Complete recovery of intestinal mucosa occurs very rarely in adult coeliac patients despite adherence to gluten-free diet

A new histomorphological finding in the follow-up of celiac disease: Intraepithelial lymphocyte localization is a reliable indicator of dietary compliance

The correlation between clinical, serological, and endoscopic findings and histological response after a gluten-free diet (GFD) is limited in adult celiac (CD) patients. This study aims to evaluate the effects of GFD on intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) localization by comparing the histopathological, clinical, serological, and endoscopic findings of adult CD patients. The patients (n = 131) were divided into three groups: those with good (CDgc) (n = 23) and poor (CDpc) (n = 21) GFD compliance and newly diagnosed ones (nCD) (n = 87). Total and supranuclear IELs were counted per 100 enterocytes and divided into three groups: apical, mixed, and basal, according to ROC (Receiver operating characteristic) analysis. The roles of clinicopathological parameters in predicting good dietary compliance were calculated using the multivariable logistic regression model. CDgc group predominantly (78.3 %) exhibited a basal pattern, and none exhibited an apical. Conversely, most CDpc and nCD patients showed mixed (66.7 % and 73.6 %, respectively) and apical (9.5 % and 25.3 %) patterns. Non-atrophic Marsh types (p = 0.040) and basal pattern (p = 0.043) were independent parameters predicting good dietary compliance. This study first showed that IEL localizations can indicate GFD compliance in samples from CD patients. Localization-based examination of IELs can be an additional histological indicator in monitoring GFD compliance and signs of recovery, especially in adult CD patients.

Celiac Disease-Narrative Review on Progress in Celiac Disease

Celiac disease is defined as a systemic immunological disorder caused by gluten (gliadin and other prolamin) in genetically predisposed individuals, who present with a variety of gluten-dependent symptoms, specific antibodies, the presence of the HLA DQ2 and DQ8 histocompatibility antigen, and enteropathy. Its prevalence, depending on the studied population and methodology, is estimated at 0.75-1.6% of the general population. During the complex immune reaction it induces, most cells involved in inflammatory processes are activated, which leads to the gradual atrophy of intestinal villi and the proliferation of enterocytes within intestinal crypts. The pathogenesis of celiac disease is extremely complicated and is still the subject of research. According to the current diagnostic guidelines, the following criteria should be taken into account: clinical symptoms (intestinal and extraintestinal), the presence of antibodies against tissue transglutaminase in the IgA class, the level of total IgA, and the presence of typical histological changes in duodenal biopsies. Diet-resistant celiac disease is one of the most important clinical challenges, causing serious complications. Currently, the basic method for treating celiac disease is an elimination diet (i.e., the exclusion of products that may contain gluten from the diet), however, new therapeutic strategies are still being sought, mainly based on supplementation with exogenous endopeptidases, modification of the immune response, and the use of zonulin inhibitors and transglutaminase 2 inhibitors. Clinical trials of new drugs are ongoing. The gradually expanding knowledge about the pathogenesis of celiac disease may allow for the development of new therapeutic strategies for both patients with a mild disease course, as well as those that are diet-resistant.

Celiac Disease and Gluten Cross-Contact: How Much is too Much?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aimed to examine the variability in the susceptibility of the small intestine to injury when exposed to gluten among patients with celiac disease, particularly in the context of gluten cross-contact. It sought to address whether clinicians could recommend individualized gluten exposure levels based on current research to improve patient outcomes and quality of life, given the difficulties of maintaining a strict gluten-free diet.

RECENT FINDINGS

While some evidence suggests variability in small intestine susceptibility to injury, no current studies offer a reliable method for clinicians to stratify patients or recommend safe gluten levels. Research points to possible roles of the microbiome and immune responses in susceptibility to injury, though no definitive conclusions have been made. There is insufficient evidence to safely recommend varying gluten thresholds for celiac patients. While factors like the microbiome and cytokine responses may influence the small intestine's susceptibility to injury when exposed to gluten, the recommendation of a strict gluten-free diet remains the best approach until more conclusive research emerges. Future studies may help tailor dietary advice and improve quality of life for individuals with celiac disease.

Interplay of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Intestinal Inflammation, and Gut Microbiota in Celiac Disease Pathogenesis

Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic autoimmune disorder driven by both genetic and environmental factors, with the HLA DQ2/DQ8 genotypes playing a central role in its development. Despite the genetic predisposition, only a small percentage of individuals carrying these genotypes develop the disease. Gluten, a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley, is the primary environmental trigger, but other factors, such as the intestinal microbiota, may also contribute to disease progression. While the gluten-free diet (GFD) remains the cornerstone of treatment, many CD patients experience persistent inflammation and gut dysbiosis, leading to ongoing symptoms and complications. This chronic inflammation, which impairs nutrient absorption, increases the risk of malnutrition, anemia, and other autoimmune disorders. Recent studies have identified an altered gut microbiota in CD patients, both on and off the GFD, highlighting the potential role of the microbiota in disease pathogenesis. An emerging area of interest is the supplementation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), known for their anti-inflammatory properties, as a potential therapeutic strategy. n-3 PUFAs, found in fish oil and certain plant oils, modulate the immune cell function and cytokine production, making them a promising intervention for controlling chronic inflammation in CD. This review explores the current understanding of n-3 PUFAs' effects on the gut microbiota's composition and inflammation in CD, with the goal of identifying new avenues for complementary treatments to improve disease management.

Vitamins and Celiac Disease: Beyond Vitamin D

Celiac disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the small bowel caused, in genetically predisposed subjects, by the ingestion of gluten and characterised by a broad clinical polymorphism, ranging from patients with an asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic disease. The clinical presentation ranges from the presence of minor, apparently unrelated symptoms or first-degree kinship with known patients to severe intestinal malabsorption and all its clinical consequences and complications. Even if a large body of research improved our understanding of the molecular basis of celiac disease pathophysiology, enhancing the identification of new targets for future new treatments, an accurate gluten-free diet remains the mainstay of the therapy for this condition, restoring a normal absorptive mucosa. It is very rare, nowadays, to deal with patients with severe malabsorption syndrome secondary to celiac disease. Consequently, physicians are currently less prone to search for nutritional deficiencies in celiac disease. To pinpoint the possibility of both a disease-related and a diet-induced vitamin deficiency, we reviewed the literature on vitamin deficiency in this condition and reported the impact both in untreated and treated patients with celiac disease. A gluten-free diet must be tailored for each patient to meet nutritional targets: the pre-existence or diet-induced intake inadequacies should be carefully considered for an effective management of celiac disease.

Gluten-Free Diet Adherence Evaluation in Adults with Long-Standing Celiac Disease

BACKGROUND

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune disease that results from the interaction of genetic, immune, and environmental factors. According to the 2020 European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) guidelines, an elimination diet (i.e., excluding products that may contain gluten) is the basic method of treating celiac disease. Following a gluten-free diet is extremely problematic, and patients often make unconscious deviations from the diet. According to the current Oslo definitions for celiac disease, depending on the clinical picture and adequate tests, several forms of celiac disease have been identified: typical, atypical, asymptomatic, potential, and refractory.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to assess the frequency of conscious diet mistakes and unconscious deviations from a gluten-free diet in a group of patients with long-standing celiac disease and their impact on the frequency of typical and atypical symptoms.

METHODS

The study included 57 people diagnosed with celiac disease between 1980 and 2010. After verifying the history of the disease according to the ESPGHAN guidelines from 2020, we excluded 19 patients who had Marsh grade 1 at the time of diagnosis or those without HLA DQ2 or DQ8 haplotypes detected. After verification, the study included 38 patients, 30 women and 8 men, with a verified diagnosis of typical celiac disease. The effectiveness of the gluten-free diet was assessed in all participants. Blood was collected to determine IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase II antibodies (anti-tTG) and IgG antibodies against deamidated gliadin peptides by ELISA. All survey participants provided data concerning current gastrointestinal and systemic symptoms, bowel habits, comorbidities, dietary habits, physical activity, and socioeconomic conditions.

RESULTS

A total of 25 patients (65.78%) declared strict adherence to the gluten-free diet. However, in this group, seven (18.4%) patients had significantly increased levels of anti-tTG antibodies (mean 82.3 RU/mL ± 78.9 SD at N < 20 RU/mL). Among the patients who consciously made dietary mistakes, six (46.2%) demonstrated increased levels of anti-tTG antibodies. The analysis did not reveal any difference between the frequency of intestinal and extraintestinal symptoms in patients making dietary mistakes and following the gluten-free diet.

