1
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Abbasi AM, Nasir S, Bajwa AA, Akbar H, Artigas-Jerónimo S, Muñoz-Hernández C, Sánchez-Sánchez M, Moraga-Fernández A, de Mera IGF, de la Fuente J, Rashid MI. De novo assembly of sialotranscriptome of Hyalomma anatolicum and insights into expression dynamics in response to Theileria annulata infection. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2024:10.1007/s10493-024-00962-z. [PMID: 39271544 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-024-00962-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024]
Abstract
Hyalomma anatolicum is a tick of significant one-health importance due to its role as a vector for various pathogens affecting humans, animals and the environment, such as Theileria annulata, which causes tropical theileriosis in cattle, leading to severe economic losses. When infected with pathogens like T. annulata, the salivary glands of H. anatolicum undergo gene expression changes, secrete modified proteins and activate immune responses, all of which facilitate pathogen survival and transmission by modulating the host immune response and optimizing conditions for pathogen development. Understanding these responses is crucial for developing control strategies for tick-borne diseases. To understand the interaction between H. anatolicum and T. annulata, we performed a differential gene expression analysis of H. anatolicum salivary glands. An average of approximately 25 million raw sequencing reads were generated in each replicate using Illumina Sequencing. The sequenced reads were de novo assembled and the assembled transcriptome yielded approximately 50,231 non-redundant transcripts after clustering with CD-HIT using a sequence identity of 95% and alignment coverage of 90%. The assembly quality was evaluated with BUSCO analysis and found to be 86% complete using the Arachnida dataset and then blasted against non-redundant protein sequence database from NCBI followed by counting of reads and differential expression analysis. Overall, around 2400 and 400 genes were found differentially expressed with logFC > 1 and logFC > 2 respectively at FDR < 0.05. Top up-regulated genes included Calpain, Papilin, Neprilysin, and Ankyrin repeat-containing protein. Top down-regulated genes included Scoloptoxin, and Selenoprotein S and other uncharacterized proteins. Many other up-regulated proteins with high significance were uncharacterized suggesting room for further H. anatolicum functional and structural characterization studies. To our best knowledge, this is the first study of H. anatolicum sialotranscriptome which greatly contributes to sialotranscriptome information not only as sequence database but also indicates the potential targets for development of vaccine against ticks and transmission-blocking vaccines against T. annulata.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shiza Nasir
- University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | | | - Haroon Akbar
- University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Sara Artigas-Jerónimo
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avenida Camilo José Cela 10, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
- DOE Research Group, Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Castilla-La Mancha (IB-UCLM), Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Clara Muñoz-Hernández
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Marta Sánchez-Sánchez
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Alberto Moraga-Fernández
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Isabel G Fernández de Mera
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
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2
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Yuan C, Xu Q, Ning Y, Xia Q. Potential mechanisms implied in tick infection by arboviruses and their transmission to vertebrate hosts. Integr Zool 2024. [PMID: 39016029 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
Ticks can transmit many pathogens, including arboviruses, to their vertebrate hosts. Arboviruses must overcome or evade defense mechanisms during their passage from the tick gut to the hemolymph, salivary glands, and the feeding site in the host skin. This review summarizes current knowledge of defense mechanisms in specific tick tissues and at the feeding site in the host skin. We discuss the possible roles of these defense mechanisms in viral infection and transmission. The responses of tick salivary proteins to arbovirus infection are also discussed. This review provides information that may help accelerate research on virus-tick interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanfei Yuan
- NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, School of Tropical Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiong Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, School of Tropical Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Yunjia Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and National Virus Resource Center, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Jiangxia Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Qianfeng Xia
- NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, School of Tropical Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
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3
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Baquer F, Jaulhac B, Barthel C, Paz M, Wolfgramm J, Müller A, Boulanger N, Grillon A. Skin microbiota secretomes modulate cutaneous innate immunity against Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16393. [PMID: 37773515 PMCID: PMC10541882 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43566-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In Lyme borreliosis, the skin constitutes a major interface for the host, the bacteria and the tick. Skin immunity is provided by specialized immune cells but also by the resident cells: the keratinocytes and the fibroblasts. Discoveries on the role of the microbiome in the modulation of skin inflammation and immunity have reinforced the potential importance of the skin in vector-borne diseases. In this study, we analyzed in vitro the interaction of human primary keratinocytes and fibroblasts with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto N40 in presence or absence of bacterial commensal supernatants. We aimed to highlight the role of resident skin cells and skin microbiome on the inflammation induced by B. burgdorferi s.s.. The secretomes of Staphylococcus epidermidis, Corynebacterium striatum and Cutibacterium acnes showed an overall increase in the expression of IL-8, CXCL1, MCP-1 and SOD-2 by fibroblasts, and of IL-8, CXCL1, MCP-1 and hBD-2 in the undifferentiated keratinocytes. Commensal bacteria showed a repressive effect on the expression of IL-8, CXCL1 and MCP-1 by differentiated keratinocytes. Besides the inflammatory effect observed in the presence of Borrelia on all cell types, the cutaneous microbiome appears to promote a rapid innate response of resident skin cells during the onset of Borrelia infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Baquer
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France.
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France.
