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Calixto ES, de Oliveira Pimenta IC, Lange D, Marquis RJ, Torezan-Silingardi HM, Del-Claro K. Emerging Trends in Ant-Pollinator Conflict in Extrafloral Nectary-Bearing Plants. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:651. [PMID: 38475497 DOI: 10.3390/plants13050651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
The net outcomes of mutualisms are mediated by the trade-offs between the costs and benefits provided by both partners. Our review proposes the existence of a trade-off in ant protection mutualisms between the benefits generated by the ants' protection against the attack of herbivores and the losses caused by the disruption of pollination processes, which are commonly not quantified. This trade-off has important implications for understanding the evolution of extrafloral nectaries (EFNs), an adaptation that has repeatedly evolved throughout the flowering plant clade. We propose that the outcome of this trade-off is contingent on the specific traits of the organisms involved. We provide evidence that the protective mutualisms between ants and plants mediated by EFNs have optimal protective ant partners, represented by the optimum point of the balance between positive effects on plant protection and negative effects on pollination process. Our review also provides important details about a potential synergism of EFN functionality; that is, these structures can attract ants to protect against herbivores and/or distract them from flowers so as not to disrupt pollination processes. Finally, we argue that generalizations regarding how ants impact plants should be made with caution since ants' effects on plants vary with the identity of the ant species in their overall net outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Denise Lange
- Department of Biology, Federal University of Technology-Parana, Campus Santa Helena, Santa Helena, Curitiba 80230-901, PR, Brazil
| | - Robert J Marquis
- Department of Biology and the Whitney R. Harris World Ecology Center, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA
| | - Helena Maura Torezan-Silingardi
- Postgraduation Program in Entomology, Department of Biology, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-900, SP, Brazil
- Institute of Biology, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia 38405-240, MG, Brazil
| | - Kleber Del-Claro
- Postgraduation Program in Entomology, Department of Biology, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-900, SP, Brazil
- Institute of Biology, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia 38405-240, MG, Brazil
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Dong H, Huang X, Gao Q, Li S, Yang S, Chen F. Research Progress on the Species and Diversity of Ants and Their Three Tropisms. INSECTS 2023; 14:892. [PMID: 37999091 PMCID: PMC10672356 DOI: 10.3390/insects14110892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Ants are one of the largest insect groups, with the most species and individuals in the world, and they have an important ecological function. Ants are not only an important part of the food chains but are also one of the main decomposers on the Earth; they can also improve soil fertility, etc. However, some species of ants are harmful to human beings, which leads to people's panic or worry about coming into contact with these insects during their daily home life or in their tourism or leisure activities. The presence of ants in indoor living facilities and in outdoor green spaces, parks, gardens, and tourist attractions seriously interferes with the leisure life and entertainment activities of all people (especially children). How can we control ants in these environments? Do we kill them by spraying insecticides, or do we adopt green prevention and control technology for the ecological management of ants? This topic is related to healthy life for the public and the protection of the ecological environment. In this paper, the species and diversity of ants are introduced, and research progress regarding ant tropism is introduced according to the three aspects of phototaxis, chromotaxis, and chemotaxis (i.e., "3-tropisms"). The research on repellent substances from plants and insects and the related ant attractants are also summarized, analyzed, and discussed, in order to help the research and application of green prevention and control technology for ant diversity protection and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hejie Dong
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.D.); (X.H.); (Q.G.); (S.Y.)
| | - Xinyi Huang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.D.); (X.H.); (Q.G.); (S.Y.)
| | - Qingqing Gao
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.D.); (X.H.); (Q.G.); (S.Y.)
| | - Sihan Li
- College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China;
| | - Shanglin Yang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.D.); (X.H.); (Q.G.); (S.Y.)
| | - Fajun Chen
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.D.); (X.H.); (Q.G.); (S.Y.)
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Pan L, Gao W, Liu X, Qin D, Zhang T, Ren R, Zhang W, Sun M, Gao C, Bai P, You W, Zhu G, Li M. Parasitoids as taxonomists: how does the parasitoid Chouioia cunea distinguish between a host and a non-host? PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2023; 79:4547-4556. [PMID: 37427488 DOI: 10.1002/ps.7656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND How parasitoids distinguish hosts from non-hosts remains an unknown question. Chouioia cunea Yang (Eulophidae) is an important fall webworm parasitoid that attacks many forest and agricultural pests. To study the differences in the chemical clues used by C. cunea to distinguish host and non-host plants, we used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify volatile compounds of two C. cunea hosts (Hyphantria cunea and Helicoverpa armigera) and two non-hosts (Spodoptera exigua and Spodoptera frugiperda). Additionally, we used behavioral assays to compare the attraction of C. cunea to various compounds. RESULTS The two natural host species were more attractive than the two non-host species, in the following order: Hyphantria cunea > Helicoverpa armigera > S. exigua = S. frugiperda. The pupae of the natural hosts contained 1-dodecene, which was not produced by the two natural non-hosts. When the 'attractants' based on the difference between the species-specific blend emitted by pupae and the optimal blend were sprayed onto the natural non-host pupae, they significantly improved the attraction of C. cunea to the non-host pupae. CONCLUSION These results revealed that specific host-produced volatile compounds guide C. cunea to distinguish between natural hosts and non-hosts. Overall, this study provides a foundation for developing a behavior-modifying strategy to re-direct C. cunea attacks to control important non-host pests. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Pan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Wenfang Gao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xinyu Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Dongyu Qin
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Tiantian Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Rui Ren
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Weiyi Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Meidi Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Cuiqing Gao
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Penghua Bai
- Institute of Plant Protection, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Wei You
- Institute of Landscape Science and Technology, Baotou, China
| | - Gengping Zhu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Min Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Animal Diversity, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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Kantsa A, Garcia JE, Raguso RA, Dyer AG, Steen R, Tscheulin T, Petanidou T. Intrafloral patterns of color and scent in Capparis spinosa L. and the ghosts of its selection past. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2023; 110:e16098. [PMID: 36371789 PMCID: PMC10108209 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.16098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Capparis spinosa is a widespread charismatic plant, in which the nocturnal floral habit contrasts with the high visitation by diurnal bees and the pronounced scarcity of hawkmoths. To resolve this discrepancy and elucidate floral evolution of C. spinosa, we analyzed the intrafloral patterns of visual and olfactory cues in relation to the known sensory biases of the different visitor guilds (bees, butterflies, and hawkmoths). METHODS We measured the intrafloral variation of scent, reflectance spectra, and colorimetric properties according to three guilds of known visitors of C. spinosa. Additionally, we sampled visitation rates using a motion-activated camera. RESULTS Carpenter bees visited the flowers eight times more frequently than nocturnal hawkmoths, at dusk and in the following morning. Yet, the floral headspace of C. spinosa contained a typical sphingophilous scent with high emission rates of certain monoterpenes and amino-acid derived compounds. Visual cues included a special case of multisensory nectar guide and color patterns conspicuous to the visual systems of both hawkmoths and bees. CONCLUSIONS The intrafloral patterns of sensory stimuli suggest that hawkmoths have exerted strong historical selection on C. spinosa. Our study revealed two interesting paradoxes: (a) the flowers phenotypically biased towards the more inconsistent pollinator; and (b) floral display demands an abundance of resources that seems maladaptive in the habitats of C. spinosa. The transition to a binary pollination system accommodating large bees has not required phenotypic changes, owing to specific eco-physiological adaptations, unrelated to pollination, which make this plant an unusual case in pollination ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aphrodite Kantsa