CONCLUSIONS

More than half of celiac patients unconsciously or consciously make dietary mistakes, which indicates an urgent need to increase their general knowledge of CD and the appropriate diet. Regardless of whether the gluten-free diet is followed, both typical and atypical symptoms of the disease have been observed among celiac patients.

Association of celiac disease and myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by gluten intolerance, primarily affecting the gastrointestinal system but potentially influencing cardiovascular health. Emerging evidence suggests an association between CD and myocardial infarction (MI), though studies have produced inconsistent results. This study aimed to systematically review and conduct a meta-analysis of existing literature to quantify the risk of MI in individuals diagnosed with CD.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed across PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science up to August 2024. Studies were included if they investigated the association between CD and MI in adult populations and provided relevant effect estimates. Data from eligible studies were extracted, and a random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to calculate pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and odds ratios (ORs), along with an assessment of heterogeneity. Statistical analysis has been performed by R software (V 4.4).

RESULTS

A total of 8 studies were included in the systematic review. Pooled HR analysis showed no significant association between CD and MI (HR = 1.143, 95% CI: 0.619-2.109), and pooled OR analysis also revealed non-significant results (OR = 0.879, 95% CI: 0.481-1.606). High heterogeneity was observed (I2 = 86% for HR, 99% for OR).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis found no significant association between CD and MI. However, substantial heterogeneity across studies indicates variability in results, highlighting the need for further research with larger, more homogeneous cohorts to better understand cardiovascular risks in CD patients. Future studies should explore subgroups and the impact of gluten-free diet adherence.

Refractory Celiac Disease: What the Gastroenterologist Should Know

Fewer than 1% of patients with celiac disease (CD) will develop refractory CD (RCD). As such, most gastroenterologists might never need to manage patients with RCD. However, all gastroenterologists must be familiarized with the basic concepts of RCD and non-responsive CD (NRCD), since it can present as a severe disease with high mortality, not only due to intestinal failure, but also due to progression to enteropathy-associated T cell lymphoma (EATL) and a higher susceptibility to life-threatening infections. The diagnostic workup and differential diagnosis with other causes of gastrointestinal symptoms and villous atrophy, as well as the differentiation between type I and II RCD, are complex, and may require specialized laboratories and reference hospitals. Immunosuppression is efficient in the milder RCDI; however, the treatment of RCDII falls short, with current options probably only providing transient clinical improvement and delaying EATL development. This review summarizes the current diagnostic and therapeutic approach for patients with RCD that all doctors that manage patients with CD should know.

New developments in celiac disease treatments

Celiac disease (CeD), an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten, affects around 1% of the global population. Standard treatment is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD), which poses significant challenges due to dietary restrictions, cross-contamination and subsequent persistent intestinal inflammation. This underscores the need for new treatment options addressing the complex pathophysiology of CeD. Recent research focuses on developing drugs that target intestinal barrier regeneration, gluten peptide modification, immune response alteration, and gut microbial ecosystem modulation. These approaches offer potential for more effective management of CeD beyond GFD. Gluten-independent treatments may be particularly relevant under the FDA's draft guidance for CeD, which emphasizes drug development as an adjunct to GFD for patients with ongoing signs and symptoms of CeD despite strict GFD.

Gluten-Free Diet Adherence Tools for Individuals with Celiac Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Tools Compared to Laboratory Tests

This systematic review aimed to find the tool that best predicts celiac individuals' adherence to a gluten-free diet (GFD). The Transparent Reporting of Multivariable Prediction Models for Individual Prognosis or Diagnosis (TRIPOD-SRMA) guideline was used for the construction and collection of data from eight scientific databases (PubMed, EMBASE, LILACS, Web of Science, LIVIVO, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Proquest) on 16 November 2023. The inclusion criteria were studies involving individuals with celiac disease (CD) who were over 18 years old and on a GFD for at least six months, using a questionnaire to predict adherence to a GFD, and comparing it with laboratory tests (serological tests, gluten immunogenic peptide-GIP, or biopsy). Review articles, book chapters, and studies without sufficient data were excluded. The Checklist for Critical Appraisal and Data Extraction for Systematic Reviews of Prediction Modeling Studies (CHARMS) was used for data collection from the selected primary studies, and their risk of bias and quality was assessed using the Prediction Risk of Bias Assessment Tool (PROBAST). The association between the GFD adherence determined by the tool and laboratory test was assessed using the phi contingency coefficient. The studies included in this review used four different tools to evaluate GFD adherence: BIAGI score, Coeliac Dietary Adherence Test (CDAT), self-report questions, and interviews. The comparison method most often used was biopsy (n = 19; 59.3%), followed by serology (n = 14; 43.7%) and gluten immunogenic peptides (GIPs) (n = 4; 12.5%). There were no significant differences between the interview, self-report, and BIAGI tools used to evaluate GFD adherence. These tools were better associated with GFD adherence than the CDAT. Considering their cost, application time, and prediction capacity, the self-report and BIAGI were the preferred tools for evaluating GFD adherence.

Evolution in coeliac disease diagnosis and management

The traditional gut-centric view of coeliac disease is evolving as immune and genetic insights underscore the central importance of a systemic, T cell immune response to gluten in disease pathogenesis. As the field increasingly recognize the limitations of small intestinal histology as the diagnostic standard, data supporting the accuracy of an immune (serologic) diagnosis of coeliac disease - well demonstrated in children - are growing for adults. Novel biomarkers such as interleukin-2 that identify the gluten-specific T cell demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity for coeliac disease and offer the potential for a diagnostic approach that avoids the need for gluten challenge. Asymptomatic disease and manifestations outside the gut pose considerable challenges for diagnosis using a case-finding strategy and enthusiasm for population screening is growing. The gluten-free diet remains a highly restrictive treatment and there is a paucity of controlled data to inform a safe gluten intake threshold. Ongoing symptoms and enteropathy are common and require systematic evaluation. Slowly-responsive disease is prevalent in the older patient diagnosed with coeliac disease, and super-sensitivity to gluten is an emerging concept that may explain many cases of nonresponsive disease. While there is great interest in developing novel therapies for coeliac disease, no drug has yet been registered. Efficacy studies are generally assessing drugs in patients with treated coeliac disease who undergo gluten challenge or in patients with nonresponsive disease; however, substantial questions remain around specific endpoints relevant for patients, clinicians and regulatory agencies and optimal trial design. Novel immune tools are providing informative readouts for clinical trials and are now shaping their design.

Assessing mucosal recovery in celiac disease - Time to diagnosis and histological severity as determining factors

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

there is a huge disparity in mucosal recovery among celiac patients on a gluten-free diet. We report a study to identify associated factors.

METHODS

celiac cases were collected that had positive celiac serology and villous atrophy at diagnosis, and had undergone a control biopsy after at least 12 months of follow-up.

RESULTS

seventy celiac patients were included and had experienced symptoms for 9.05 ± 9.48 years before being diagnosed. After follow-up for 2.93 ± 1.94 years, 34.3 % had complete mucosal recovery and 57.1 % had partial mucosal recovery. In the comparative analysis, there was no relationship between mucosal recovery and sex, age, clinical manifestations or follow-up time from diagnosis to the second biopsy. Time with clinical manifestations before diagnosis was associated with a worse outcome: 2.64 years in patients with full recovery, 4.61 years in patients with partial recovery, and 14.26 years in patients with persistent villous atrophy. Higher transglutaminase antibody titers both at diagnosis and during follow-up were associated with poorer histologic outcomes. We observed higher mucosal recovery rates in patients with mild atrophy versus severe atrophy at diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

in spite of a gluten-free diet, a significant proportion of patients have persistent histologic changes. Time with clinical manifestations before diagnosis is key for histological severity and recovery.

A Composite Morphometric Duodenal Biopsy Mucosal Scale for Celiac Disease Encompassing Both Morphology and Inflammation

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Villus height to crypt depth ratio (Vh:Cd) and intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) are key measures of histology of the small intestine in celiac disease. Although the field of celiac disease has advanced, there remains no broadly accepted measure of mucosal injury. We assessed whether a composite Vh:Cd and IEL scale (VCIEL) can improve accuracy and statistical precision for assessing histology, compared with individual measures.

METHODS

The formulation of the VCIEL composite histologic scale was based on combining the Vh:Cd and IEL measurements for individual patients with equal weighting, by converting each scale to a fraction of their standard deviation and summing the results. The VCIEL formula was applied to several clinical trials and the results for Vh:Cd and IEL were compared with those for VCIEL with regards to clinical significance (effect size) and statistical significance.