| | - B Jaulhac
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- French National Reference Center for Borrelia, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - C Barthel
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - M Paz
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - J Wolfgramm
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - A Müller
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - N Boulanger
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- French National Reference Center for Borrelia, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - A Grillon
- Institut de Bactériologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, University of Strasbourg, UR7290, ITI InnoVec, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- French National Reference Center for Borrelia, Strasbourg University Hospital, 67000, Strasbourg, France
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4
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Ali A, Zeb I, Alouffi A, Zahid H, Almutairi MM, Ayed Alshammari F, Alrouji M, Termignoni C, Vaz IDS, Tanaka T. Host Immune Responses to Salivary Components - A Critical Facet of Tick-Host Interactions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:809052. [PMID: 35372098 PMCID: PMC8966233 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.809052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick sialome is comprised of a rich cocktail of bioactive molecules that function as a tool to disarm host immunity, assist blood-feeding, and play a vibrant role in pathogen transmission. The adaptation of the tick's blood-feeding behavior has lead to the evolution of bioactive molecules in its saliva to assist them to overwhelm hosts' defense mechanisms. During a blood meal, a tick secretes different salivary molecules including vasodilators, platelet aggregation inhibitors, anticoagulants, anti-inflammatory proteins, and inhibitors of complement activation; the salivary repertoire changes to meet various needs such as tick attachment, feeding, and modulation or impairment of the local dynamic and vigorous host responses. For instance, the tick's salivary immunomodulatory and cement proteins facilitate the tick's attachment to the host to enhance prolonged blood-feeding and to modulate the host's innate and adaptive immune responses. Recent advances implemented in the field of "omics" have substantially assisted our understanding of host immune modulation and immune inhibition against the molecular dynamics of tick salivary molecules in a crosstalk between the tick-host interface. A deep understanding of the tick salivary molecules, their substantial roles in multifactorial immunological cascades, variations in secretion, and host immune responses against these molecules is necessary to control these parasites. In this article, we reviewed updated knowledge about the molecular mechanisms underlying host responses to diverse elements in tick saliva throughout tick invasion, as well as host defense strategies. In conclusion, understanding the mechanisms involved in the complex interactions between the tick salivary components and host responses is essential to decipher the host defense mechanisms against the tick evasion strategies at tick-host interface which is promising in the development of effective anti-tick vaccines and drug therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abid Ali
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Ismail Zeb
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Abdulaziz Alouffi
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hafsa Zahid
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Mashal M. Almutairi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fahdah Ayed Alshammari
- College of Sciences and Literature Microbiology, Nothern Border University, Rafha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Alrouji
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia
| | - Carlos Termignoni
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Itabajara da Silva Vaz
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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5
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Kitsou C, Fikrig E, Pal U. Tick host immunity: vector immunomodulation and acquired tick resistance. Trends Immunol 2021; 42:554-574. [PMID: 34074602 PMCID: PMC10089699 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2021.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ticks have an unparalleled ability to parasitize diverse land vertebrates. Their natural persistence and vector competence are supported by the evolution of sophisticated hematophagy and remarkable host immune-evasion activities. We analyze the immunomodulatory roles of tick saliva which facilitates their acquisition of a blood meal from natural hosts and allows pathogen transmission. We also discuss the contrasting immunological events of tick-host associations in non-reservoir or incidental hosts, in which the development of acquired tick resistance can deter tick attachment. A critical appraisal of the intricate immunobiology of tick-host associations can plant new seeds of innovative research and contribute to the development of novel preventive strategies against ticks and tick-transmitted infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Kitsou
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Utpal Pal
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA; Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, College Park, MD, USA.
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6
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Changing the Recipe: Pathogen Directed Changes in Tick Saliva Components. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041806. [PMID: 33673273 PMCID: PMC7918122 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are obligate hematophagous parasites and are important vectors of a wide variety of pathogens. These pathogens include spirochetes in the genus Borrelia that cause Lyme disease, rickettsial pathogens, and tick-borne encephalitis virus, among others. Due to their prolonged feeding period of up to two weeks, hard ticks must counteract vertebrate host defense reactions in order to survive and reproduce. To overcome host defense mechanisms, ticks have evolved a large number of pharmacologically active molecules that are secreted in their saliva, which inhibits or modulates host immune defenses and wound healing responses upon injection into the bite site. These bioactive molecules in tick saliva can create a privileged environment in the host’s skin that tick-borne pathogens take advantage of. In fact, evidence is accumulating that tick-transmitted pathogens manipulate tick saliva composition to enhance their own survival, transmission, and evasion of host defenses. We review what is known about specific and functionally characterized tick saliva molecules in the context of tick infection with the genus Borrelia, the intracellular pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. Additionally, we review studies analyzing sialome-level responses to pathogen challenge.
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7
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Helble JD, McCarthy JE, Hu LT. Interactions between Borrelia burgdorferi and its hosts across the enzootic cycle. Parasite Immunol 2021; 43:e12816. [PMID: 33368329 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial pathogen Borrelia burgdorferi is the causative agent of Lyme disease and is transmitted to humans through an Ixodes tick vector. B. burgdorferi is able to survive in both mammalian and tick hosts through careful modulation of its gene expression. This allows B. burgdorferi to adapt to the environmental and nutritional changes that occur when it is transmitted between the two hosts. Distinct interactions between the spirochete and its host occur at every step of the enzootic cycle and dictate the ability of the spirochete to survive until the next stage of the cycle. Studying the interface between B. burgdorferi, the Ixodes tick vector and the natural mammalian reservoirs has been made significantly more feasible through the complete genome sequences of the organisms and the advent of high throughput screening technologies. Ultimately, a thorough investigation of the interplay between the two domains (and two phyla within one domain) is necessary in order to completely understand how the pathogen is transmitted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Helble
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Julie E McCarthy
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
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8
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Aounallah H, Bensaoud C, M'ghirbi Y, Faria F, Chmelar JI, Kotsyfakis M. Tick Salivary Compounds for Targeted Immunomodulatory Therapy. Front Immunol 2020; 11:583845. [PMID: 33072132 PMCID: PMC7538779 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.583845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunodeficiency disorders and autoimmune diseases are common, but a lack of effective targeted drugs and the side-effects of existing drugs have stimulated interest in finding therapeutic alternatives. Naturally derived substances are a recognized source of novel drugs, and tick saliva is increasingly recognized as a rich source of bioactive molecules with specific functions. Ticks use their saliva to overcome the innate and adaptive host immune systems. Their saliva is a rich cocktail of molecules including proteins, peptides, lipid derivatives, and recently discovered non-coding RNAs that inhibit or modulate vertebrate immune reactions. A number of tick saliva and/or salivary gland molecules have been characterized and shown to be promising candidates for drug development for vertebrate immune diseases. However, further validation of these molecules at the molecular, cellular, and organism levels is now required to progress lead candidates to clinical testing. In this paper, we review the data on the immuno-pharmacological aspects of tick salivary compounds characterized in vitro and/or in vivo and present recent findings on non-coding RNAs that might be exploitable as immunomodulatory therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajer Aounallah