- Department of GeographyUniversity of the AegeanMytileneGreece
- Present address:
Department of Environmental Systems ScienceETH ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - Jair E. Garcia
- Bio‐Inspired Digital Sensing Laboratory, School of Media and CommunicationRMIT UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Robert A. Raguso
- Department of Neurobiology and BehaviorCornell University, IthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Adrian G. Dyer
- Bio‐Inspired Digital Sensing Laboratory, School of Media and CommunicationRMIT UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of PhysiologyMonash UniversityClaytonAustralia
- Present address:
Department of Developmental Biology and NeurobiologyJohannes Gutenberg UniversityMainzGermany
| | - Ronny Steen
- Department of Ecology and Natural Resource ManagementNorwegian University of Life SciencesÅsNorway
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Renyard A, Gries R, Cooper SL, Gooding CE, Breen JC, Alamsetti SK, Munoz A, Gries G. Floral and Bird Excreta Semiochemicals Attract Western Carpenter Ants. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.923871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ant colonies have vast and diverse nutritional needs but forager ants have limited mobility to meet these needs. Forager ants would accrue significant energy savings if they were able to sense and orient toward odor plumes of both carbohydrate and protein food sources. Moreover, if worker ants, like other flightless insects, had reduced olfactory acuity, they would not recognize the specific odor signatures of diverse carbohydrate and protein sources, but they may be able to orient toward those odorants that are shared between (macronutrient) food sources. Using the Western carpenter ant, Camponotus modoc, as a model species, we tested the hypotheses that (1) food sources rich in carbohydrates (aphid honeydew, floral nectar) and rich in proteins (bird excreta, house mouse carrion, cow liver infested or not with fly maggots) all prompt long-distance, anemotactic attraction of worker ants, and (2) attraction of ants to plant inflorescences (fireweed, Chamaenerion angustifolium; thimbleberry, Rubus parviflorus; and hardhack, Spiraea douglasii) is mediated by shared floral odorants. In moving-air Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, ants were attracted to two of four carbohydrate sources (thimbleberry and fireweed), and one of four protein sources (bird excreta). Headspace volatiles of these three attractive sources were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and synthetic odor blends of thimbleberry (7 components), fireweed (23 components), and bird excreta (38 components) were prepared. In Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, synthetic blends of thimbleberry and fireweed but not of bird excreta attracted ants, indicating that only the two floral blends contained all essential attractants. A blend of components shared between thimbleberry and fireweed was not attractive to ants. Our data support the conclusion that C. modoc worker ants can sense and orient toward both carbohydrate and protein food sources. As ants were selective in their responses to carbohydrate and protein resources, it seems that they can discern between specific food odor profiles and that they have good, rather than poor, olfactory acuity.
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Villamil N, Boege K, Stone GN. Defensive mutualists affect outcross pollen transfer and male fitness in their host plant. OIKOS 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.08788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nora Villamil
- Inst. of Evolutionary Biology, Univ. of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, The King's Buildings Edinburgh UK
- Dept of Ecology and Evolution, Univ. de Lausanne Biophore Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Karina Boege
- Inst. de Ecología, Univ. Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria Ciudad De México México
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Inst. of Evolutionary Biology, Univ. of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, The King's Buildings Edinburgh UK
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Huang Y, Xie FJ, Cao X, Li MY. Research progress in biosynthesis and regulation of plant terpenoids. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2021.2020162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Linyi University, Linyi, Shandong, PR China
| | - Fang-Jie Xie
- Department of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Xue Cao
- Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Linyi University, Linyi, Shandong, PR China
| | - Meng-Yao Li
- Department of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, PR China
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Gorb EV, Gorb SN. Combined Effect of Different Flower Stem Features on the Visiting Frequency of the Generalist Ant Lasius niger: An Experimental Study. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12111026. [PMID: 34821826 PMCID: PMC8623630 DOI: 10.3390/insects12111026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Flowering plants usually attract insect pollinators by offering them nectar, pollen or other energetically valuable sources. To deter ants, which are unreliable pollinators and can act as nectar thieves, plants have developed different systems either inside the flowers or associated with the stems. The latter one, called greasy pole syndrome, is based on the combined effect of several stem features hampering the access of ants to the apically located flowers. In this study, we examined the effects of different flower stem features in the round-leaved Alexanders Smyrnium rotundifolium on the visiting frequency of the generalist ant species, the black garden ant Lasius niger. We conducted the experiments with ants running on dry wooden sticks mimicking four different types of stems. To attract ants, we placed a sweet sugar syrup droplet on a stick tip. Ants visited different types of stem-mimicking sticks with significantly different frequencies. The highest number of insects were registered on untreated stick samples, whereas the lowest visiting frequency was observed on sticks bearing cuff-like structures (serving as macroscopic physical barriers) covered with a nano/microparticle film, which caused the slipperiness of the surface. Thus, by combining macroscopic obstacles and slippery surfaces, plants can protect their flowers from undesirable crawling visitors such as ants. Abstract In order to understand the effects of the morphology and surface texture of flower stems in Smyrnium rotundifolium on the visiting frequency of generalist ants, we conducted experiments with Lasius niger ants running on dry wooden sticks mimicking different types of stems: (1) intact (grooved) sticks; (2) sticks painted with slaked (hydrated) lime (calcium carbonate coverage) imitating plant epicuticular wax coverage; (3) intact sticks with smooth polyester plate-shaped cuffs imitating upper leaves; and (4) intact sticks bearing cuffs painted with slaked lime. Ants were attracted by the sweet sugar syrup droplets placed on a stick tip, and the number of ants visiting the drops was counted. Our data showed significant differences in the visiting frequencies between the different types of stem-mimicking samples. The number of recorded ants progressively decreased in the following order of samples: intact sticks—painted sticks—sticks with intact cuffs—sticks with painted cuffs. These results clearly demonstrated that micro/nanoscopic surface coverages and macroscopic physical barriers, especially if combined, have a negative impact on the attractiveness of stems to ants. This study provides further evidence for the hypothesis that having a diversity of plant stems in the field, generalist ants prefer substrates where their locomotion is less hindered by obstacles and/or surface slipperiness.
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Native and invasive ants affect floral visits of pollinating honey bees in pumpkin flowers (Cucurbita maxima). Sci Rep 2021; 11:4781. [PMID: 33637774 PMCID: PMC7910286 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83902-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Global pollinator decline is a major concern. Several factors-climate change, land-use change, the reduction of flowers, pesticide use, and invasive species-have been suggested as the reasons. Despite being a potential reason, the effect of ants on flowers received less attention. The consequences of ants being attracted to nectar sources in plants vary depending upon factors like the nectar source's position, ants' identity, and other mutualists interacting with the plants. We studied the interaction between flower-visiting ants and pollinators in Cucurbita maxima and compared the competition exerted by native and invasive ants on its pollinators to examine the hypothesis that the invasive ants exacerbate more interference competition to pollinators than the native ants. We assessed the pollinator's choice, visitation rate, and time spent/visit on the flowers. Regardless of species and nativity, ants negatively influenced all the pollinator visitation traits, such as visitation rate and duration spent on flowers. The invasive ants exerted a higher interference competition on the pollinators than the native ants did. Despite performing pollination in flowers with generalist pollination syndrome, ants can threaten plant-pollinator mutualism in specialist plants like monoecious plants. A better understanding of factors influencing pollination will help in implementing better management practices.