RESULTS

For the ALV003-1021 trial, we observed an effect size and P value (analysis of covariance) of 1.37 and 0.038 for ΔVh:Cd, 1.17 and 0.005 for ΔIEL, and 1.86 and 0.004 for ΔVCIEL. For the similar gluten-challenge IMGX003-NCCIH-1721 trial, the corresponding results were 0.76 and 0.057 for ΔVh:Cd, 0.98 and 0.018 for ΔIEL, and 1.14 and 0.007 for ΔVCIEL. Similar improvements with the use of VCIEL over individual Vh:Cd and IEL measures were observed for other studies, including a nontherapeutic gluten challenge study.

CONCLUSIONS

The composite VCIEL scale combining Vh:Cd and IEL values seems to improve accuracy and statistical precision compared with either component alone.

Gluten-Free Diet and Other Celiac Disease Therapies: Current Understanding and Emerging Strategies

A lifelong gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only treatment for celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders. Nevertheless, strict adherence to the GFD is often challenging due to concerns about social isolation, risk of gluten contaminations, high cost, poor quality and the taste of gluten-free products. Moreover, although the GFD is effective in achieving mucosal healing, it may lead to dietary imbalances due to nutrient deficiencies over a long period of time. To overcome these issues, several gluten-free wheat flours have been developed to create products that closely resemble their gluten-containing counterparts. Furthermore, given the critical importance of adhering to the GFD, it becomes essential to promote adherence and monitor possible voluntary or involuntary transgressions. Various methods, including clinical assessment, questionnaires, serology for celiac disease, duodenal biopsies and the detection of Gluten Immunogenic Peptides (GIPs) are employed for this purpose, but none are considered entirely satisfactory. Since adherence to the GFD poses challenges, alternative therapies should be implemented in the coming years to improve treatment efficacy and the quality of life of patients with celiac disease. The aim of this narrative review is to explore current knowledge of the GFD and investigate its future perspectives, focusing on technology advancements, follow-up strategies and insights into a rapidly changing future.

Persistent villous atrophy predicts development of complications and mortality in adult patients with coeliac disease: a multicentre longitudinal cohort study and development of a score to identify high-risk patients

OBJECTIVE

Persistent villous atrophy (pVA) in coeliac disease (CD) despite a gluten-free diet (GFD) has unclear meaning. We aimed to (i) study the relationship between pVA and long-term outcomes and (ii) develop a score to identify patients at risk of pVA.

DESIGN

This is a multicentre retrospective-prospective study consisting of a study cohort (cohort 1) and an external validation cohort (cohort 2) of patients with biopsy-proven CD diagnosed between 2000 and 2021. Cohort 1 was used to (i) compare long-term outcomes between patients with and without pVA (Marsh ≥3a) at follow-up biopsy and (ii) to develop a score to evaluate the risk of pVA, which was validated in cohort 2.

RESULTS

Of 2211 patients, 694 (31%) underwent follow-up duodenal biopsy and were included in the study cohort (491F, 44±16 years). 157/694 (23%) had pVA. Risk of complications (HR 9.53, 95% CI 4.77 to 19.04, p<0.001) and mortality (HR 2.93, 95% CI 1.43 to 6.02, p<0.01) were increased in patients with pVA. A 5-point score was developed and externally validated (receiver operating characteristic area under the curve 0.78, 95% CI 0.68 to 0.89) to stratify patients by risk of pVA: low (0-1 points, 5% pVA), intermediate (2 points, 16% pVA) and high (3-5 points, 73% pVA). Predictors for pVA used in the score were age at diagnosis ≥45 years (OR 2.01, 95% CI 1.21 to 3.34, p<0.01), classical pattern of CD (OR 2.14, 95% CI 1.28 to 3.58, p<0.01), lack of clinical response to GFD (OR 2.40, 95% CI 1.43 to 4.01, p<0.001) and poor GFD adherence (OR 48.9, 95% CI 26.1 to 91.8, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Risk of complications and mortality were increased in patients with pVA. We developed a score to identify patients at risk of pVA and in need of histological reassessment and closer follow-up.

Bromelain and ficin proteolytic effects on gliadin cytotoxicity and expression of genes involved in cell-tight junctions in Caco-2 cells

Enzyme therapy for celiac disease (CeD), which digests gliadin into non-immunogenic and non-toxic peptides, can be an appropriate treatment option for CeD. Here, we have investigated the effectiveness of bromelain and ficin on gliadin digestion using in vitro, such as SDS-PAGE, HPLC, and circular dichroism (CD). Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of gliadin and 19-mer peptide before and after digestion with these enzymes was evaluated using the MTT assay in the Caco-2 cell line. Finally, we examined the effect of these treatments along with Larazotide Acetate on the expression of genes involved in cell-tight junctions, such as Occludin, Claudin 3, tight junction protein-1, and Zonulin in the Caco-2 cell line. Our study demonstrated bromelain and ficin digestion effects on the commercial and wheat-extracted gliadin by SDS-PAGE, HPLC, and CD. Also, the cytotoxicity results on Caco-2 showed that toxicity of the gliadin and synthetic 19-mer peptide was decreased by adding bromelain and ficin. Furthermore, the proteolytic effects of bromelain and ficin on gliadin indicated the expression of genes involved in cell-tight junctions was improved. This study confirms that bromelain and ficin mixture could be effective in improving the symptoms of CeD.

Gluten-Free Diet and Metabolic Syndrome: Could Be a Not Benevolent Encounter?

Celiac disease is a rising disorder and is becoming frequently diagnosed in recent years. To date, the only available treatment is the gluten-free diet (GFD). The role of gluten on components of metabolic syndrome and on related inflammatory response is still unclear due to controversial results. In recent years, scientific focus on this topic has been growing up, in particular regarding the role of the GFD on glycometabolic parameters and diabetes. In addition, studies on the remaining components showed discordant results, which was likely due to heterogeneous and large celiac disease populations and to the lack of prospective studies. Furthermore, knowledge about the role of the GFD on inflammatory cytokines and the relationship among vitamin D and celiac disease, metabolic syndrome (MS) and GFD is needed. In this narrative review, we provided evidence regarding the role of the GFD on glycometabolic parameters, cholesterol, triglycerides, waist circumference, blood pressure and inflammatory cascade, also evaluating the role of vitamin D, trying to summarize whether this nutritional pattern may be a value-added for subjects with dysmetabolic conditions. Finally, due to the limited findings and very low-certainty evidence, predominantly based on observational studies, the real effects of a GFD on different components of MS, however, are unclear; nevertheless, an improvement in HDL levels has been reported, although data on glycemic levels are discordant.

Evaluation of mucosal status in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease: the role of serology

Recent guidelines suggest non-biopsy serology-based approach for the diagnosis of celiac disease; however, there is no evidence-based data regarding noninvasive follow-up of mucosal healing. The aim of this study is to investigate the efficacy of serology in reflecting mucosal status in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease. This is a validation study conducted at a university hospital. Patients who had biopsy proven celiac disease (Marsh III) at diagnosis, and had been followed-up for at least 12 months, were prospectively evaluated with duodenal biopsies. tTG-IgA and EMA tests were performed on the day of endoscopy. One hundred four patients with a mean age of 7.4 ± 4.02 years were included in the study. The sensitivity and specificity of tTG-IgA were 85.2% and 61% respectively, with a high negative predictive value (NPV) of 92.2% but a very low positive predictive value (PPV) of 43.4%. We found that a cutoff value of 68.5 U/mL for tTG-IgA had a sensitivity, specificity of 85.2% and 85.7% respectively. The AUC was 0.891. The sensitivity and specificity of EMA was 77.8% and 87% respectively, with a high NPV of 91.8% but low PPV of 67.7%.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that negative tTG-IgA and/or EMA can be used as an indicator of mucosal improvement in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease. However, positive serology (i.e., < 10 × ULN) may be misleading in reflecting mucosal status in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• The tissue transglutaminase IgA (tTG-IgA) and endomysium IgA (EMA) tests are widely used, sensitive and reliable diagnostic tests, but their role in monitoring adherence to dietary treatment in celiac patients has not yet been demonstrated. • There is still no reliable and non-invasive marker of persistent villous atrophy or mucosal recovery.

WHAT IS NEW

• Negative celiac serology detected in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease was successful in demonstrating histopathological mucosal healing. • Positive celiac serology, which is highly reliable in the diagnosis of celiac disease, has not been successful in reflecting mucosal status when used in the follow-up of pediatric patients with celiac disease.