- Institut Pasteur de Tunis, LR19IPTX, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia.,Innovation and Development Laboratory, Innovation and Development Center, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Chaima Bensaoud
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Youmna M'ghirbi
- Institut Pasteur de Tunis, LR19IPTX, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Fernanda Faria
- Innovation and Development Laboratory, Innovation and Development Center, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jindr Ich Chmelar
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
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9
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Bernard Q, Grillon A, Lenormand C, Ehret-Sabatier L, Boulanger N. Skin Interface, a Key Player for Borrelia Multiplication and Persistence in Lyme Borreliosis. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:304-314. [PMID: 32007396 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2019.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The skin plays a key role in vector-borne diseases because it is the site where the arthropod coinoculates pathogens and its saliva. Lyme borreliosis, particularly well investigated in this context, is a multisystemic infectious disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and transmitted by the hard tick Ixodes. Numerous in vitro studies were conducted to better understand the role of specific skin cells and tick saliva in host defense, vector feeding, and pathogen transmission. The skin was also evidenced in various animal models as the site of bacterial multiplication and persistence. We present the achievements in this field as well as the gaps that impede comprehensive knowledge of the disease pathophysiology and the development of efficient diagnostic tools and vaccines in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Antoine Grillon
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Cédric Lenormand
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France; Clinique Dermatologique, Hôpital Universitaire de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laurence Ehret-Sabatier
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse BioOrganique, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France; French National Reference Center on Lyme Borreliosis, CHRU, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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10
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Wen S, Wang F, Ji Z, Pan Y, Jian M, Bi Y, Zhou G, Luo L, Chen T, Li L, Ding Z, Abi ME, Liu A, Bao F. Salp15, a Multifunctional Protein From Tick Saliva With Potential Pharmaceutical Effects. Front Immunol 2020; 10:3067. [PMID: 31998324 PMCID: PMC6968165 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.03067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ixodes ticks are the main vectors for a number of zoonotic diseases, including Lyme disease. Ticks secrete saliva directly into a mammalian host while feeding on the host's blood. This action serves to modulate host immunity and coagulation, thus allowing ticks to attach and feed upon their host. One of the most extensively studied components of tick saliva is Salp15. Research has shown that this protein binds specifically to CD4 molecules on the surface of T lymphocytes, interferes with TCR-mediated signaling transduction, inhibits CD4+ T cell activation and proliferation, and impedes the secretion of interleukin 2 (IL-2). Salp15 also binds specifically to dendritic cell dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN) to up-regulate the expression of CD73 in regulatory T cells. Collectively, these findings render this salivary protein a potential candidate for a range of therapeutic applications. Here, we discuss our current understanding of Salp15 and the mechanisms that might be used to treat disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyuan Wen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China.,The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China
| | - Zhenhua Ji
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - YingYi Pan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Miaomiao Jian
- The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - YunFeng Bi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China
| | - Guozhong Zhou
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China
| | - Lisha Luo
- The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Taigui Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Lianbao Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhe Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Manzama-Esso Abi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Aihua Liu
- The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Fukai Bao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,The Center of Tropical Diseases, The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.,Yunnan Demonstration Base of International Science and Technology Cooperation for Tropical Diseases, Kunming, China
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11
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Tick saliva and its role in pathogen transmission. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2019; 135:165-176. [PMID: 31062185 PMCID: PMC10118219 DOI: 10.1007/s00508-019-1500-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Tick saliva is a complex mixture of peptidic and non-peptidic molecules that aid engorgement. The composition of tick saliva changes as feeding progresses and the tick counters the dynamic host response. Ixodid ticks such as Ixodes ricinus, the most important tick species in Europe, transmit numerous pathogens that cause debilitating diseases, e.g. Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis. Tick-borne pathogens are transmitted in tick saliva during blood feeding; however, saliva is not simply a medium enabling pathogen transfer. Instead, tick-borne pathogens exploit saliva-induced modulation of host responses to promote their transmission and infection, so-called saliva-assisted transmission (SAT). Characterization of the saliva factors that facilitate SAT is an active area of current research. Besides providing new insights into how tick-borne pathogens survive in nature, the research is opening new avenues for vaccine development.
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12
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Boulanger N. [Immunomodulatory effect of tick saliva in pathogen transmission]. Biol Aujourdhui 2019; 212:107-117. [PMID: 30973140 DOI: 10.1051/jbio/2019001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are the most important vectors of pathogens in human and veterinary medicine. These strictly haematophagous acarines produce a saliva containing a variety of bioactive molecules affecting host pharmacology and immunity. This process is vital for hard ticks to prevent rejection by the host during the blood meal that lasts several days. All actors involved in the immunity interplay are impacted by this saliva, the innate immunity being represented by resident and migrating immune cells, as well as the T and B lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system. The skin plays a key role in vector-borne diseases. During the long co-evolution with the tick, the infectious agents benefit from this favorable environment to be transmitted efficiently into the skin and to multiply in the vertebrate host. Therefore, the saliva is an important virulence booster, which enhances substantially their pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Boulanger
- EA7290, Virulence Bactérienne Précoce, Groupe Borrelia, Facultés de Pharmacie et Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de bactériologie, 3 rue Koeberlé, 67000 Strasbourg, France - Centre National de Référence Borrelia, Plateau technique de Microbiologie, CHRU Strasbourg, 1 rue Koeberlé, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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Dissociating effect of salivary gland extract from Ixodes ricinus on human fibroblasts: Potential impact on Borrelia transmission. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 10:433-441. [PMID: 30595500 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of pathogen transmission is essential for the development of strategies to reduce arthropod-borne diseases. The pharmaco- and immunomodulatory properties of insect and acarine saliva play an essential role in the efficiency of pathogen transmission. The skin as the site where arthropod saliva and pathogens are inoculated - represents the key interface in vector-borne diseases. We identified tick molecules potentially involved in pathogen transmission, using micro-HPLC and mass spectrometry, followed by in vitro assays on human skin cells. Histone H4 isolated from Ixodes ricinus salivary gland extract was identified as a molecule with a dissociating effect on human primary fibroblasts. This histone might be involved in the formation of the feeding pool formed around the tick mouthparts and responsible of tissue necrosis in the vertebrate host. Thanks to its selective antimicrobial activity, it may also sterilize the feeding pool and facilitate transmission of pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato.