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Takeda K, Kadokawa T, Kawakita A. Slippery flowers as a mechanism of defence against nectar-thieving ants. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2021; 127:231-239. [PMID: 33410906 PMCID: PMC7789111 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcaa168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The great diversity of floral characteristics among animal-pollinated plants is commonly understood to be the result of coevolutionary interactions between plants and pollinators. Floral antagonists, such as nectar thieves, also have the potential to exert an influence upon the selection of floral characteristics, but adaptation against floral antagonists has attracted comparatively little attention. We found that the corollas of hornet-pollinated Codonopsis lanceolata (Campanulaceae) and the tepals of bee-pollinated Fritillaria koidzumiana (Liliaceae) are slippery to nectar-thieving ants living in the plant's habitat; because the flowers of both species have exposed nectaries, slippery perianths may function as a defence against nectar-thieving ants. METHODS We conducted a behavioural experiment and observed perianth surface microstructure by scanning electron microscopy to investigate the mechanism of slipperiness. Field experiments were conducted to test whether slippery perianths prevent floral entry by ants, and whether ant presence inside flowers affects pollination. KEY RESULTS Scanning electron microscopy observations indicated that the slippery surfaces were coated with epicuticular wax crystals. The perianths lost their slipperiness when wiped with hexane. Artificial bridging of the slippery surfaces using non-slippery materials allowed ants to enter flowers more frequently. Experimental introduction of live ants to the Codonopsis flowers evicted hornet pollinators and shortened the duration of pollinator visits. However, no statistical differences were found in the fruit or seed sets of flowers with and without ants. CONCLUSIONS Slippery perianths, most probably based on epicuticular wax crystals, prevent floral entry by ants that negatively affect pollinator behaviour. Experimental evidence of floral defence based on slippery surfaces is rare, but such a mode of defence may be widespread amongst flowering plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Takeda
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Otsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Tomoki Kadokawa
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kawakita
- The Botanical Gardens, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Zhou S, Han C, Zhang C, Kuchkarova N, Wei C, Zhang C, Shao H. Allelopathic, Phytotoxic, and Insecticidal Effects of Thymus proximus Serg. Essential Oil and Its Major Constituents. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:689875. [PMID: 34211492 PMCID: PMC8239391 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.689875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The chemical profile of Thymus proximus essential oil (EO) and its allelopathic, phytotoxic, and insecticidal activity was evaluated. Carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene were detected as the major components of the EO, representing 85.9% of the total oil. About 50 g fresh plant material of T. proximus in a 1.5-L air tight container completely inhibited the seed germination of Amaranthus retroflexus and Poa anuua. Meanwhile, the EO exhibited potent phytotoxic activity, which resulted in 100% germination failure of both the test species when 2 mg/ml (for A. retroflexus) and 5 mg/ml (for Poa annua) oil was applied. The EO also triggered a significant insecticidal activity on Aphis gossypii with a LC50 value of 6.34 ppm. Carvacrol was identified as the main active compound responsible for both the plant suppressing effect and the insecticidal activity of the EO. Our study is the first on the allelopathic, phytotoxic, and insecticidal activity of T. proximus EO, and the determination of the responsible compound, which indicated their potential of being further explored as environment friendly biopesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shixing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Caixia Han
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
| | - Chenpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nigora Kuchkarova
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
| | - Caixia Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chi Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water and Soil Conservation and Environmental Protection, College of Resources and Environment, Linyi University, Linyi, China
- *Correspondence: Chi Zhang
| | - Hua Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ürümqi, China
- Hua Shao
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Erős K, Maák I, Markó B, Babik H, Ślipiński P, Nicoară R, Czechowski W. Competitive pressure by territorials promotes the utilization of unusual food source by subordinate ants in temperate European woodlands. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2020.1753116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Erős
- Hungarian Department of Biology and Ecology, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - István Maák
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bálint Markó
- Hungarian Department of Biology and Ecology, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Hanna Babik
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Ślipiński
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Roxana Nicoară
- Department of Ecology, Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, Institute of Biology Bucharest, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania
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Delnevo N, van Etten EJ, Clemente N, Fogu L, Pavarani E, Byrne M, Stock WD. Pollen adaptation to ant pollination: a case study from the Proteaceae. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2020; 126:377-386. [PMID: 32227077 PMCID: PMC7424750 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcaa058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Ant-plant associations are widely diverse and distributed throughout the world, leading to antagonistic and/or mutualistic interactions. Ant pollination is a rare mutualistic association and reports of ants as effective pollinators are limited to a few studies. Conospermum (Proteaceae) is an insect-pollinated genus well represented in the south-western Australia biodiversity hotspot, and here we aimed to evaluate the role of ants as pollinators of C. undulatum. METHODS Pollen germination after contact with several species of ants and bees was tested for C. undulatum and five co-flowering species for comparison. We then sampled the pollen load of floral visitors of C. undulatum to assess whether ants carried a pollen load sufficient to enable pollination. Lastly, we performed exclusion treatments to assess the relative effect of flying- and non-flying-invertebrate floral visitors on the reproduction of C. undulatum. For this, we measured the seed set under different conditions: ants exclusion, flying-insects exclusion and control. KEY RESULTS Pollen of C. undulatum, along with the other Conospermum species, had a germination rate after contact with ants of ~80 % which did not differ from the effect of bees; in contrast, the other plant species tested showed a drop in the germination rate to ~10 % following ant treatments. Although ants were generalist visitors, they carried a pollen load with 68-86 % of suitable grains. Moreover, ants significantly contributed to the seed set of C. undulatum. CONCLUSIONS Our study highlights the complexity of ant-flower interactions and suggests that generalizations neglecting the importance of ants as pollinators cannot be made. Conospermum undulatum has evolved pollen with resistance to the negative effect of ant secretions on pollen grains, with ants providing effective pollination services to this threatened species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Delnevo
- Centre for Ecosystem Management, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Eddie J van Etten
- Centre for Ecosystem Management, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Nicola Clemente
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Luna Fogu
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Evelina Pavarani
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Margaret Byrne
- Biodiversity and Conservation Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Bentley Delivery Centre, Bentley, WA, Australia
| | - William D Stock
- Centre for Ecosystem Management, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
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Benvenuti S, Mazzoncini M, Cioni PL, Flamini G. Wildflower-pollinator interactions: Which phytochemicals are involved? Basic Appl Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2020.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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15