Review article: Follow-up of coeliac disease

Coeliac disease is a lifelong immune-mediated enteropathy with systemic features associated with increased morbidity and modestly increased mortality. Treatment with a strict gluten-free diet improves symptoms and mucosal damage but is not curative and low-level gluten intake is common despite strict attempts at adherence. Regular follow-up after diagnosis is considered best-practice however this is executed poorly in the community with the problem compounded by the paucity of data informing optimal approaches. The aim of dietary treatment is to resolve symptoms, reduce complication risk and improve quality of life. It follows that the goals of monitoring are to assess dietary adherence, monitor disease activity, assess symptoms and screen for complications. Mucosal disease remission is regarded a key measure of treatment success as healing is associated with positive health outcomes. However, persistent villous atrophy is common, even after many years of a gluten-free diet. As the clinical significance of asymptomatic enteropathy is uncertain the role for routine follow-up biopsies remains contentious. Symptomatic non-responsive coeliac disease is common and with systematic follow-up a cause is usually found. Effective models of care involving the gastroenterologist, dietitian and primary care doctor will improve the consistency of long-term management and likely translate into better patient outcomes. Identifying suitable treatment targets linked to long-term health is an important goal.

Zonulin and I-FABP are markers of enterocyte damage in celiac disease

Aim. To evaluate the level of serum I-FABP (Fatty-Acid-Binding Protein a protein that binds fatty acids) and fecal zonulin as markers of the permeability of the mucous membrane of the small intestine in celiac patients. Materials and methods. A total of 151 celiac patients (25 men and 126 women) were examined. The median age was 42 years. Group I included 58 patients with newly diagnosed celiac disease; in group 2 38 patients, knowingly or unknowingly violating the gluten-free diet; group 3 consisted of 55 patients strictly observing gluten-free diet. The control group consisted of 20 healthy volunteers: 4 men and 16 women. All patients underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy by biopsy of the mucous membrane of the small intestine and assessment of duodenobioptates according to Marsh. In the blood serum, the level of antibodies to tissue transglutaminase IgA and IgG was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using kits manufactured by Orgentec Diagnostics GmbH (Germany), the concentration of I-FABP in blood serum was determined using Hycult Biotech kits (Netherlands). The content of zonulin in feces was investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using kits from Immundiagnostik AG (Germany). Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistica 13.3 software (StatSoft Inc., USA). Results. There was a significant increase in the level of antibodies to tissue transglutaminase IgA [120.0 (41.1200)] IU/ml and IgG [31.4 (5.578.9)] IU/ml in patients of group 1 compared with group 2 [IgA 9.1 (2.987.6)] and IgG [3.8 (2.219.7)] IU/ml and group 3 [IgA 1.6 (1.03.2)] and IgG [2.2 (1.152.53)] (p0.01). The level of I-FABP in blood serum in patients of group 1 averaged 2045 pg/ml, in patients in group 2 1406 pg/ml, in patients in group 3 1000 pg/ml. All patients showed a significant increase in the mean I-FABP values compared to controls (1, 2 and control p0.01, 3 and control p=0.016). In patients with Marsh grade III AC atrophy, the I-FABP level depended on the degree of damage to the mucosa and significantly differed from the control: March IIIA (median: 1310 pg/ml, interquartile range: 12121461 pg/ml), March IIIB (median: 2090 pg/ml, interquartile range: 18122322 pg/ml) as well as Marsh IIIC (median: 2058 pg/ml, interquartile range 18582678 pg/ml). The concentration of zonulin in feces in patients of group 1 averaged 111.6 pg/mg, in patients of group 2 90.5 pg/mg. In patients of group 3 50 IU/ml. The concentration of zonulin in feces increased as the degree of mucosa atrophy increased (r=0.585, p0.01). However, despite the fact that both of these markers may indicate impaired permeability, each of them indicates damage to a certain level of the intestinal barrier, which is not always associated with the degree of mucosa atrophy. Conclusion. Determination of serum I-FABP and fecal zonulin levels in celiac patients allows for the assessment of intestinal permeability and can serve as non-invasive markers for monitoring ongoing structural changes in the mucosa without the need for endoscopy.

The global burden of coeliac disease: opportunities and challenges

Coeliac disease is a systemic disorder characterized by immune-mediated enteropathy, which is caused by gluten ingestion in genetically susceptible individuals. The clinical presentation of coeliac disease is highly variable and ranges from malabsorption through solely extra-intestinal manifestations to asymptomatic. As a result, the majority of patients with coeliac disease remain undiagnosed, misdiagnosed or experience a substantial delay in diagnosis. Coeliac disease is diagnosed by a combination of serological findings of disease-related antibodies and histological evidence of villous abnormalities in duodenal biopsy samples. However, variability in histological grading and in the diagnostic performance of some commercially available serological tests remains unacceptably high and confirmatory assays are not readily available in many parts of the world. Currently, the only effective treatment for coeliac disease is a lifelong, strict, gluten-free diet. However, many barriers impede patients' adherence to this diet, including lack of widespread availability, high cost, cross-contamination and its overall restrictive nature. Routine follow-up is necessary to ensure adherence to a gluten-free diet but considerable variation is evident in follow-up protocols and the optimal disease management strategy is not clear. However, these challenges in the diagnosis and management of coeliac disease suggest opportunities for future research.

Application of a Platform for Gluten-Free Diet Evaluation and Dietary Advice: From Theory to Practice

The present work aimed to analyze, through the GlutenFreeDiet digital platform, the evolution over one year of the nutritional status, dietary profile and symptoms present among celiac people on a gluten-free diet (GFD) while receiving individualized dietary advice. Twenty-seven adults and thirty-one celiac children/adolescents participated in the study. This was then followed up by three visits, at diagnosis, and after 3 and 12 months (vt0, vt3 and vt12). Participants filled out dietary and gastrointestinal symptoms questionnaires. All patients received written personalized dietary advice from dietitians who interpreted data from the platform. Results obtained indicated that participants consumed proteins and lipids in excess and carbohydrates in defect. Low intakes of cereals, fruit and vegetables and high meat intakes were observed. However, gluten-free product (GFP) consumption and that of ultra-processed foods was reduced after 1 year in adults. Symptoms decreased after vt3 but recurred in vt12. Changes in ultra-processed foods and GFP intake, but lack of changes in the rest of the parameters suggested that the platform support was not effective enough. Even though the platform represents a useful tool for monitoring celiac patients and giving dietary advice, modules that require more continuous attention and nutritional education of patients should be provided for interventions to be more effective.

Oral Consumption of Bread from an RNAi Wheat Line with Strongly Silenced Gliadins Elicits No Immunogenic Response in a Pilot Study with Celiac Disease Patients

Celiac disease (CD) is a genetically predisposed, T cell-mediated and autoimmune-like disorder caused by dietary exposure to the storage proteins of wheat and related cereals. A gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only treatment available for CD. The celiac immune response mediated by CD4+ T-cells can be assessed with a short-term oral gluten challenge. This study aimed to determine whether the consumption of bread made using flour from a low-gluten RNAi wheat line (named E82) can activate the immune response in DQ2.5-positive patients with CD after a blind crossover challenge. The experimental protocol included assessing IFN-γ production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), evaluating gastrointestinal symptoms, and measuring gluten immunogenic peptides (GIP) in stool samples. The response of PBMCs was not significant to gliadin and the 33-mer peptide after E82 bread consumption. In contrast, PBMCs reacted significantly to Standard bread. This lack of immune response is correlated with the fact that, after E82 bread consumption, stool samples from patients with CD showed very low levels of GIP, and the symptoms were comparable to those of the GFD. This pilot study provides evidence that bread from RNAi E82 flour does not elicit an immune response after a short-term oral challenge and could help manage GFD in patients with CD.

Effect of gluten-free diet on levels of soluble CD14 and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in adult patients with celiac disease

Introduction

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune enteropathy triggered by gluten ingestion in genetically susceptible individuals. In CD, activation of the immune response causes damage of the intestinal mucosa, and a gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only available therapy. Intestinal damage can lead to an increase in the circulation of components of bacteria from the intestinal lumen, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Soluble CD14 (sCD14) and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) participate in the recognition of LPS, and their levels are altered in different pathologies. In the present study, the circulating levels of sCD14 and LBP from untreated CD patients were evaluated and compared to CD patients on a GFD and controls.

Material and methods

In total seventy-two adult patients with CD, twenty-three untreated CD patients and forty-nine on a GFD were included. In addition, fifty-five healthy individuals were included as controls. Additionally, the effect of LPS on sCD14 production by both normal and inflamed intestinal tissue culture was explored.