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Nuttall PA. Wonders of tick saliva. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 10:470-481. [PMID: 30459085 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Saliva of ticks is arguably the most complex saliva of any animal. This is particularly the case for ixodid species that feed for many days firmly attached to the same skin site of their obliging host. Sequencing and spectrometry technologies combined with bioinformatics are enumerating ingredients in the saliva cocktail. The dynamic and expanding saliva recipe is helping decipher the wonderous activities of tick saliva, revealing how ticks stealthily hide from their hosts while satisfying their gluttony and sharing their individual resources. This review takes a tick perspective on the composition and functions of tick saliva, covering water balance, gasket and holdfast, control of host responses, dynamics, individuality, mate guarding, saliva-assisted transmission, and redundancy. It highlights areas sometimes overlooked - feeding aggregation and sharing of sialomes, and the contribution of salivary gland storage granules - and questions whether the huge diversity of tick saliva molecules is 'redundant' or more a reflection on the enormous adaptability wonderous saliva confers on ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Nuttall
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK and Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK.
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15
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Robbertse L, Richards SA, Clift SJ, Barnard AC, Leisewitz A, Crafford JE, Maritz-Olivier C. Comparison of the differential regulation of T and B-lymphocyte subsets in the skin and lymph nodes amongst three cattle breeds as potential mediators of immune-resistance to Rhipicephalus microplus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 9:976-987. [PMID: 29622516 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Although varying natural resistance to ticks between highly resistant Brahman (Bos taurus indicus), resistant Bonsmara (5/8 B. t. indicus x 3/8 B. t. taurus) and susceptible Holstein-Friesian (B. t. taurus) breeds is documented in skin and blood, little information is available describing draining lymph nodes. To elucidate the cellular dynamics during Rhipicephalus microplus induced immune responses, this study analysed immune factors from these cattle breeds using histology, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. Following the collection of skin and lymph node samples before artificial tick infestation, cattle were infested with R. microplus larvae. Subsequent sampling coincided with the tick larvae and adult developmental stages. A significant influx of CD20+ B-lymphocytes in the dermis all cattle breeds was observed while CD3+ T-lymphocytes were significantly increased for more tick resistant breeds. Eosinophil infiltration in germinal centres of lymph nodes was significant for all cattle breeds while tingible body macrophages were significantly increased for adult infested Brahman animals. A negligible fluctuation in CD20+ and CD79α+ B-lymphocyte numbers was present in the lymph node of more resistant cattle breeds, while susceptible animals showed a decrease in B-lymphocytes after infestation, followed by an increase between larvae to adult infested time points. Increased variability of γd T-lymphocyte populations in lymph nodes was correlated with tick susceptibility. In addition, a more stable T helper lymphocyte population was identified in the lymph nodes for the Brahman cattle breed. Results suggest the association of tick susceptibility with differential B-lymphocyte regulation in lymph node tissues, increased variability of WC1+ γδ T-lymphocyte populations in the lymph node as well as a decrease in T helper lymphocytes in the lymph node.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luïse Robbertse
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sabine Annette Richards
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sarah Jane Clift
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Annette-Christi Barnard
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Andrew Leisewitz
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jan Ernst Crafford
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Christine Maritz-Olivier
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
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Bernard Q, Wang Z, Di Nardo A, Boulanger N. Interaction of primary mast cells with Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu stricto): role in transmission and dissemination in C57BL/6 mice. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:313. [PMID: 28655322 PMCID: PMC5488306 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2243-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Borrelia burgdorferi (sensulato), the causative agent of Lyme borreliosis is a bacterium transmitted by hard ticks, Ixodes spp. Bacteria are injected into the host skin during the tick blood meal with tick saliva. There, Borrelia and saliva interact together with skin cells such as keratinocytes, fibroblasts, mast cells and other specific immune cells before disseminating to target organs. Methods To study the role of mast cells in the transmission of Lyme borreliosis, we isolated mouse primary mast cells from bone marrow and incubated them in the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu stricto) and tick salivary gland extract. We further analyzed their potential role in vivo, in a mouse model of deficient in mast cells (Kitwsh−/− mice). Results To our knowledge, we report here for the first time the bacteria ability to induce the inflammatory response of mouse primary mast cells. We show that OspC, a major surface lipoprotein involved in the early transmission of Borrelia, induces the degranulation of primary mast cells but has a limited effect on the overall inflammatory response of these cells. In contrast, whole bacteria have an opposite effect. We also show that mast cell activation is significantly inhibited by tick salivary gland extract. Finally, we demonstrate that mast cells are likely not the only host cells involved in the early transmission and dissemination of Borrelia since the use of mast cell deficient Kitwsh−/− mice shows a limited impact on these two processes in the context of this mouse genetic background. Conclusions The absence of mast cells did not change the replication rate of Borrelia in the skin. However, in the absence of mast cells, Borrelia dissemination to the joints was faster. Mast cells do not control skin bacterial proliferation during primary infection and the establishment of the primary infection, as shown in the C57BL/6 mouse model studied. Nevertheless, the Borrelia induced cytotokine modulation on mast cells might be involved in long term and/or repeated infections and protect from Lyme borreliosis due to the development of a hypersensitivity to tick saliva. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2243-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Present address: Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
| | - Zhenping Wang
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Anna Di Nardo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France. .,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France.