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Pereira IF, Costa APFD, Srbek-Araujo AC, Guimarães LJ, Merencio AF, Silva AGD. The Dispersion of Diaspores of Protium icicariba (Burseraceae) - a Networked or Multifactorial System? J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:163-175. [PMID: 32026207 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-019-01140-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The adaptive radiation of the angiosperms was strongly affected by fruit and seed dispersal since the establishment of the seedlings is a fundamental process for the recruitment of juveniles to the populations. Among the species of Burseraceae, seeds with fleshy attachments and high caloric value suggest mammaliochory as an ancestral dispersal way. In Protium icicariba, at the same time as there is a visual pattern typical of ornithochory, with a report of effective demonstration, the diaspores present the highest levels of essential oils of the whole plant, suggesting other dispersion processes by olfactory guided vectors. This work aims to monitor the diasporic dispersal process in P. icicariba in situ, aiming to identify dispersers and to investigate the role of the essential oil in the dispersion of diaspores of this plant species. The natural dispersion was monitored in situ, in weekly campaigns throughout eight months, using visual and photographic records, in daily shifts of six hours, distributed along the dawn, morning, afternoon, dusk, and night. We used both direct observation and continuous picture capturing along 43 days with photographic traps. Mature diaspores removed from pseudocapsules were pooled to determine potential dispersers. Artificial models of the diaspores, in white and green colors, were also used to test hypotheses on the role of scent in the dispersion, added 1%, weight/weight, of the essential oil extracted from the mature diaspores, which chemical composition determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Besides, the analysis of stomach contents of lizards collected in adjacent area was also performed. In daytime and nighttime monitoring in nature, no vertebrates were recorded dispersing diaspores. The most common was the primary wind-facilitated autochory of diaspores to the substrate, near the plant matrices. Secondarily, workers of the ant species Atta robusta can remove the pseudoarils or move the pyrenes to the anthills. The lizard species Tropidurus torquatus ingests pyrenes with the pseudoarils, and the sclerified pericarp of the pyrene is potentially resistant to chemical action of the digestive juices. Ants and lizards have also accessed the caves with natural diaspores. Concerning the artificial diaspore models, ants accessed, indistinctly, white and the green models that contained essential oils. The lizards accessed the white models, with or without essential oils, and showed insignificant access to green ones, with or without essential oil. The ingestion of pyrenes by lizards was also confirmed through analysis of stomach contents. The aggregate spatial pattern of P. icicariba at the study site, associated with clumps, may be derived from germination in the substrate near the matrices, or in the anthills or after diaspora defecation and / or regurgitation of the lizard, which is a species strongly associated with clumps of this vegetation. As the access to the diaspores by ants and lizards depends on the primary autochory, and no impediments to the germination near to the matrix plant were found, the dispersion is compatible with a multifactorial characteristic of the diplochory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izalnei Feres Pereira
- Laboratório de Ecologia Funcional. Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha - UVV, Rua Mercúrio, s/n, Boa Vista 1, Vila Velha, ES, 29102-623, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Ferreira da Costa
- Laboratório de Ecologia Funcional. Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha - UVV, Rua Mercúrio, s/n, Boa Vista 1, Vila Velha, ES, 29102-623, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Srbek-Araujo
- Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação de Biodiversidade, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha - UVV, Rua Comissário José Dantas de Melo, n° 21, Boa Vista. 29, Vila Velha, ES, 102-920, Brazil.,Instituto SerraDiCal de Pesquisa e Conservação, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Lílian Jardim Guimarães
- Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação de Biodiversidade, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha - UVV, Rua Comissário José Dantas de Melo, n° 21, Boa Vista. 29, Vila Velha, ES, 102-920, Brazil
| | - André Falcão Merencio
- Laboratório de Ecologia Funcional. Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia Vegetal, Universidade Vila Velha - UVV, Rua Mercúrio, s/n, Boa Vista 1, Vila Velha, ES, 29102-623, Brazil
| | - Ary Gomes da Silva
- Gerência de Pesquisa, Desenvolvimento e Inovação, Instituto Capixaba de Pesquisa, Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural - Incaper, R. Afonso Sarlo, 160, Bento Ferreira, Vitória, ES, Brazil.
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16
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Hammerbacher A, Coutinho TA, Gershenzon J. Roles of plant volatiles in defence against microbial pathogens and microbial exploitation of volatiles. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2019; 42:2827-2843. [PMID: 31222757 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plants emit a large variety of volatile organic compounds during infection by pathogenic microbes, including terpenes, aromatics, nitrogen-containing compounds, and fatty acid derivatives, as well as the volatile plant hormones, methyl jasmonate, and methyl salicylate. Given the general antimicrobial activity of plant volatiles and the timing of emission following infection, these compounds have often been assumed to function in defence against pathogens without much solid evidence. In this review, we critically evaluate current knowledge on the toxicity of volatiles to fungi, bacteria, and viruses and their role in plant resistance as well as how they act to induce systemic resistance in uninfected parts of the plant and in neighbouring plants. We also discuss how microbes can detoxify plant volatiles and exploit them as nutrients, attractants for insect vectors, and inducers of volatile emissions, which stimulate immune responses that make plants more susceptible to infection. Although much more is known about plant volatile-herbivore interactions, knowledge of volatile-microbe interactions is growing and it may eventually be possible to harness plant volatiles to reduce disease in agriculture and forestry. Future research in this field can be facilitated by making use of the analytical and molecular tools generated by the prolific research on plant-herbivore interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almuth Hammerbacher
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Teresa A Coutinho
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Centre for Microbial Ecology and Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, 07745, Germany
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17
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Villamil N, Boege K, Stone GN. Testing the Distraction Hypothesis: Do extrafloral nectaries reduce ant-pollinator conflict? THE JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2019; 107:1377-1391. [PMID: 31217634 PMCID: PMC6559321 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.13135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ant guards protect plants from herbivores, but can also hinder pollination by damaging reproductive structures and/or repelling pollinators. Natural selection should favour the evolution of plant traits that deter ants from visiting flowers during anthesis, without waiving their defensive services. The Distraction Hypothesis posits that rewarding ants with extrafloral nectar could reduce their visitation of flowers, reducing ant-pollinator conflict while retaining protection of other structures.We characterised the proportion of flowers occupied by ants and the number of ants per flower in a Mexican ant-plant, Turnera velutina. We clogged extrafloral nectaries on field plants and observed the effects on patrolling ants, pollinators and ants inside flowers, and quantified the effects on plant fitness. Based on the Distraction Hypothesis, we predicted that preventing extrafloral nectar secretion should result in fewer ants active at extrafloral nectaries, more ants inside flowers and a higher proportion of flowers occupied by ants, leading to ant-pollinator conflict, with reduced pollinator visitation and reduced plant fitness.Overall ant activity inside flowers was low. Preventing extrafloral nectar secretion through clogging reduced the number of ants patrolling extrafloral nectaries, significantly increased the proportion of flowers occupied by ants from 6.1% to 9.7%, and reduced plant reproductive output through a 12% increase in the probability of fruit abortion. No change in the numbers of ants or pollinators inside flowers was observed. This is the first support for the Distraction Hypothesis obtained under field conditions, showing ecological and plant fitness benefits of the distracting function of extrafloral nectar during anthesis. Synthesis. Our study provides the first field experimental support for the Distraction Hypothesis, suggesting that extrafloral nectaries located close to flowers may bribe ants away from reproductive structures during the crucial pollination period, reducing the probability of ant occupation of flowers, reducing ant-pollinator conflict and increasing plant reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Villamil
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Karina Boege
- Instituto de Ecología, Departamento de Ecología EvolutivaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoCiudad de MéxicoMexico
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
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18
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Nelson AS, Carvajal Acosta N, Mooney KA. Plant chemical mediation of ant behavior. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 32:98-103. [PMID: 31113639 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ants are ecologically dominant members of terrestrial communities. Ant foraging is often strongly associated with plants and depends upon associative learning of chemicals in the environment. As a result, plant chemicals can affect ant behaviors and, in so doing, have strong multi-trophic indirect effects. Plant chemicals mediate ant behaviors in the contexts of floral visitation, seed dispersal and predation, leaf cutting, interactions with ant-mutualist host plants, interactions with mutualist and prey insects in plant canopies, and plant predation of ants by carnivorous plants. Here, we review what is known about these differing contexts in which plant chemicals influence ant behavior, the mechanisms by which ants are affected by plant chemicals, and future directions within these topics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika S Nelson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, United States; Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, PO Box 319, Crested Butte, CO 81224, United States
| | - Nalleli Carvajal Acosta
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Kailen A Mooney
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, United States; Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, PO Box 319, Crested Butte, CO 81224, United States.