Results

Serum levels of sCD14 were found to be significantly increased in untreated CD patients compared to patients on a GFD and controls. In addition, we found that LPS induced the production of sCD14 by biopsies of intestinal tissue from untreated CD patients.

Conclusions

The data from this study show that circulating levels of sCD14 are increased in the untreated CD patients compared to patients on a GFD. Our data show that LPS induces the production of sCD14 by the intestinal tissue from untreated CD patients.

Determination of Urinary Gluten Immunogenic Peptides to Assess Adherence to the Gluten-Free Diet: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Study

INTRODUCTION

The adherence to a gluten-free diet (GFD) is a trending topic in the management of celiac disease. The aim of our study was to evaluate the diagnostic performance of urinary gluten immunogenic peptides (GIP) determination to detect gluten contamination of the GFD.

METHODS

In study A, 25 healthy adults on a standard GFD performed 6 gluten challenges (0, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 mg) with quantification of urinary GIP before (T0) and during the following 24 hours. In study B, 12 participants on a gluten contamination elimination diet underwent urinary GIP determination at T0 and after challenge with 5 or 10 mg gluten. Urine GIP concentration was determined by an immunochromatographic assay.

RESULTS

In study A, 51 of 150 baseline urine samples were GIP+ on GFD and 7 of 17 were GIP+ after the zero-gluten challenge, whereas only 55 of 81 were GIP+ after the 10-1,000 mg gluten challenges. There was no significant change in the 24-hour urinary GIP when increasing gluten from 10 to 1,000 mg. In study B, 24 of 24 baseline urine samples were GIP-, whereas 8 of 24 were GIP+ after 5 or 10 mg of gluten.

DISCUSSION

Traces of gluten in the standard GFD may cause positivity of urinary GIP determination, whereas a false negativity is common after a gluten intake of 10-1,000 mg. Owing to the impossibility of standardizing the test in normal conditions, it seems unlikely that urinary GIP determination may represent a reliable tool to assess the compliance to the GFD of patients with celiac disease or other gluten-related disorders.

Clinical Value of Tissue Transglutaminase Antibodies in Celiac Patients over a Long Term Follow-Up

Introduction & Aim: Anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody (tTGA) titer is used during the follow-up of celiac patients to evaluate gluten-free diet (GFD) responsiveness. However, no clear data are available on this issue. The aim of this study was to evaluate tTGA significance during celiac disease (CD) monitoring. Methods: From January 2017 to January 2020, consecutive CD patients on a GFD with persistent positive tTGA were enrolled. Antibody titres were evaluated on a yearly basis from CD diagnosis to the last follow-up. Urinary gluten detection tests, duodenal histology and capsule enteroscopy (CE) were performed. A tTGA-positive cohort was compared with a control group composed of 212 treated CD patients with negative tTGA. Results: 65 patients (12% males, median age at enrollment and CD diagnosis, 37 (14–86) and 31 (1–76), respectively, median follow up 4 (1–26) years) presented with positive tTGA during follow-up. Overall, the tTGA titres were 3 (1–79) fold increased (ULN). Three different tTGA trends were recognized: (I) 36 (55%) patients with a progressive titres decrease; (II) 16 (25%) patients with a fluctuating behavior; (III) 13 (20%) patients with a steady state or increased titres. tTGA+ patients did not present with different clinical and demographic parameters. Duodenal atrophy was present in 10% vs. 36% of the tTGA positive vs. negative group (p < 0.005), respectively. Gluten detection results were positive in 3 (8%) cases, all in the III group. In tTGA+ patients, CE did not identify any CD-related complications. Conclusions: tTGA positivity during CD follow up did not present a relevant clinical significance without association with autoimmune comorbidities and mucosal damage.

Nutritional Imbalances in Adult Celiac Patients Following a Gluten-Free Diet

Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic autoimmune disorder of the small intestine, whose only effective treatment is a gluten-free diet (GFD). It is characterized by the atrophy of the intestinal villi that leads to altered nutrient absorption. This study describes the nutritional imbalances which may be found in adults with CD following a GFD. During the first year of treatment, deficiencies will overcome as the intestinal mucosa recovers. Thus, biochemical data will show this progression, together with the decrease in symptoms. In contrast, in the long term, when a strict GFD is followed and mucosal recovery is achieved, analyzing nutrient intake makes more sense. Macronutrient consumption is characterized by its low complex carbohydrate and fiber intakes, and high fat (especially SFA) and sugar intakes. This profile has been related to the consumption of GFP and their nutritional composition, in addition to unbalanced dietary habits. The most notable deficiencies in micronutrients are usually those of iron, calcium and magnesium and vitamin D, E and some of group B. It is necessary to follow up patients with CD and to promote nutritional education among them, since it could help not only to achieve a gluten free but also a balanced diet.

Gluten content in labeled and unlabeled gluten-free food products used by patients with celiac disease

OBJECTIVE

Gluten-free (GF) diet is the only reliable treatment for patients with celiac disease (CeD), but data on the extent of gluten contamination in GF food available in India is scanty. We evaluated gluten content in labeled, imported, and non-labeled GF food products currently available in the Indian market.

METHODS

Overall, 794 processed and commercially available packaged GF products (labeled GF (n = 360), imported GF (n = 80), and non-labeled/naturally GF (n = 354)) were collected from supermarkets of National Capital Region of India. Those unavailable in stores were purchased from e-commerce sites or directly from the manufacturers. Gluten level in them was determined by Ridascreen Gliadin sandwich R5 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (R-Biopharm AG, Germany). As per Codex Alimentarius and Food Safety and Standard Authority of India, "gluten free" labeled products must not contain > 20 mg/kg of gluten.

RESULTS

Overall, 10.1% of 794 GF products including 38 (10.8%) of 360 labeled and 42 (11.8%) of 354 non-labeled/naturally GF food products had gluten content > 20 mg/kg (range: 24.43-355 and 23.2-463.8 mg/kg, respectively). None of the imported GF products had gluten more than the recommended limits. Contaminated products most commonly belonged to cereal and their products (flours, coarse grains, pasta/macaroni, snack foods) pulse flours, spices, and bakery items.

CONCLUSIONS

A substantial proportion (10.1%) of GF food products (both labeled and non-labeled) available in India have gluten content greater than the prescribed limits of <20 mg/kg. Physicians, dietitians, support group, and patients with CeD should be made aware of this fact and regulatory bodies should ensure quality assurance.

Best practices of handling, processing, and interpretation of small intestinal biopsies for the diagnosis and management of celiac disease: A joint consensus of Indian association of pathologists and microbiologists and Indian society of gastroenterology

The Indian Association of Pathologists and Microbiologists (IAPM) and Indian Society of Gastroenterology (ISG) decided to make a joint consensus recommendation for handling, processing, and interpretation of SI biopsies for the diagnosis and management of celiac disease (CD) recognizing the inhomogeneous practice of biopsy sampling, orientation, processing, and interpretation. A modified Delphi process was used to develop this consensus document containing a total of 42 statements and recommendations, which were generated by sharing the document draft, incorporating expert's opinion, followed by three cycles of electronic voting as well as a full-day face-to-face virtual ZOOM meeting and review of supporting literature. Of the 42 statements, 7 statements are on small intestinal (SI) biopsy in suspected patients of CD, site and the number of biopsies; 7 on handling, fixative, orientation, processing, and sectioning in pathology laboratories; 2 on histological orientation; 13 statements on histological interpretation and histological grading; 3 on the assessment of follow-up biopsies; 2 statements on gluten-free diet (GFD)-nonresponsive CD; 4 on challenges in the diagnosis of CD; 2 statements each on pathology reporting protocol and training and infrastructure in this area. The goal of this guideline document is to formulate a uniform protocol agreed upon both by the experienced pathologists and gastroenterologists to standardize the practice, improve the yield of small bowel biopsy interpretation, patients' compliance, overall management in CD, and generate unified data for patient care and research in the related field.

Persistent Villous Atrophy in De Novo Adult Patients With Celiac Disease and Strict Control of Gluten-Free Diet Adherence: A Multicenter Prospective Study (CADER Study)

INTRODUCTION

A substantial proportion of adult patients with celiac disease on a gluten-free diet exhibit persistent villous atrophy, and inadvertent gluten exposure may be one of the causes. The aim of the present study was to evaluate villous atrophy persistence after 2 years on a gluten-free diet in de novo adult patients with celiac disease with strict control of gluten exposure.

METHODS

Symptomatic de novo adult patients with celiac disease were prospectively included. Clinical visits and dietary surveillance were scheduled every 6 months during a 2-year follow-up period. At each visit, fecal samples were collected and stored at -20 °C until analysis for gluten immunogenic peptides (f-GIPs). A follow-up duodenal biopsy was performed at 2 years. We evaluated the variables associated with persistent villous atrophy.