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Šimo L, Kazimirova M, Richardson J, Bonnet SI. The Essential Role of Tick Salivary Glands and Saliva in Tick Feeding and Pathogen Transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:281. [PMID: 28690983 PMCID: PMC5479950 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
As long-term pool feeders, ticks have developed myriad strategies to remain discreetly but solidly attached to their hosts for the duration of their blood meal. The critical biological material that dampens host defenses and facilitates the flow of blood-thus assuring adequate feeding-is tick saliva. Saliva exhibits cytolytic, vasodilator, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive activity. This essential fluid is secreted by the salivary glands, which also mediate several other biological functions, including secretion of cement and hygroscopic components, as well as the watery component of blood as regards hard ticks. When salivary glands are invaded by tick-borne pathogens, pathogens may be transmitted via saliva, which is injected alternately with blood uptake during the tick bite. Both salivary glands and saliva thus play a key role in transmission of pathogenic microorganisms to vertebrate hosts. During their long co-evolution with ticks and vertebrate hosts, microorganisms have indeed developed various strategies to exploit tick salivary molecules to ensure both acquisition by ticks and transmission, local infection and systemic dissemination within the vertebrate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladislav Šimo
- UMR BIPAR, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
| | - Maria Kazimirova
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jennifer Richardson
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sarah I. Bonnet
- UMR BIPAR, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
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18
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Orczyk K, Świdrowska-Jaros J, Smolewska E. When a patient suspected with juvenile idiopathic arthritis turns out to be diagnosed with an infectious disease - a review of Lyme arthritis in children. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2017; 15:35. [PMID: 28482848 PMCID: PMC5422956 DOI: 10.1186/s12969-017-0166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Lyme arthritis is a common manifestation of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi spirochete. Despite its infectious background, the inflammation clinically and histopatologically resembles juvenile idiopathic arthritis. As it affects a considerable number of Lyme disease patients, it should be routinely considered in differential diagnosis. Development of arthritis is partially dependent on spirochetal factors, including the ribosomal spacer type and the sequence of outer surface protein C. Immunological background involves Th1-related response, but IL-17 provides an additional route of developing arthritis. Autoimmune mechanisms may lead to antibiotic-refractory arthritis. The current diagnostic standard is based on a 2-step testing: ELISA screening and immunoblot confirmation. Other suggested methods contain modified two-tier test with C6 ELISA instead of immunoblot. An initial 28-day course of oral antibiotics (doxycycline, cefuroxime axetil or amoxicillin) is a recommended treatment. Severe cases require further anti-inflammatory management. Precise investigation of new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches is advisable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Orczyk
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology, Medical University of Lodz, Sporna 36/50, 91-738 Lodz, Poland
| | - Joanna Świdrowska-Jaros
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology, Medical University of Lodz, Sporna 36/50, 91-738 Lodz, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Smolewska
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology, Medical University of Lodz, Sporna 36/50, 91-738 Lodz, Poland
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19
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Glatz M, Means T, Haas J, Steere AC, Müllegger RR. Characterization of the early local immune response to Ixodes ricinus tick bites in human skin. Exp Dermatol 2017; 26:263-269. [PMID: 27623398 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the immunomodulation by tick saliva during a natural tick bite in human skin, the site of the tick-host interaction. We examined the expression of chemokines, cytokines and leucocyte markers on the mRNA levels and histopathologic changes in human skin biopsies of tick bites (n=37) compared to unaffected skin (n=9). Early tick-bite skin lesions (<24 hours of tick attachment) were characterized by a predominance of macrophages and dendritic cells, elevated mRNA levels of macrophage chemoattractants (CCL2, CCL3, CCL4) and neutrophil chemoattractants (CXCL1, CXCL8), of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-1β, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-5. In contrast, the numbers of lymphocytes and mRNA levels of lymphocyte cell markers (CD4, CD8, CD19), lymphocyte chemoattractants (CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL13, CCL1, CCL22), dendritic cell chemoattractants (CCL20), and other pro- (IL-6, IL-12p40, IFN-γ, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) did not differ from normal skin. With longer tick attachment (>24 hours), the numbers of innate immune cells and mediators (not significantly) declined, whereas the numbers of lymphocytes (not significantly) increased. Natural tick bites by Ixodes ricinus ticks initially elicit a strong local innate immune response in human skin. Beyond 24 hours of tick attachment, this response usually becomes less, perhaps because of immunomodulation by tick saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Glatz
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Allergy Unit, Department of Dermatology, University and University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Terry Means
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Josef Haas
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Allen C Steere
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert R Müllegger
- Department of Dermatology, State Hospital Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria.,Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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20
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Ockenfels B, Michael E, McDowell MA. Meta-analysis of the effects of insect vector saliva on host immune responses and infection of vector-transmitted pathogens: a focus on leishmaniasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3197. [PMID: 25275509 PMCID: PMC4183472 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A meta-analysis of the effects of vector saliva on the immune response and progression of vector-transmitted disease, specifically with regard to pathology, infection level, and host cytokine levels was conducted. Infection in the absence or presence of saliva in naïve mice was compared. In addition, infection in mice pre-exposed to uninfected vector saliva was compared to infection in unexposed mice. To control for differences in vector and pathogen species, mouse strain, and experimental design, a random effects model was used to compare the ratio of the natural log of the experimental to the control means of the studies. Saliva was demonstrated to enhance pathology, infection level, and the production of Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) in naïve mice. This effect was observed across vector/pathogen pairings, whether natural or unnatural, and with single salivary proteins used as a proxy for whole saliva. Saliva pre-exposure was determined to result in less severe leishmaniasis pathology when compared with unexposed mice infected either in the presence or absence of sand fly saliva. The results of further analyses were not significant, but demonstrated trends toward protection and IFN-γ elevation for pre-exposed mice. Arthropod vectors transmit a wide variety of diseases resulting in substantial human morbidity and economic costs worldwide. When hematophagous arthropods blood feed, they release saliva into the host. This saliva elicits a strong immune response and has recently been a focus for vaccine research. There is evidence that the saliva enhances infection in naïve hosts, but that prior exposure to saliva results in less severe infection. This analysis endeavored to determine whether there was a statistically significant enhancement or protective effect with regard to saliva exposure and the progression of disease, and to determine the underlying immune mechanism driving these effects. We found that saliva does indeed enhance infection levels of vector-transmitted pathogens and leishmaniasis pathology in naïve mice and elevates Th2 cytokine levels (IL-4 and IL-10). We also determined that pre-exposure to saliva results in less severe pathology of experimental leishmaniasis in mice. These results are important for vaccine trials and vector control programs, though more studies are needed with regard to pre-exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Ockenfels