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19
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Villamil N, Boege K, Stone GN. Ant-Pollinator Conflict Results in Pollinator Deterrence but no Nectar Trade-Offs. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1093. [PMID: 30154806 PMCID: PMC6102506 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Direct and indirect negative interactions between ant guards and pollinators on ant-plants are expected for two reasons. First, aggressive ants may deter pollinators directly. Second, pollinators benefit from plant investment in reproduction whilst ants benefit from plant investment in indirect defense, and resource allocation trade-offs between these functions could lead to indirect conflict. We explored the potential for ant-pollinator conflict in a Mexican myrmecophile, Turnera velutina, which rewards ants with extrafloral nectar and pollinators with floral nectar. We characterized the daily timing of ant and pollinator activity on the plant and used experiments to test for direct and indirect conflict between these two groups of mutualists. We tested for direct conflict by quantifying pollinator responses to flowers containing dead specimens of aggressive ant species, relative to unoccupied control flowers. We assessed indirect conflict by testing for the existence of a trade-off in sugar allocation between ant and pollinator rewards, evidenced by an increase in floral nectar secretion when extrafloral nectar secretion was prevented. Secretion of floral and extrafloral nectar, activity of ants and pollinators, and pollen deposition all overlapped in daily time and peaked within the first 2 h after flowers opened. We found evidence of direct conflict, in that presence of ants inside the flowers altered pollinator behavior and reduced visit duration, although visit frequency was unchanged. We found no evidence for indirect conflict, with no significant difference in the volume or sugar content of floral nectar between control plants and those in which extrafloral nectar secretion was prevented. The presence of ants in flowers alters pollinator behavior in ways that are likely to affect pollination dynamics, though there is no apparent trade-off between plant investment in nectar rewards for pollinators and ant guards. Further studies are required to quantify the effect of the natural abundance of ants in flowers on pollinator behavior, and any associated impacts on plant reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Villamil
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Karina Boege
- Instituto de Ecología, Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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20
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Sánchez-González B, Barja I, Piñeiro A, Hernández-González MC, Silván G, Illera JC, Latorre R. Support vector machines for explaining physiological stress response in Wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). Sci Rep 2018; 8:2562. [PMID: 29416078 PMCID: PMC5803235 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20646-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological stress response is a crucial adaptive mechanism for prey species survival. This paper aims to identify the main environmental and/or individual factors better explaining the stress response in Wood mice, Apodemus sylvaticus. We analyzed alterations in fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FCM) concentration - extensively used as an accurate measure of the physiological stress response - of wild mice fecal samples seasonally collected during three years. Then, support vector machines were built to predict said concentration according to different stressors. These statistical tools appear to be particularly suitable for small datasets with substantial number of dimensions, corroborating that the stress response is an extremely complex process in which multiple factors can simultaneously partake in a context-dependent manner, i.e., the role of each potential stressor varies in time depending on other stressors. However, air-humidity, temperature and body-weight allowed us to explain the FCM fluctuation in 98% of our samples. The relevance of air-humidity and temperature altering FCM level could be linked to the presence of an abundant vegetation cover and, therefore, to food availability and predation risk perception. Body-weight might be related to the stress produced by reproduction and other intraspecific relationships such as social dominance or territorial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Sánchez-González
- Departamento de Biología, Unidad de Zoología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, c/Darwin 2, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Barja
- Departamento de Biología, Unidad de Zoología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, c/Darwin 2, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Piñeiro
- Departamento de Biología, Unidad de Zoología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, c/Darwin 2, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago de Chile, Chile
| | - M Carmen Hernández-González
- Departamento de Biología, Unidad de Zoología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, c/Darwin 2, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema Silván
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Illera
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto Latorre
- Departamento de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
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Schiestl FP. Innate Receiver Bias: Its Role in the Ecology and Evolution of Plant–Animal Interactions. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2017. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-023039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Receiver bias in plant–animal interactions is here defined as “selection mediated by behavioral responses of animals, where those responses have evolved in a context outside the interactions.” As a consequence, the responses are not necessarily linked to fitness gains in interacting animals. Thus, receiver bias can help explain seemingly maladaptive patterns of behavior in interacting animals and the evolution of plant traits that trigger such behavior. In this review, I discuss principles of receiver bias, show its overlap with mimicry and how it differs from mimicry, and outline examples in different plant–animal interactions. The most numerous and best documented examples of receiver bias occur within plant–pollinator interactions. I elaborate on the ability of some plants to heat up their flowers (i.e., floral thermogenesis) and argue that this trait likely evolved under receiver bias, especially in pollination systems with oviposition mimicry. Further examples include signals in insect-mediated seed dispersal and plant defense through repellence of aphids. These examples show that receiver bias is widespread in different plant–animal interactions. For a broader understanding of the role of receiver bias in those interactions, we need more data on how animals respond to plant signals, the context and evolutionary history of those behaviors, and the evolutionary patterns of plant signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian P. Schiestl
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zürich, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland
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22
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Zhu G, Pan L, Zhao Y, Zhang X, Wang F, Yu Y, Fan W, Liu Q, Zhang S, Li M. Chemical investigations of volatile kairomones produced by Hyphantria cunea (Drury), a host of the parasitoid Chouioia cunea Yang. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2017; 107:234-240. [PMID: 27628497 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485316000833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In tritrophic 'plants-herbivores-natural enemies' systems, there are relatively few reports concerning the role(s) of kairomones in pupal parasitism. Chouioia cunea Yang (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), an endoparasitic chalcid wasp, parasitizes pupae of the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury). The role of host-related kairomones was investigated using electroantennogram (EAG) and behavioral techniques. Chemicals from some host stages (pupae) and host by-products (frass), induced arrestment behavior of female parasitoids, while chemicals from prepupae, were inactive. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of volatiles collected from pupae, frass and prepupae using solid-phase microextration revealed seven compounds with carbon chain lengths ranging from C4 to C20. All of the chemicals elicited significant EAG responses in C. cunea. Y-tube olfactometer bioassays demonstrated a significant positive response of mated female C. cunea to 1-dodecene. These data provide a better understanding of the host location mechanisms of pupal parasitoid.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Zhu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - L Pan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - Y Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - X Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - F Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - Y Yu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - W Fan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - Q Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
| | - S Zhang
- Natural Enemy Breeding Center of Luohe Central South Forestry,Henan 462000,China
| | - M Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance,Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300387,China
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23
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Amrad A, Moser M, Mandel T, de Vries M, Schuurink RC, Freitas L, Kuhlemeier C. Gain and Loss of Floral Scent Production through Changes in Structural Genes during Pollinator-Mediated Speciation. Curr Biol 2016; 26:3303-3312. [PMID: 27916524 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The interactions of plants with their pollinators are thought to be a driving force in the evolution of angiosperms. Adaptation to a new pollinator involves coordinated changes in multiple floral traits controlled by multiple genes. Surprisingly, such complex genetic shifts have happened numerous times during evolution. Here we report on the genetic basis of the changes in one such trait, floral scent emission, in the genus Petunia (Solanaceae). The increase in the quantity and complexity of the volatiles during the shift from bee to hawkmoth pollination was due to de novo expression of the genes encoding benzoic acid/salicylic acid carboxyl methyltransferase (BSMT) and benzoyl-CoA:benzylalcohol/2-phenylethanol benzoyltransferase (BPBT) together with moderately increased transcript levels for most enzymes of the phenylpropanoid/benzenoid pathway. Loss of cinnamate-CoA ligase (CNL) function as well as a reduction in the expression of the MYB transcription factor ODO1 explain the loss of scent during the transition from moth to hummingbird pollination. The CNL gene in the hummingbird-adapted species is inactive due to a stop codon, but also appears to have undergone further degradation over time. Therefore, we propose that loss of scent happened relatively early in the transition toward hummingbird pollination, and probably preceded the loss of UV-absorbing flavonols. The discovery that CNL is also involved in the loss of scent during the transition from outcrossing to selfing in Capsella (Brassicaceae) (see the accompanying paper) raises interesting questions about the possible causes of deep evolutionary conservation of the targets of evolutionary change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avichai Amrad
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, 3013 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michel Moser
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, 3013 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Therese Mandel
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, 3013 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michel de Vries
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Robert C Schuurink
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Loreta Freitas
- Laboratory of Molecular Evolution, Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, P.O. Box 15053, Avenida Bento Goncalves, 9500 Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Cris Kuhlemeier
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, 3013 Bern, Switzerland.