RESULTS

Seventy-six patients completed the study (36.5 ± 1.6 years, 73% women); persistent villous atrophy was observed in 40 (53%), whereas 72.5% were asymptomatic and 75% had negative serology. Detectable f-GIP >0.08 μg/g in at least 1 fecal sample was seen in 69% of patients. There were no significant differences in the median f-GIP at each visit and median area under the curve over the serial measurements between patients with persistent villous atrophy and those who recovered. On multivariate analysis, only older age was associated with persistent villous atrophy (32% for 16-30 years; 67% for >30 years; P = 0.016).

DISCUSSION

The rate of persistent villous atrophy after 2 years was high in adult patients with celiac disease on an intentionally strict gluten-free diet. Low-level ongoing inadvertent gluten exposure could be a contributing factor to persistent villous atrophy.

Immune-mediated enteropathies: From bench to bedside

Immune-mediated enteropathies are caused by excessive reactions of the intestinal immune system towards non-pathogenic molecules. Enteropathy leads to malabsorption-related symptoms and include (severe) chronic diarrhea, weight loss and vitamin deficiencies. Parenteral feeding and immunosuppressive therapy are needed in severe cases. Celiac disease has long been recognized as the most common immune-mediated enteropathy in adults, but the spectrum of immune-mediated enteropathies has been expanding. Histological and clinical features are sometimes shared among these enteropathies, and therefore it may be challenging to differentiate between them. Here, we provide an overview of immune-mediated enteropathies focused on clinical presentation, establishing diagnosis, immunopathogenesis, and treatment options.

Relationship between Persistent Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Duodenal Histological Findings after Adequate Gluten-Free Diet: A Gray Area of Celiac Disease Management in Adult Patients

A gluten-free diet (GFD) leads to a rapid improvement in gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, biochemical alterations and duodenal histological damage in the majority of celiac disease (CD) patients. This study aimed to assess the frequency and factors associated with the persistence of GI symptoms/malabsorption signs and their relationship with duodenal histological findings among CD patients on an adequate GFD (mean duration 16 months, range 12-28 months). This longitudinal cohort study included 102 adult CD patients (median age 38.5 years, range 18-76 years, F = 71.6%) diagnosed between 2012 and 2018. A total of 36.3% of the included patients had persistent GI symptoms and/or malabsorption signs (Group 1), while the remaining patients had complete GI well-being without malabsorption signs (Group 2) at the time of histological re-evaluation. The persistence of GI symptoms/signs was associated with a long duration of symptoms/signs before CD diagnosis (≥5 years) (OR 5.3; 95% CI 1.3-21.8) and the presence of constipation at the time of CD diagnosis (OR 7.5; 95% CI 1.3-42) while for other variables, including age at CD diagnosis, sex, duration of GFD, comorbidities, CD serology positivity and severity of duodenal damage at histological re-evaluation, no association was found. According to our results, the persistence of symptoms/signs is not associated with histological findings, and their relationship could be a gray area in CD management.

The role of histopathology in the diagnosis and management of coeliac disease and other malabsorptive conditions

Most absorption of nutrients takes place in the proximal small intestine, and the most common disorders leading to malabsorption are associated with a morphological abnormality in the duodenal mucosa that is appreciable in histological sections of biopsy specimens. Coeliac disease is the most well-known example, causing intraepithelial lymphocytosis, inflammation and villous atrophy in the duodenum. Remarkably similar inflammatory changes can be induced by other processes, including medications, e.g. angiotensin II receptor blockers and immune checkpoint inhibitors, immune dysregulation disorders, e.g. common variable immunodeficiency and autoimmune enteropathy, infections, collagenous sprue, and tropical sprue. However, there are often subtle histological differences from coeliac disease in the type of inflammatory infiltrate, the presence of crypt apoptosis, and the extent and type of inflammation beyond the duodenum. The clinical setting and serological investigation usually allow diagnostic separation, but some cases remain challenging. Histopathology is also important in assessing the response to treatment, such as the change in villous architecture caused by a gluten-free diet, or the response to cessation of a potentially causative medication. This review examines the practical role that histopathology of duodenal biopsy specimens plays in the assessment and management of inflammatory malabsorptive processes of the proximal small intestine, with a particular emphasis on coeliac disease.

Poor Sensitivity of Fecal Gluten Immunogenic Peptides and Serum Antibodies to Detect Duodenal Mucosal Damage in Celiac Disease Monitoring

A lifelong gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only current treatment for celiac disease (CD), but strict compliance is complicated. Duodenal biopsies are the “gold standard” method for diagnosing CD, but they are not generally recommended for disease monitoring. We evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of fecal gluten immunogenic peptides (GIPs) to detect duodenal lesions in CD patients on a GFD and compared them with serum anti-tissue transglutaminase (tTG) IgA antibodies. A prospective study was conducted at two tertiary centers in Spain on a consecutive series of adolescents and adults with CD who maintained a long-lasting GFD. Adherence to a GFD and health-related quality of life were scored with validated questionnaires. Mucosal damage graded according to the Marsh–Oberhüber classification (Marsh 1/2/3) was used as the reference standard. Of the 97 patients included, 27 presented duodenal mucosal damage and 70 had normal biopsies (Marsh 0). The sensitivity (33%) and specificity (81%) of GIPs were similar to those provided by the two assays used to measure anti-tTG antibodies. Scores in questionnaires showed no association with GIP, but an association between GIPs and patients’ self-reported gluten consumption was found (p = 0.003). GIP displayed low sensitivity but acceptable specificity for the detection of mucosal damage in CD.

Nutrition Assessment, Interventions, and Monitoring for Patients with Celiac Disease: An Evidence Analysis Center Scoping Review

The objectives of this scoping review were to identify and characterize studies examining nutrition assessment, interventions, and measures to monitor gluten-free diet (GFD) adherence/compliance in patients with celiac disease (CD). An electronic literature search of four databases (Cochrane Database for systematic reviews, CINAHL, Embase, and Ovid MEDLINE) was conducted to identify articles examining nutrition care in CD individuals. Except for narrative review, grey literature, and case study/report, all types of peer-reviewed articles published between January 2007 and August 2018 were eligible. There were a total of 10,823 records; 10,368 were excluded during the first round of screening due to irrelevancy and/or duplication. Of the 455 full-text articles that were assessed, 292 met the criteria and were included. Most of the studies were observational studies (n=212), followed by experimental trials (n=50), evidence-based practice guideline (EBPG)/report/statement (n=16), and systematic review (SR) (n=14). Nine original studies examined assessment, focusing mainly on different tools/ways to assess GFD adherence. The majority of the included original articles (n=235) were in the nutrition intervention category with GFD, oats, and prebiotics/probiotics as the top-three most studied interventions. There were eight SRs on GFD and five on oats. One SR and 21 original studies investigated the effectiveness of different measures to monitor GFD adherence/compliance. Although recent CD EBPGs were identified, different methods with varying levels of rigor, in terms of literature search and assessment of evidence strength, were used. Based on this scoping review, interventions focused on gluten-free diet and oats have been significantly covered by either SRs or EBPGs. Studies related to prebiotics/probiotics and education program/counseling focused interventions, as well as assessment, in CD patients have increased in recent years. Thus, it might be beneficial to conduct SRs/EBPGs focused on these topics to guide practitioners.

Safety of occasional ingestion of gluten in patients with celiac disease: a real-life study

BACKGROUND

Gluten-free diet (GFD) decreases the quality of life of celiac disease (CD) patients, who frequently ask to occasionally ingest gluten-containing food. We evaluated CD patients reporting voluntary and occasional transgressions to their GFD.

METHODS

From October 2017 to September 2018, the patients reporting occasional and voluntary gluten ingestion (GFD-noncompliant) were prospectively enrolled. These patients underwent clinical examination, blood tests, duodenal biopsy, capsule enteroscopy (CE), and a validated food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) assessing the frequency and quantity of gluten intake. Mortality was calculated and compared to the general population. A group of patients on strict GFD (GFD-adherent) acted as controls.