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Edwin Michael
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Mary Ann McDowell
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Wang X, Huang Y, Niu SB, Jiang BG, Jia N, van der Geest L, Ni XB, Sun Y, Cao WC. Genetic diversity of Salp15 in the Ixodes ricinus complex (Acari: Ixodidae). PLoS One 2014; 9:e94131. [PMID: 24714063 PMCID: PMC3979764 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Salp15, a 15-kDa tick salivary gland protein, is both essential for ticks to successfully obtain host blood and also facilitates transmission of Lyme borreliosis. To determine whether the Salp15 gene is expressed in Ixodes persulcatus and Ixodes sinensis, principle vectors of Lyme borreliosis in China, we studied transcriptions of this gene in semi-engorged larvae, nymph and adults of these two species. A total of eight Salp15 homologues, five in I. persulcatus and three in I. sinensis, were identified by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Interestingly, the intra-species similarity of Salp15 is approximately equal to its interspecies similarity and more than one Salp15 protein is expressed in a certain tick developmental stage. Comparison of DNA and proteins with other available tick Salp15 homologues suggests that the Salp15 superfamily is genetically conserved and diverse in the Ixodes ricinus complex. These findings indicate that Salp15 proteins in the I. ricinus complex may play an essential role in interacting with the host immune system and transmission of Borrelia genospecies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
- Wenzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wenzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Si-bo Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Bao-Gui Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Na Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Leo van der Geest
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, Section Population Ecology, The University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Xue-bing Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
- Wenzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wenzhou, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
| | - Wu-Chun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China
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22
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Liu J, Renneker S, Beyer D, Kullmann B, Seitzer U, Ahmed J, Bakheit MA. Identification and partial characterization of a Salp15 homolog from Ixodes ricinus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:318-22. [PMID: 24572608 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2013.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The immunomodulatory molecule Salp15 is originally described in Ixodes scapularis and has been shown to inhibit CD4 T cell activation. Many Salp15 homologs have been described from Ixodes species, and all were well conserved at C-terminal residues that seem to be essential for the function of the protein. In this study, a gene sequence was amplified from cDNA isolated from engorged female I. ricinus ticks, which was predicted to generate a protein of 12.3 kDa. The protein displayed distinct amino acid differences from previously described I. ricinus Salp15 homologs, with amino acid identity ranging between 46.6% and 93.9%. It was referred to as I. ricinus Salp15-like protein. The protein showed 48.1% sequence identity to I. scapularis Salp15. We analyzed the effect of the recombinant I. ricinus Salp15-like protein on the production of cytokines from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with LPS. The recombinant protein exerted no effect on the production of TNF-α and IL-6, but the production of IL-10 was dose-dependently reduced. It can be concluded that I. ricinus Salp15-like protein exerts an immunomodulatory effect on the host. The inhibition of IL-10 production may possibly lead to a retardation of B cell activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Liu
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - S Renneker
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - D Beyer
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - B Kullmann
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - U Seitzer
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - J Ahmed
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany
| | - M A Bakheit
- Division of Veterinary Infection Biology and Immunology, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany.
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23
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Sakhon OS, Severo MS, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. A Nod to disease vectors: mitigation of pathogen sensing by arthropod saliva. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:308. [PMID: 24155744 PMCID: PMC3801108 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Arthropod saliva possesses anti-hemostatic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties that facilitate feeding and, inadvertently, dissemination of pathogens. Vector-borne diseases caused by these pathogens affect millions of people each year. Many studies address the impact of arthropod salivary proteins on various immunological components. However, whether and how arthropod saliva counters Nod-like (NLR) sensing remains elusive. NLRs are innate immune pattern recognition molecules involved in detecting microbial molecules and danger signals. Nod1/2 signaling results in activation of the nuclear factor-κB and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Caspase-1 NLRs regulate the inflammasome~– a protein scaffold that governs the maturation of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Recently, several vector-borne pathogens have been shown to induce NLR activation in immune cells. Here, we provide a brief overview of NLR signaling and discuss clinically relevant vector-borne pathogens recognized by NLR pathways. We also elaborate on possible anti-inflammatory effects of arthropod saliva on NLR signaling and microbial pathogenesis for the purpose of exchanging research perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia S Sakhon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA
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Kazimírová M, Štibrániová I. Tick salivary compounds: their role in modulation of host defences and pathogen transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:43. [PMID: 23971008 PMCID: PMC3747359 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks require blood meal to complete development and reproduction. Multifunctional tick salivary glands play a pivotal role in tick feeding and transmission of pathogens. Tick salivary molecules injected into the host modulate host defence responses to the benefit of the feeding ticks. To colonize tick organs, tick-borne microorganisms must overcome several barriers, i.e., tick gut membrane, tick immunity, and moulting. Tick-borne pathogens co-evolved with their vectors and hosts and developed molecular adaptations to avoid adverse effects of tick and host defences. Large gaps exist in the knowledge of survival strategies of tick-borne microorganisms and on the molecular mechanisms of tick-host-pathogen interactions. Prior to transmission to a host, the microorganisms penetrate and multiply in tick salivary glands. As soon as the tick is attached to a host, gene expression and production of salivary molecules is upregulated, primarily to facilitate feeding and avoid tick rejection by the host. Pathogens exploit tick salivary molecules for their survival and multiplication in the vector and transmission to and establishment in the hosts. Promotion of pathogen transmission by bioactive molecules in tick saliva was described as saliva-assisted transmission (SAT). SAT candidates comprise compounds with anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions, but the molecular mechanisms by which they mediate pathogen transmission are largely unknown. To date only a few tick salivary molecules associated with specific pathogen transmission have been identified and their functions partially elucidated. Advanced molecular techniques are applied in studying tick-host-pathogen interactions and provide information on expression of vector and pathogen genes during pathogen acquisition, establishment and transmission. Understanding the molecular events on the tick-host-pathogen interface may lead to development of new strategies to control tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava, Slovakia.