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Cai J, Zu P, Schiestl FP. The molecular bases of floral scent evolution under artificial selection: insights from a transcriptome analysis in Brassica rapa. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36966. [PMID: 27841366 PMCID: PMC5107913 DOI: 10.1038/srep36966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In an artificial selection experiment using fast-cycling Brassica rapa plants it was recently shown that floral VOCs respond rapidly to selection for increased amounts. Here we carried out transcriptome analysis in these plants to explore the molecular bases of the augmentation in the artificially selected scent compound, phenylacetaldehyde (PAA), as well as other compounds that increased through pleiotropy. In the transcriptome data, we found up-regulation of genes likely underlying PAA synthesis, but also several genes of the shikimate pathway and the related phenylalanine metabolism. As phenylalanine is the precursor of many aromatic volatiles that showed increased emission, this result could explain some of the pleiotropic evolutionary responses. In addition, we found that ribosomal protein genes were up-regulated in “high” (high PAA amount) selection line plants, a mechanism that might further augment the effect of elevated gene expression at the proteomic level. Our study shows that selection on an individual trait can impose changes in the expression of several different genes, which could explain pleiotropic responses in the biosynthetic network of floral volatiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Pengjuan Zu
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Florian P Schiestl
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland
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Marques I, Jürgens A, Aguilar JF, Feliner GN. Convergent recruitment of new pollinators is triggered by independent hybridization events in Narcissus. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:731-742. [PMID: 26738752 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Hybridization can generate new species if some degree of isolation prevents gene flow between the hybrids and their progenitors. The recruitment of novel pollinators by hybrids has been hypothesized to be one way in which such reproductive isolation can be achieved. We tested whether pollinators contributed to isolation between two natural Narcissus hybrids and their progenitors using pollination experiments, observations, plus morphological and floral-volatile measurements. These hybrids share the same maternal but different paternal progenitors. We found that only the hybrids were visited by and pollinated by ants. The two hybrids exceeded their progenitors in floral-tube aperture size and nectar production. The emission of floral volatiles by hybrid plants was not only equal to or higher than the progenitor species, but also contained some new compounds not produced by the progenitors. The recruitment of ants as novel pollinators in the hybrids involved the combination of increased nectar secretion and the production of novel floral scent compounds. A breakdown of chemical defence against ants may also be involved. This study provides support for the hypothesis that the recruitment of novel pollinators can contribute to reproductive isolation between hybrids and their progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Marques
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, High Polytechnic School of Huesca, University of Zaragoza, C/Carretera de Cuarte Km 1, Huesca, E22071, Spain
- UBC Botanical Garden & Centre for Plant Research and Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 3529-6270 University Blvd, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Andreas Jürgens
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Post Bag X01 Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, 3209, South Africa
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Junker RR. Multifunctional and Diverse Floral Scents Mediate Biotic Interactions Embedded in Communities. SIGNALING AND COMMUNICATION IN PLANTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-33498-1_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Yamasaki E, Inui Y, Sakai S. Ant-Repelling Pollinators of the Myrmecophytic Macaranga winkleri (Euphorbiaceae). Evol Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-015-9365-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ranganathan Y, Bessière JM, Borges RM. A coat of many scents: Cuticular hydrocarbons in multitrophic interactions of fig wasps with ants. ACTA OECOLOGICA-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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29
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LeVan KE, Holway DA. Ant–aphid interactions increase ant floral visitation and reduce plant reproduction via decreased pollinator visitation. Ecology 2015. [DOI: 10.1890/14-0058.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Gonzálvez FG, Chen J, Rodríguez-Gironés MA. The function of ant repellence by flowers: testing the “nectar protection” and “pollinator protection” hypotheses. Evol Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9742-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Raguso RA, Agrawal AA, Douglas AE, Jander G, Kessler A, Poveda K, Thaler JS. The raison d'être of chemical ecology. Ecology 2015; 96:617-30. [DOI: 10.1890/14-1474.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Lankinen Å, Karlsson Green K. Using theories of sexual selection and sexual conflict to improve our understanding of plant ecology and evolution. AOB PLANTS 2015; 7:plv008. [PMID: 25613227 PMCID: PMC4344479 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plv008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Today it is accepted that the theories of sexual selection and sexual conflict are general and can be applied to both animals and plants. However, potentially due to a controversial history, plant studies investigating sexual selection and sexual conflict are relatively rare. Moreover, these theories and concepts are seldom implemented in research fields investigating related aspects of plant ecology and evolution. Even though these theories are complex, and can be difficult to study, we suggest that several fields in plant biology would benefit from incorporating and testing the impact of selection pressures generated by sexual selection and sexual conflict. Here we give examples of three fields where we believe such incorporation would be particularly fruitful, including (i) mechanisms of pollen-pistil interactions, (ii) mating-system evolution in hermaphrodites and (iii) plant immune responses to pests and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Åsa Lankinen
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Biology, PO Box 102, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Kristina Karlsson Green
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Biology, PO Box 102, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
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Muhlemann JK, Klempien A, Dudareva N. Floral volatiles: from biosynthesis to function. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2014; 37:1936-49. [PMID: 24588567 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Floral volatiles have attracted humans' attention since antiquity and have since then permeated many aspects of our lives. Indeed, they are heavily used in perfumes, cosmetics, flavourings and medicinal applications. However, their primary function is to mediate ecological interactions between flowers and a diverse array of visitors, including pollinators, florivores and pathogens. As such, they ultimately ensure the plants' reproductive and evolutionary success. To date, over 1700 floral volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified. Interestingly, they are derived from only a few biochemical networks, which include the terpenoid, phenylpropanoid/benzenoid and fatty acid biosynthetic pathways. These pathways are intricately regulated by endogenous and external factors to enable spatially and temporally controlled emission of floral volatiles, thereby fine-tuning the ecological interactions facilitated by floral volatiles. In this review, we will focus on describing the biosynthetic pathways leading to floral VOCs, the regulation of floral volatile emission, as well as biological functions of emitted volatiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle K Muhlemann
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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Cembrowski AR, Tan MG, Thomson JD, Frederickson ME. Ants and Ant Scent Reduce Bumblebee Pollination of Artificial Flowers. Am Nat 2014; 183:133-9. [DOI: 10.1086/674101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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36
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Floral visitation by the Argentine ant reduces pollinator visitation and seed set in the coast barrel cactus, Ferocactus viridescens. Oecologia 2013; 174:163-71. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-013-2739-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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de Vega C, Herrera CM. Microorganisms transported by ants induce changes in floral nectar composition of an ant-pollinated plant. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2013; 100:792-800. [PMID: 23515908 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1200626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY Interactions between plants and ants abound in nature and have significant consequences for ecosystem functioning. Recently, it has been suggested that nectar-foraging ants transport microorganisms to flowers; more specifically, they transport yeasts, which can potentially consume sugars and alter nectar composition. Therefore, ants could indirectly change nectar sugar profile, an important floral feature involved in the plant-pollinator mutualism. But this novel role for ants has never been tested. We here investigate the effects of nectarivorous ants and their associated yeasts on the floral nectar sugar composition of an ant-pollinated plant. METHODS Differences in the nectar sugar composition of ant-excluded and ant-visited flowers were examined in 278 samples by using high-performance liquid-chromatography. The importance of the genetic identity and density of ant-transported basidiomycetous and ascomycetous yeasts on the variation of nectar traits was also evaluated. KEY RESULTS Ant visitation had significant effects on nectar sugar composition. The nectar of ant-visited flowers contained significantly more fructose, more glucose, and less sucrose than the nectar of ant-excluded flowers, but these effects were context dependent. Nectar changes were correlated with the density of yeast cells in nectar. The magnitude of the effects of ant-transported ascomycetes was much higher than that of basiodiomycetes. CONCLUSIONS Ants and their associated yeasts induce changes in nectar sugar traits, reducing the chemical control of the plant over this important floral trait. The potential relevance of this new role for ants as indirect nectar modifiers is a rich topic for future research into the ecology of ant-flower interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara de Vega