RESULTS

One thousand three hundred seventy-eight CD patients were evaluated during the study period. One hundred nine (8%) reported occasional (weekly or monthly) voluntary ingestion of gluten. The mean gluten intake was 185.2 ± 336.9 g/year, and the duration of their incorrect GFD was 8.6 ± 6.9 years. Among the noncompliant patients, 57% did not present any histological alteration; furthermore, the Marsh score profile was not different between compliant and noncompliant patients. Seventy percent did not present any alteration at CE. Seventy-five percent of patients reported no gastrointestinal symptoms after gluten ingestion. Twenty-three percent of patients in the GFD-noncompliant group presented positive tTG-IgA. No association was found between gluten intake, clinical symptoms, and biomarkers. Mortality was not different between the groups and the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are that in a real-life scenario, a group of CD patients on long-term gluten intake showed no significant clinical symptoms or small bowel damage, thus suggesting that a degree of tolerance towards gluten consumption can be reached.

Optimising the follow-up of adult coeliac disease with a clinical-based score to identify patients in need of a histological reassessment: a retrospective single centre study

Follow-up modalities for adult coeliac patients remain controversial. Non-invasive markers to identify coeliac patients on a gluten-free diet (GFD) with persistence of villous atrophy (VA) are still lacking. We aim to develop a score to stratify coeliac patients on a GFD according to their risk of having persistent VA and to tailor follow-up modalities accordingly. The clinical notes of over 700 coeliac patients attending our unit (September 1999-November 2018) were retrospectively examined. A total of 273 patients on a GFD with a histological follow-up performed 12-24 months after diagnosis were selected. We developed a bivariable model based on diet adherence and clinical response evaluated by previously validated methods. A four-level score (0·5, 1·5, 3, 4) was obtained. Patients on a strict GFD and with good clinical conditions (score 4) have a very low risk of persistence of VA (2 (95 % CI 1, 5) %). Conversely, the risk is very high (46 (95 % CI 25, 68) %) in patients with poor adherence to a GFD and unsatisfactory clinical response (score 0·5). A score of 1·5 (poor GFD adherence and persistent well-being) is linked with a high risk (23 (95 % CI 14, 36) %). Risk is intermediate (6 (95 % CI 3, 10) %) in patients scoring 3 (strict GFD and no/partial clinical improvement). Three patients who developed complications belonged to this scenario. Patients at low risk of persistent VA can be followed-up non-invasively, whereas a biopsy should be repeated in those at high/very high risk. Case-by-case evaluation is needed in patients at intermediate risk. Studies on a larger sample size are required to confirm these data.

Pathogenesis of Celiac Disease and Other Gluten Related Disorders in Wheat and Strategies for Mitigating Them

Wheat is a major cereal crop providing energy and nutrients to the billions of people around the world. Gluten is a structural protein in wheat, that is necessary for its dough making properties, but it is responsible for imparting certain intolerances among some individuals, which are part of this review. Most important among these intolerances is celiac disease, that is gluten triggered T-cell mediated autoimmune enteropathy and results in villous atrophy, inflammation and damage to intestinal lining in genetically liable individuals containing human leukocyte antigen DQ2/DQ8 molecules on antigen presenting cells. Celiac disease occurs due to presence of celiac disease eliciting epitopes in gluten, particularly highly immunogenic alpha-gliadins. Another gluten related disorder is non-celiac gluten-sensitivity in which innate immune-response occurs in patients along with gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms, that disappear upon removal of gluten from the diet. In wheat allergy, either IgE or non-IgE mediated immune response occurs in individuals after inhalation or ingestion of wheat. Following a life-long gluten-free diet by celiac disease and non-celiac gluten-sensitivity patients is very challenging as none of wheat cultivar or related species stands safe for consumption. Hence, different molecular biology, genetic engineering, breeding, microbial, enzymatic, and chemical strategies have been worked upon to reduce the celiac disease epitopes and the gluten content in wheat. Currently, only 8.4% of total population is affected by wheat-related issues, while rest of population remains safe and should not remove wheat from the diet, based on false media coverage.

Masked bolus gluten challenge low in FODMAPs implicates nausea and vomiting as key symptoms associated with immune activation in treated coeliac disease

BACKGROUND

In patients with coeliac disease, FODMAPs in gluten-containing foods, and participant anticipation of a harmful ('nocebo') effect, may contribute to acute symptoms after gluten challenge.

AIM

To establish acute gluten-specific symptoms linked to immune activation in coeliac disease METHODS: We included 36 coeliac disease patients on a gluten-free diet receiving placebo in the RESET CeD trial. Double-blind, bolus vital wheat gluten (~6-g gluten protein) and sham challenges low in FODMAPs were consumed 2 weeks apart. Assessments included daily Coeliac Disease Patient Reported Outcome (CeD PRO) symptom scores (0-10), adverse events and serum interleukin-2 (baseline and 4 hours).

RESULTS

Median CeD PRO score for nausea increased most (sham: 0 vs gluten: 5.5; P < .001). Apart from tiredness (1 vs 4, P = .005) and headache (0 vs 2, P = .002), changes in other symptoms were small or absent. Only nausea increased significantly in occurrence with gluten (11% vs 69%, P < .001). Without nausea, only tiredness and flatulence were common after gluten. Nausea (6% vs 61%, P < .001; median onset: 1:34 hours) and vomiting (0% vs 44%, P < .001; 1:51 hours) were the only adverse events more common with gluten than sham. Interleukin-2 was always below the level of quantitation (0.5 pg/mL) at baseline, and after sham. Interleukin-2 was elevated after gluten in 97% of patients (median fold-change: 20), and correlated with severity of nausea (r_s  = .49, P = .0025) and occurrence of vomiting (P = .0005).

CONCLUSIONS

Nausea and vomiting are relatively specific indicators of acute gluten ingestion, and correlate with immune activation. IBS-like symptoms without nausea are unlikely to indicate recent gluten exposure.

New Software for Gluten-Free Diet Evaluation and Nutritional Education

Following a gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only treatment for celiac disease. This diet must ensure the absence of gluten but also needs to be nutritionally balanced. Dietitians working in this field cannot properly evaluate energy and nutrient intake of celiac people because dietary programs available on the market do not contain the nutritional composition of gluten-free products (GFP). Here we present a new GFD evaluation software that contains more than 700 gluten-free rendered foodstuffs and their macronutrient composition. Apart from diet evaluation and design, the software represents a tool for nutritional education as well, since it shows diet appropriacy and indicates how to promote balanced self-care. Moreover, anthropometric and biochemical data or symptoms presence and diet adherence can be recorded and evaluated. This open free software, can be downloaded in its app format for mobiles and tablets. Software evaluation indicated its correct functionality and the importance of assessing a GFD with GFP instead of with their gluten-containing analogues. Thus, this software represents an essential e-Health tool, not only for proper GFD evaluation, but also for improving life quality of celiac and gluten sensitive people.

Navigating the Gluten-Free Boom: The Dark Side of Gluten Free Diet

In gluten dependent conditions the gluten free diet is the cornerstone of therapy, decreasing disease activity, improving health and quality of life and treating or preventing the associated complications. Gluten withdrawal implies strict and lifelong elimination not only of wheat, barley, rye, and wheat-contaminated oats, but also of numerous non-nutritional products where components of wheat are often added. Due to multiple reasons the diet is difficult to follow and the long-term adherence is decreased with time. The present review summarizes the dark side of gluten restriction where nutritional deficiencies, toxicity, morbidity, mortality, and mental health problems are reported. The aim being to increase awareness, avoid, detect and treat the side effects and to promote a healthier nutrition, for the patient's benefits.

Safety and efficacy of AMG 714 in adults with coeliac disease exposed to gluten challenge: a phase 2a, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Interleukin 15 (IL-15) is implicated in the pathophysiology of coeliac disease. AMG 714 is the first anti-IL-15 monoclonal antibody to be investigated for the treatment of coeliac disease. We aimed to investigate the effects of AMG 714 in patients with coeliac disease who underwent gluten challenge.

METHODS

This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2a trial was done at three clinical sites in Finland. Inclusion criteria included age 18-80 years, a confirmed diagnosis of coeliac disease, and adherence to a gluten-free diet for at least 12 months before screening. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to 150 mg AMG 714, 300 mg AMG 714, or placebo using permuted blocks and stratified by study site and sex. Patients and study staff were masked to treatment assignment. Treatments were administered by two subcutaneous injections every 2 weeks for 10 weeks (total six doses). Patients without severe villous atrophy at baseline received a gluten challenge (2-4 g daily) during weeks 2-12. Small bowel biopsy samples were obtained for histological assessments at baseline and week 12. The primary efficacy endpoint was the percentage change from baseline to week 12 in villous height-to-crypt depth (VHCD) ratio. Secondary endpoints were CD3-positive intraepithelial lymphocyte density; clinical symptoms measured by gastrointestinal symptom rating scale (GSRS), coeliac disease GSRS, and Bristol stool form scale (BSFS); and changes in anti-tTG and anti-DGP antibodies from baseline. The primary analysis was done in the per-protocol 1 population of patients who received at least one dose of study drug and who underwent the gluten challenge. Safety analyses were done in all patients who received at least one dose of study drug. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02637141 and EudraCT, 2015-003647-19.

