrices, we demonstrate that salvage logging significantly alters community composition in 7 of 17 species groups, particularly affecting saproxylic assemblages.Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that salvage logging is not consistent with the management objectives of protected areas. Substantial changes, such as the retention of dead wood in naturally disturbed forests, are needed to support biodiversity. Future research should investigate the amount and spatio-temporal distribution of retained dead wood needed to maintain all components of biodiversity.

Disturbances catalyze the adaptation of forest ecosystems to changing climate conditions

The rates of anthropogenic climate change substantially exceed those at which forest ecosystems - dominated by immobile, long-lived organisms - are able to adapt. The resulting maladaptation of forests has potentially detrimental effects on ecosystem functioning. Furthermore, as many forest-dwelling species are highly dependent on the prevailing tree species, a delayed response of the latter to a changing climate can contribute to an extinction debt and mask climate-induced biodiversity loss. However, climate change will likely also intensify forest disturbances. Here, we tested the hypothesis that disturbances foster the reorganization of ecosystems and catalyze the adaptation of forest composition to climate change. Our specific objectives were (i) to quantify the rate of autonomous forest adaptation to climate change, (ii) examine the role of disturbance in the adaptation process, and (iii) investigate spatial differences in climate-induced species turnover in an unmanaged mountain forest landscape (Kalkalpen National Park, Austria). Simulations with a process-based forest landscape model were performed for 36 unique combinations of climate and disturbance scenarios over 1000 years. We found that climate change strongly favored European beech and oak species (currently prevailing in mid- to low-elevation areas), with novel species associations emerging on the landscape. Yet, it took between 357 and 706 years before the landscape attained a dynamic equilibrium with the climate system. Disturbances generally catalyzed adaptation and decreased the time needed to attain equilibrium by up to 211 years. However, while increasing disturbance frequency and severity accelerated adaptation, increasing disturbance size had the opposite effect. Spatial analyses suggest that particularly the lowest and highest elevation areas will be hotspots of future species change. We conclude that the growing maladaptation of forests to climate and the long lead times of autonomous adaptation need to be considered more explicitly in the ongoing efforts to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem services provisioning.

Searching for resilience: addressing the impacts of changing disturbance regimes on forest ecosystem services

1. The provisioning of ecosystem services to society is increasingly under pressure from global change. Changing disturbance regimes are of particular concern in this context due to their high potential impact on ecosystem structure, function and composition. Resilience-based stewardship is advocated to address these changes in ecosystem management, but its operational implementation has remained challenging. 2. We review observed and expected changes in disturbance regimes and their potential impacts on provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting ecosystem services, concentrating on temperate and boreal forests. Subsequently, we focus on resilience as a powerful concept to quantify and address these changes and their impacts, and present an approach towards its operational application using established methods from disturbance ecology. 3. We suggest using the range of variability concept - characterizing and bounding the long-term behaviour of ecosystems - to locate and delineate the basins of attraction of a system. System recovery in relation to its range of variability can be used to measure resilience of ecosystems, allowing inferences on both engineering resilience (recovery rate) and monitoring for regime shifts (directionality of recovery trajectory). 4. It is important to consider the dynamic nature of these properties in ecosystem analysis and management decision-making, as both disturbance processes and mechanisms of resilience will be subject to changes in the future. Furthermore, because ecosystem services are at the interface between natural and human systems, the social dimension of resilience (social adaptive capacity and range of variability) requires consideration in responding to changing disturbance regimes in forests. 5.Synthesis and applications. Based on examples from temperate and boreal forests we synthesize principles and pathways for fostering resilience to changing disturbance regimes in ecosystem management. We conclude that future work should focus on testing and implementing these pathways in different contexts to make ecosystem services provisioning more robust to changing disturbance regimes and advance our understanding of how to cope with change and uncertainty in ecosystem management.

Disturbance legacies increase the resilience of forest ecosystem structure, composition, and functioning

Disturbances are key drivers of forest ecosystem dynamics, and forests are well adapted to their natural disturbance regimes. However, as a result of climate change, disturbance frequency is expected to increase in the future in many regions. It is not yet clear how such changes might affect forest ecosystems, and which mechanisms contribute to (current and future) disturbance resilience. We studied a 6364-ha landscape in the western Cascades of Oregon, USA, to investigate how patches of remnant old-growth trees (as one important class of biological legacies) affect the resilience of forest ecosystems to disturbance. Using the spatially explicit, individual-based, forest landscape model iLand, we analyzed the effect of three different levels of remnant patches (0%, 12%, and 24% of the landscape) on 500-year recovery trajectories after a large, high-severity wildfire. In addition, we evaluated how three different levels of fire frequency modulate the effects of initial legacies. We found that remnant live trees enhanced the recovery of total ecosystem carbon (TEC) stocks after disturbance, increased structural complexity of forest canopies, and facilitated the recolonization of late-seral species (LSS). Legacy effects were most persistent for indicators of species composition (still significant 500 years after disturbance), while TEC (i.e., a measure of ecosystem functioning) was least affected, with no significant differences among legacy scenarios after 236 years. Compounding disturbances were found to dampen legacy effects on all indicators, and higher initial legacy levels resulted in elevated fire severity in the second half of the study period. Overall, disturbance frequency had a stronger effect on ecosystem properties than the initial level of remnant old-growth trees. A doubling of the historically observed fire frequency to a mean fire return interval of 131 years reduced TEC by 10.5% and lowered the presence of LSS on the landscape by 18.1% on average, demonstrating that an increase in disturbance frequency (a potential climate change effect) may considerably alter the structure, composition, and functioning of forest landscapes. Our results indicate that live tree legacies are an important component of disturbance resilience, underlining the potential of retention forestry to address challenges in ecosystem management.