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avenida de Américo Vespucio s/n 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
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38
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Dejean A, Orivel J, Rossi V, Roux O, Lauth J, Malé PJG, Céréghino R, Leroy C. Predation success by a plant-ant indirectly favours the growth and fitness of its host myrmecophyte. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59405. [PMID: 23516632 PMCID: PMC3597600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 02/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutualisms, or interactions between species that lead to net fitness benefits for each species involved, are stable and ubiquitous in nature mostly due to “byproduct benefits” stemming from the intrinsic traits of one partner that generate an indirect and positive outcome for the other. Here we verify if myrmecotrophy (where plants obtain nutrients from the refuse of their associated ants) can explain the stability of the tripartite association between the myrmecophyte Hirtella physophora, the ant Allomerus decemarticulatus and an Ascomycota fungus. The plant shelters and provides the ants with extrafloral nectar. The ants protect the plant from herbivores and integrate the fungus into the construction of a trap that they use to capture prey; they also provide the fungus and their host plant with nutrients. During a 9-month field study, we over-provisioned experimental ant colonies with insects, enhancing colony fitness (i.e., more winged females were produced). The rate of partial castration of the host plant, previously demonstrated, was not influenced by the experiment. Experimental plants showed higher δ15N values (confirming myrmecotrophy), plus enhanced vegetative growth (e.g., more leaves produced increased the possibility of lodging ants in leaf pouches) and fitness (i.e., more fruits produced and more flowers that matured into fruit). This study highlights the importance of myrmecotrophy on host plant fitness and the stability of ant-myrmecophyte mutualisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Dejean
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, Ecolab, Toulouse, France.
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39
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Schiestl FP, Johnson SD. Pollinator-mediated evolution of floral signals. Trends Ecol Evol 2013; 28:307-15. [PMID: 23480953 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2013.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Because most plants rely on animals for pollination, insights from animal sensory ecology and behavior are essential for understanding the evolution of flowers. In this review, we compare and contrast three main types of pollinator responses to floral signals--receiver bias, 'adaptive' innate preferences, and associative learning--and discuss how they can shape selection on floral signals. We show that pollinator-mediated selection on floral signals can be strong and that the molecular bases of floral signal variation are often surprisingly simple. These new empirical and conceptual insights into pollinator-mediated evolution provide a framework for understanding patterns of both convergent (pollination syndromes) and advergent (floral mimicry) floral signal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian P Schiestl
- Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland.
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40
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Kessler D, Diezel C, Clark DG, Colquhoun TA, Baldwin IT. Petunia flowers solve the defence/apparency dilemma of pollinator attraction by deploying complex floral blends. Ecol Lett 2012; 16:299-306. [PMID: 23173705 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Revised: 07/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Flowers recruit floral visitors for pollination services by emitting fragrances. These scent signals can be intercepted by antagonists such as florivores to locate host plants. Hence, as a consequence of interactions with both mutualists and antagonists, floral bouquets likely consist of both attractive and defensive components. While the attractive functions of floral bouquets have been studied, their defensive function has not, and field-based evidence for the deterrence of floral-scent constituents is lacking. In field and glasshouse experiments with five lines of transgenic Petunia x hybrida plants specifically silenced in their ability to release particular components of their floral volatile bouquet, we demonstrate that the emission of single floral-scent compounds can dramatically decrease damage from generalist florivores. While some compounds are used in host location, others prevent florivory. We conclude that the complex blends that comprise floral scents are likely sculpted by the selective pressures of both pollinators and herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Kessler
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, DE-07745, Jena, Germany
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41
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Huang M, Sanchez-Moreiras AM, Abel C, Sohrabi R, Lee S, Gershenzon J, Tholl D. The major volatile organic compound emitted from Arabidopsis thaliana flowers, the sesquiterpene (E)-β-caryophyllene, is a defense against a bacterial pathogen. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 193:997-1008. [PMID: 22187939 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.04001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Flowers have a high risk of pathogen attack because of their rich nutrient and moisture content, and high frequency of insect visitors. We investigated the role of (E)-β-caryophyllene in floral defense against a microbial pathogen. This sesquiterpene is a common volatile compound emitted from flowers, and is a major volatile released from the stigma of Arabidopsis thaliana flowers. Arabidopsis thaliana lines lacking a functional (E)-β-caryophyllene synthase or constitutively overexpressing this gene were challenged with Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000, which is a bacterial pathogen of brassicaceous plants. Flowers of plant lines lacking (E)-β-caryophyllene emission showed greater bacterial growth on their stigmas than did wild-type flowers, and their seeds were lighter and misshapen. By contrast, plant lines with ectopic (E)-β-caryophyllene emission from vegetative parts were more resistant than wild-type plants to pathogen infection of leaves, and showed reduced cell damage and higher seed production. Based on in vitro experiments, (E)-β-caryophyllene seems to act by direct inhibition of bacterial growth, rather than by triggering defense signaling pathways. (E)-β-Caryophyllene thus appears to serve as a defense against pathogens that invade floral tissues and, like other floral volatiles, may play multiple roles in defense and pollinator attraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengsu Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Christian Abel
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Reza Sohrabi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Sungbeom Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | | | - Dorothea Tholl
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew G Stephenson
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA (tel +1 814 863 1553; email )
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43
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Junker RR, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB. Floral odor bouquet loses its ant repellent properties after inhibition of terpene biosynthesis. J Chem Ecol 2011; 37:1323-31. [PMID: 22160332 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-011-0043-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2011] [Revised: 09/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In their natural environment, plants are synchronously confronted with mutualists and antagonists, and thus benefit from signals that contain messages for both functional groups of interaction partners. Floral scents are complex blends of volatiles of different chemical classes, including benzenoids and terpenoids. It has been hypothesized that benzenoids have evolved as pollinator attracting signals, while monoterpenoids serve as defensive compounds against antagonists. In order to test this hypothesis, we reduced terpene emission in flowers of Phlox paniculata with specific biosynthetic inhibitors and compared the responses of Lasius niger ants to natural and inhibited floral scent bouquets. While the natural odors were strongly repellent to ants, the bouquets with a reduced emission rate of terpenoids were not. The loss of the flowers' ability to repel ants could be attributed predominantly to reduced amounts of linalool, a monoterpene alcohol. Flying flower visitors, mainly hoverflies, did not discriminate between the two types of flowers in an outdoor experiment. Since individual compounds appear to be capable of either attracting pollinators or defending the flower from enemies, the complexity of floral scent bouquets may have evolved to allow flowers to respond to both mutualists and antagonists simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Junker
- Department Biology, Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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44
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Romero GQ, Antiqueira PAP, Koricheva J. A meta-analysis of predation risk effects on pollinator behaviour. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20689. [PMID: 21695187 PMCID: PMC3113803 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Flower-visiting animals are constantly under predation risk when foraging and hence might be expected to evolve behavioural adaptations to avoid predators. We reviewed the available published and unpublished data to assess the overall effects of predators on pollinator behaviour and to examine sources of variation in these effects. The results of our meta-analysis showed that predation risk significantly decreased flower visitation rates (by 36%) and time spent on flowers (by 51%) by pollinators. The strength of the predator effects depended neither on predator taxa and foraging mode (sit-and-wait or active hunters) nor on pollinator lifestyle (social vs. solitary). However, predator effects differed among pollinator taxa: predator presence reduced flower visitation rates and time spent on flowers by Squamata, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, but not by Diptera. Furthermore, larger pollinators showed weaker responses to predation risk, probably because they are more difficult to capture. Presence of live crab spiders on flowers had weaker effects on pollinator behaviour than presence of dead or artificial crab spiders or other objects (e.g. dead bees, spheres), suggesting that predator crypsis may be effective to some extent. These results add to a growing consensus on the importance of considering both predator and pollinator characteristics from a community perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Q Romero
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.