FINDINGS

Between April 13, 2016, and Nov 22, 2016, 64 patients were enrolled and randomly assigned to either the 150 mg AMG 714 group (n=22), the 300 mg AMG 714 group (n=22), or the placebo group (n=20). Two patients did not start treatment and two did not provide post-treatment biopsy samples. 49 patients underwent the gluten challenge (per-protocol 1 population) and 11 patients did not because of baseline villous atrophy. AMG 714 did not prevent mucosal injury due to gluten challenge. The least square mean difference in the relative change from baseline in VHCD ratio was -2·49% (95% CI -16·82 to 11·83; p=0·73) between 150 mg AMG 714 and placebo and 6·39% (-7·07 to 19·85; p=0·34) between 300 mg AMG 714 and placebo. Neither comparison was statistically significant. The density of CD3-positive intraepithelial lymphocytes increased in all groups, with smaller increases in the 300 mg group (-41·24% [95% CI -79·28 to -3·20] vs placebo, nominal p=0·03) but not the 150 mg group (-14·32% [-54·39 to 25·74], nominal p=0·47). Clinical symptoms were ameliorated with AMG 714 treatment between baseline and week 12, particularly diarrhoea as measured by the BSFS (nominal p=0·01 for 150 mg vs placebo, and nominal p=0·0002 for 300 mg vs placebo). Serum antibody titres for anti-tTG and anti-DGP antibodies increased in all three treatment groups, with no significant difference between AMG 714 and placebo. Treatment-emergent adverse events occurred in 21 (95%) patients in the 150 mg AMG 714 group, 0 (95%) in the 300 mg AMG 714 group, and 19 (100%) in the placebo group. The most common treatment-emergent adverse events were gastrointestinal disorders (17 [77%] participants in the 150 mg AMG 714 group, 16 [76%] in the 300 mg AMG 714 group, and 13 [68%] in the placebo group). Injection site reactions were the most common individual adverse event, reported in eight (36%) patients in the 150 mg AMG 714 group, 11 (52%) in the 300 mg group, and five (26%) in the placebo group. No serious adverse events occurred.

INTERPRETATION

The primary endpoint, change in VHCD ratio from baseline after 12 weeks of treatment in patients with coeliac disease undergoing gluten challenge, was not significantly different between placebo and AMG 714 at either 150 mg or 300 mg. Effects on intraepithelial lymphocyte density and symptoms suggest that further research of AMG 714 may be warranted in patients with non-responsive coeliac disease.

FUNDING

Celimmune and Amgen.

Micronutrients Dietary Supplementation Advices for Celiac Patients on Long-Term Gluten-Free Diet with Good Compliance: A Review

Background and objective: Often micronutrient deficiencies cannot be detected when patient is already following a long-term gluten-free diet with good compliance (LTGFDWGC). The aim of this narrative review is to evaluate the most recent literature that considers blood micronutrient deficiencies in LTGFDWGC subjects, in order to prepare dietary supplementation advice (DSA). Materials and methods: A research strategy was planned on PubMed by defining the following keywords: celiac disease, vitamin B12, iron, folic acid, and vitamin D. Results: This review included 73 studies. The few studies on micronutrient circulating levels in long-term gluten-free diet (LTGFD) patients over 2 years with good compliance demonstrated that deficiency was detected in up to: 30% of subjects for vitamin B12 (DSA: 1000 mcg/day until level is normal, then 500 mcg), 40% for iron (325 mg/day), 20% for folic acid (1 mg/day for 3 months, followed by 400–800 mcg/day), 25% for vitamin D (1000 UI/day or more-based serum level or 50,000 UI/week if level is <20 ng/mL), 40% for zinc (25–40 mg/day), 3.6% of children for calcium (1000–1500 mg/day), 20% for magnesium (200–300 mg/day); no data is available in adults for magnesium. Conclusions: If integration with diet is not enough, starting with supplements may be the correct way, after evaluating the initial blood level to determine the right dosage of supplementation.

Oxidative stress, DNA stability and evoked inflammatory signaling in young celiac patients consuming a gluten-free diet

PURPOSE

Celiac disease (CD) is a multifactorial, autoimmune, gluten-sensitive inflammatory disorder of the small intestine. Taking into account the pathogenesis of CD, a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only treatment able to restore epithelium integrity and eliminate complications. The current study was designed to assess whether the use of a GFD is sufficient for maintaining a correct oxidative/antioxidant balance and ameliorating the evoked inflammatory signaling in young patients with CD.

METHODS

The study covered 80 children, aged between 7 and 18 years, attending the Gastroenterology Service of the Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Child Nutrition Service from the Virgen de las Nieves Hospital in Granada. Children with CD diagnosed were included in the celiac group who followed a strict GFD for 2 years (n = 40) and the control group (n = 40) included healthy children, with negative serological screening. Soluble superoxide dismutase 1 and 2, total antioxidant status, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, cortisol, melatonin and inflammatory parameters in plasma, 15-F2t-isoprostanes in urine, and DNA breaks in peripheral blood lymphocytes were analysed.

RESULTS

No differences were found in oxidative stress between CD patients and controls; however, IFN-γ, IL-1α, IP-10 and TNF-β were higher in the CD patients. VEGF was also higher than in the control group.

CONCLUSION

The GFD in the CD patients is enough to reduce the oxidative stress; however, in the case of the inflammatory signaling, the initial exposure to gluten prior to stablish the GFD is strong enough to induce an inflammatory state which is maintained (even when consuming the GFD); meanwhile the increase in VEGF recorded in the CD group could be a compensatory mechanism to restore the damaged mucosa and duodenal villous atrophy, due to its role in endothelial activation and generation of new functional and stable vascular networks.

Management of celiac disease in daily clinical practice

Celiac disease (CD) is the most common autoimmune enteropathy worldwide. In CD, dietary gluten triggers a T cell driven small intestinal inflammation in a subset of genetically predisposed subjects, expressing the HLA DQ2 and/or DQ8 genes on their antigen presenting cells. HLA DQ2/DQ8 can bind gluten peptides after their prior modification by the CD autoantigen, tissue transglutaminase (TG2). This process leads to the activation of gluten reactive T cells, small bowel villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasia and intraepithelial lymphocytosis, the histological hallmarks of CD. The clinical picture of CD is extremely heterogeneous including intestinal (especially diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating) and extraintestinal (especially associated autoimmune diseases, anemia, osteoporosis) manifestations. The prevalence of CD in most parts of the world is estimated at 1:100-1:150 and its diagnosis is based on the presence of circulating autoantibodies (anti-TG2) and the histological detection of villous atrophy. Treatment is a lifelong gluten free diet but adjunctive therapies are in development. Although CD is a well-characterized disease, it is grossly underdiagnosed, despite the severe consequences of long-term gluten ingestion in CD, such as enhanced autoimmunity, refractory CD and intestinal T cell lymphoma. The aim of the presented review is to provide a clinical guide and to summarize the most recent clinical progress in CD research.

Breaking bread!

Humankind has existed for 2·5 million years but only in the past 10 000 years have we been exposed to wheat. Therefore, it could be considered that wheat (gluten) is a novel introduction to humankind's diet! Prior to 1939, the rationing system had already been devised. This led to an imperative to try to increase agricultural production. Thus, it was agreed in 1941 that there was a need to establish a Nutrition Society. The very roots of the Society were geared towards necessarily increasing the production of wheat. This goal was achieved and by the end of the 20th century, global wheat output had expanded by 5-fold. Perhaps, as a result, the epidemiology of coeliac disease (CD) or gluten sensitive enteropathy has changed. CD now affects 1 % or more of all adults. Despite this, delays in diagnosis are common, for every adult patient diagnosed approximately three-four cases are undetected. This review explores humankind's relationship with gluten, wheat chemistry, the rising prevalence of modern CD and the new entity of non-coeliac gluten or wheat sensitivity. The nutritional interventions of a low fermentable oligo-, di- and mono-saccharides and polyols diet and gluten-free diet (GFD) for irritable bowel syndrome and the evidence to support this approach (including our own published work) are also reviewed. There appears to be a rising interest in the GFD as a 'lifestyler', 'free from' or 'clean eater' choice, causing concern. Restrictive diets may lead to potential nutritional implications, with long-term effects requiring further exploration.