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25
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Merino O, Alberdi P, Pérez de la Lastra JM, de la Fuente J. Tick vaccines and the control of tick-borne pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:30. [PMID: 23847771 PMCID: PMC3705209 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites that transmit a wide variety of pathogens to humans and animals. The incidence of tick-borne diseases has increased worldwide in both humans and domestic animals over the past years resulting in greater interest in the study of tick-host-pathogen interactions. Advances in vector and pathogen genomics and proteomics have moved forward our knowledge of the vector-pathogen interactions that take place during the colonization and transmission of arthropod-borne microbes. Tick-borne pathogens adapt from the vector to the mammalian host by differential gene expression thus modulating host processes. In recent years, studies have shown that targeting tick proteins by vaccination can not only reduce tick feeding and reproduction, but also the infection and transmission of pathogens from the tick to the vertebrate host. In this article, we review the tick-protective antigens that have been identified for the formulation of tick vaccines and the effect of these vaccines on the control of tick-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octavio Merino
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM Ciudad Real, Spain
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Novel immunomodulators from hard ticks selectively reprogramme human dendritic cell responses. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003450. [PMID: 23825947 PMCID: PMC3695081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Hard ticks subvert the immune responses of their vertebrate hosts in order to feed for much longer periods than other blood-feeding ectoparasites; this may be one reason why they transmit perhaps the greatest diversity of pathogens of any arthropod vector. Tick-induced immunomodulation is mediated by salivary components, some of which neutralise elements of innate immunity or inhibit the development of adaptive immunity. As dendritic cells (DC) trigger and help to regulate adaptive immunity, they are an ideal target for immunomodulation. However, previously described immunoactive components of tick saliva are either highly promiscuous in their cellular and molecular targets or have limited effects on DC. Here we address the question of whether the largest and globally most important group of ticks (the ixodid metastriates) produce salivary molecules that specifically modulate DC activity. We used chromatography to isolate a salivary gland protein (Japanin) from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks. Japanin was cloned, and recombinant protein was produced in a baculoviral expression system. We found that Japanin specifically reprogrammes DC responses to a wide variety of stimuli in vitro, radically altering their expression of co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory transmembrane molecules (measured by flow cytometry) and their secretion of pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and T cell polarising cytokines (assessed by Luminex multiplex assays); it also inhibits the differentiation of DC from monocytes. Sequence alignments and enzymatic deglycosylation revealed Japanin to be a 17.7 kDa, N-glycosylated lipocalin. Using molecular cloning and database searches, we have identified a group of homologous proteins in R. appendiculatus and related species, three of which we have expressed and shown to possess DC-modulatory activity. All data were obtained using DC generated from at least four human blood donors, with rigorous statistical analysis. Our results suggest a previously unknown mechanism for parasite-induced subversion of adaptive immunity, one which may also facilitate pathogen transmission. Dendritic cells (DC) are specialised cells of the vertebrate immune system. DC can sense different types of infectious agents and parasites, and both trigger and help regulate the specific types of immunity needed to eliminate them. We have discovered that the largest and globally most important group of hard ticks produce a unique family of proteins in their saliva that selectively targets DC, radically altering functions that would otherwise induce robust immune responses; these proteins also prevent DC developing from precursor cells. The production of these salivary molecules may help to explain two highly unusual features of these hard ticks compared with other blood-feeding parasites: their ability to feed continuously on their vertebrate hosts for considerable lengths of time (7 days or more) without eliciting potentially damaging immune responses, and their capacity to transmit possibly the greatest variety of pathogens of any type of invertebrate.
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Abstract
Is chronic illness in patients with Lyme disease caused by persistent infection? Three decades of basic and clinical research have yet to produce a definitive answer to this question. This review describes known and suspected mechanisms by which spirochetes of the Borrelia genus evade host immune defenses and survive antibiotic challenge. Accumulating evidence indicates that Lyme disease spirochetes are adapted to persist in immune competent hosts, and that they are able to remain infective despite aggressive antibiotic challenge. Advancing understanding of the survival mechanisms of the Lyme disease spirochete carry noteworthy implications for ongoing research and clinical practice.
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Chen G, Severo MS, Sohail M, Sakhon OS, Wikel SK, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. Ixodes scapularis saliva mitigates inflammatory cytokine secretion during Anaplasma phagocytophilum stimulation of immune cells. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:229. [PMID: 23050849 PMCID: PMC3503595 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ixodes scapularis saliva enables the transmission of infectious agents to the mammalian host due to its immunomodulatory, anesthetic and anti-coagulant properties. However, how I. scapularis saliva influences host cytokine secretion in the presence of the obligate intracellular rickettsial pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum remains elusive. Methods Bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) were stimulated with pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and A. phagocytophilum. Cytokine secretion was measured in the presence and absence of I. scapularis saliva. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were also stimulated with Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α in the presence and absence of I. scapularis saliva and interleukin (IL)-8 was measured. Results I. scapularis saliva inhibits inflammatory cytokine secretion by macrophages during stimulation of Toll-like (TLR) and Nod-like receptor (NLR) signaling pathways. The effect of I. scapularis saliva on immune cells is not restricted to murine macrophages because decreasing levels of interleukin (IL)-8 were observed after TNF-α stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. I. scapularis saliva also mitigates pro-inflammatory cytokine response by murine macrophages during challenge with A. phagocytophilum. Conclusions These findings suggest that I. scapularis may inhibit inflammatory cytokine secretion during rickettsial transmission at the vector-host interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Chen
- Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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29
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Schuijt TJ, Narasimhan S, Daffre S, DePonte K, Hovius JWR, Van't Veer C, van der Poll T, Bakhtiari K, Meijers JCM, Boder ET, van Dam AP, Fikrig E. Identification and characterization of Ixodes scapularis antigens that elicit tick immunity using yeast surface display. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15926. [PMID: 21246036 PMCID: PMC3016337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated exposure of rabbits and other animals to ticks results in acquired resistance or immunity to subsequent tick bites and is partially elicited by antibodies directed against tick antigens. In this study we demonstrate the utility of a yeast surface display approach to identify tick salivary antigens that react with tick-immune serum. We constructed an Ixodes scapularis nymphal salivary gland yeast surface display library and screened the library with nymph-immune rabbit sera and identified five salivary antigens. Four of these proteins, designated P8, P19, P23 and P32, had a predicted signal sequence. We generated recombinant (r) P8, P19 and P23 in a Drosophila expression system for functional and immunization studies. rP8 showed anti-complement activity and rP23 demonstrated anti-coagulant activity. Ixodes scapularis feeding was significantly impaired when nymphs were fed on rabbits immunized with a cocktail of rP8, rP19 and rP23, a hall mark of tick-immunity. These studies also suggest that these antigens may serve as potential vaccine candidates to thwart tick feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim J Schuijt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America.