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45
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Junker RR, Daehler CC, Dötterl S, Keller A, Blüthgen N. Hawaiian ant–flower networks: nectar-thieving ants prefer undefended native over introduced plants with floral defenses. ECOL MONOGR 2011. [DOI: 10.1890/10-1367.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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46
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Dejean A, Corbara B, Leroy C, Delabie JHC, Rossi V, Céréghino R. Inherited biotic protection in a neotropical pioneer plant. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18071. [PMID: 21483861 PMCID: PMC3069041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Chelonanthus alatus is a bat-pollinated, pioneer Gentianaceae
that clusters in patches where still-standing, dried-out stems are interspersed
among live individuals. Flowers bear circum-floral nectaries (CFNs) that are
attractive to ants, and seed dispersal is both barochorous and anemochorous.
Although, in this study, live individuals never sheltered ant colonies,
dried-out hollow stems - that can remain standing for 2 years - did. Workers
from species nesting in dried-out stems as well as from ground-nesting species
exploited the CFNs of live C. alatus individuals in the same
patches during the daytime, but were absent at night (when bat pollination
occurs) on 60.5% of the plants. By visiting the CFNs, the ants indirectly
protect the flowers - but not the plant foliage - from herbivorous insects. We
show that this protection is provided mostly by species nesting in dried-out
stems, predominantly Pseudomyrmex gracilis. That dried-out
stems remain standing for years and are regularly replaced results in an
opportunistic, but stable association where colonies are sheltered by one
generation of dead C. alatus while the live individuals nearby,
belonging to the next generation, provide them with nectar; in turn, the ants
protect their flowers from herbivores. We suggest that the investment in wood by
C. alatus individuals permitting still-standing, dried-out
stems to shelter ant colonies constitutes an extended phenotype because foraging
workers protect the flowers of live individuals in the same patch. Also, through
this process these dried-out stems indirectly favor the reproduction (and so the
fitness) of the next generation including both their own offspring and that of
their siblings, all adding up to a potential case of inclusive fitness in
plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Dejean
- CNRS, Écologie des Forêts de Guyane (UMR-CNRS 8172), Campus Agronomique, Kourou, France.
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Romero GQ, Koricheva J. Contrasting cascade effects of carnivores on plant fitness: a meta-analysis. J Anim Ecol 2011; 80:696-704. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01808.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Galen C, Kaczorowski R, Todd SL, Geib J, Raguso RA. Dosage-Dependent Impacts of a Floral Volatile Compound on Pollinators, Larcenists, and the Potential for Floral Evolution in the Alpine Skypilot Polemonium viscosum. Am Nat 2011; 177:258-72. [DOI: 10.1086/657993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Trager MD, Bhotika S, Hostetler JA, Andrade GV, Rodriguez-Cabal MA, McKeon CS, Osenberg CW, Bolker BM. Benefits for plants in ant-plant protective mutualisms: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14308. [PMID: 21203550 PMCID: PMC3008678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Costs and benefits for partners in mutualistic interactions can vary greatly, but surprisingly little is known about the factors that drive this variation across systems. We conducted a meta-analysis of ant-plant protective mutualisms to quantify the effects of ant defenders on plant reproductive output, to evaluate if reproductive effects were predicted from reductions in herbivory and to identify characteristics of the plants, ants and environment that explained variation in ant protection. We also compared our approach with two other recent meta-analyses on ant-plant mutualisms, emphasizing differences in our methodology (using a weighted linear mixed effects model) and our focus on plant reproduction rather than herbivore damage. Based on 59 ant and plant species pairs, ant presence increased plant reproductive output by 49% and reduced herbivory by 62%. The effects on herbivory and reproduction within systems were positively correlated, but the slope of this relationship (0.75) indicated that tolerance to foliar herbivory may be a common plant response to absence of ant guards. Furthermore, the relationship between foliar damage and reproduction varied substantially among systems, suggesting that herbivore damage is not a reliable surrogate for fitness consequences of ant protection. Studies that experimentally excluded ants reported a smaller effect of ant protection on plant reproduction than studies that relied upon natural variation in ant presence, suggesting that study methods can affect results in these systems. Of the ecological variables included in our analysis, only plant life history (i.e., annual or perennial) explained variation in the protective benefit of mutualistic ants: presence of ants benefitted reproduction of perennials significantly more than that of annuals. These results contrast with other quantitative reviews of these relationships that did not include plant life history as an explanatory factor and raise several questions to guide future research on ant-plant protection mutualisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Trager
- Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America.
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Junker RR, Blüthgen N. Floral scents repel facultative flower visitors, but attract obligate ones. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2010; 105:777-82. [PMID: 20228087 PMCID: PMC2859918 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcq045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2009] [Revised: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Biological mutualisms rely on communication between partners, but also require protective measures against exploitation. Animal-pollinated flowers need to attract pollinators but also to avoid conflicts with antagonistic consumers. The view of flower visitors as mutualistic and antagonistic agents considers primarily the plants' interest. A classification emphasizing the consumer's point of view, however, may be more useful when considering animal's adaptations to flower visits which may include a tolerance against defensive floral scent compounds. METHODS In a meta-analysis covering 18 studies on the responses of animals to floral scents, the animals were assigned to the categories of obligate and facultative flower visitors which considers their dependency on floral resources. Their responses on floral scents were compared. KEY RESULTS On average, obligate flower visitors, often corresponding to pollinators, were attracted to floral scent compounds. In contrast, facultative and mainly antagonistic visitors were strongly repelled by floral scents. The findings confirm that floral scents have a dual function both as attractive and defensive cues. CONCLUSIONS Whether an animal depends on floral resources determines its response to these signals, suggesting that obligate flower visitors evolved a tolerance against primarily defensive compounds. Therefore, floral scent bouquets in conjunction with nutritious rewards may solve the conflicting tasks of attracting mutualists while repelling antagonists.
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