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Tick-borne disease systems emerge from the shadows: the beauty lies in molecular detail, the message in epidemiology. Parasitology 2009; 136:1403-13. [PMID: 19366480 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182009005782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on some of the more ground-shifting advances of recent decades, particularly those at the molecular and cellular level that illuminate mechanisms underpinning the natural ecology of tick-host-pathogen interactions and the consequent epidemiology of zoonotic infections in humans. Knowledge of components of tick saliva, now recognized as the central pillar in the tick's ability to complete its blood meal and the pathogen's differential ability to use particular hosts for transmission, has burgeoned with new molecular techniques. Functional studies have linked a few of them to saliva-assisted transmission of non-systemic infections between co-feeding ticks, the quantitative key to persistent cycles of the most significant tick-borne pathogen in Europe. Human activities, however, may be equally important in determining dynamic patterns of infection incidence in humans.
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Tick-induced blood loss leads to regenerative anaemia in the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Parasitology 2009; 136:443-52. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182009005514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYAlthough there is an increasing understanding of the role of parasites in their host dynamics, accurate, quantitative estimates of parasite caused morbidity in wild animals are rare. Here, we examine the possible impact of 2 tick species (Ixodes ricinus, I. hexagonus) on the condition of the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). For this, we tested for correlations between blood parameters of 36 adult hedgehogs from an experimental population enclosed in a natural habitat and their tick infestation over a period of 8 months (March–October 2007). We found correlations between the tick infestation and the concentration of red blood cells, haemoglobin, haematocrit, MCH, MCHC, thrombocytes, lymphocytes and neutrophils. These results indicate that ticks can induce anaemia in the hedgehog. The peripheral blood characteristics and the erythrocyte indices characterize this anaemia as haemorrhagic and regenerative. During the course of our study the hedgehogs of our population showed below normal mortality but morbidity was found to be high resulting from the blood loss caused by the feeding activity of the ticks.
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Francischetti IMB, Sa-Nunes A, Mans BJ, Santos IM, Ribeiro JMC. The role of saliva in tick feeding. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2009; 14:2051-88. [PMID: 19273185 PMCID: PMC2785505 DOI: 10.2741/3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
When attempting to feed on their hosts, ticks face the problem of host hemostasis (the vertebrate mechanisms that prevent blood loss), inflammation (that can produce itching or pain and thus initiate defensive behavior on their hosts) and adaptive immunity (by way of both cellular and humoral responses). Against these barriers, ticks evolved a complex and sophisticated pharmacological armamentarium, consisting of bioactive lipids and proteins, to assist blood feeding. Recent progress in transcriptome research has uncovered that hard ticks have hundreds of different proteins expressed in their salivary glands, the majority of which have no known function, and include many novel protein families (e.g., their primary structure is unique to ticks). This review will address the vertebrate mechanisms of these barriers as a guide to identify the possible targets of these large numbers of known salivary proteins with unknown function. We additionally provide a supplemental Table that catalogues over 3,500 putative salivary proteins from various tick species, which might assist the scientific community in the process of functional identification of these unique proteins. This supplemental file is accessble fromhttp://exon.niaid.nih.gov/transcriptome/tick_review/Sup-Table-1.xls.gz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo M B Francischetti
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda MD, USA
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Menten-Dedoyart C, Couvreur B, Thellin O, Drion PV, Herry M, Jolois O, Heinen E. Influence of the Ixodes ricinus tick blood-feeding on the antigen-specific antibody response in vivo. Vaccine 2008; 26:6956-64. [PMID: 18930098 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2008] [Revised: 09/09/2008] [Accepted: 09/17/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The blood meal of hard ticks such as Ixodes ricinus lasts several days. This is made possible by tick salivary factors that inhibit inflammation, haemostasis and the host immune response. We assessed the latter on a model of immune response in vivo. A significant reduction of specific IgM and IgG levels was observed in BALB/c mice infested 5 days before injection with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and QuilA but not in mice infested 5 days after the immunization. This effect was not observed in mock-infested mice and could not be attributed to the use of anesthetics. The antibody response was not merely delayed and the Th(1)/Th(2) balance appeared not altered. T-dependent zones and germinal centers in lymph nodes draining the tick bite site showed no apparent morphological alterations or shift in T cell subpopulations. However, the spleens of tick-infested mice had also an enlarged red pulp, indicating an increased extramedullary haematopoietic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Menten-Dedoyart
- Laboratory of Human Histology, University of Liege, Avenue de l'Hopital 1, B-4000 Liege, Belgium.
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Konnai S, Nakajima C, Imamura S, Yamada S, Nishikado H, Kodama M, Onuma M, Ohashi K. Suppression of cell proliferation and cytokine expression by HL-p36, a tick salivary gland-derived protein of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Immunology 2008; 126:209-19. [PMID: 18624730 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.02890.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, a putative immunosuppressant-coding gene was identified from a complementary DNA library derived from the salivary glands of partially-fed Haemaphysalis longicornis. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction, the gene was shown to be predominantly expressed during blood feeding with the site of expression being mainly in the salivary glands; this was confirmed by Western blotting analysis. To investigate the function of this novel protein, in this study, we examined the proliferative responses of bovine mononuclear cells and murine splenic cells as well as the expression of profiles of several cytokines in these cells in the presence of the recombinant protein (H. longicornis-derived 36 000 molecular weight protein: rHL-p36). The addition of rHL-p36 at the beginning of the 72 hr cultivation period clearly inhibited proliferation of several mitogen-stimulated cells in a dose-dependent manner, with concomitantly significant down-regulation of messenger RNA levels for interleukin-2. The inhibitory response could be abrogated by blockage of HL-p36 with antibody, suggesting the direct involvement of rHL-p36 in the cell proliferation. Furthermore, the proliferative response of splenocytes isolated from rHL-p36-inoculated mice was significantly lower than for those from control mice, suggesting that rHL-p36 could also directly suppress immune responses in vivo. Interestingly, microarray analysis of the splenocytes showed that the expression of several immunomodulating genes was down-regulated by rHL-p36 inoculation. In conclusion, these results suggest that HL-p36 is an immunosuppressor that might play an important role in the modulation of host immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Konnai
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
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35
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The tick salivary protein Salp15 inhibits the killing of serum-sensitive Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates. Infect Immun 2008; 76:2888-94. [PMID: 18426890 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00232-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted by ticks. During transmission from the tick to the host, spirochetes are delivered with tick saliva, which contains the salivary protein Salp15. Salp15 has been shown to protect spirochetes against B. burgdorferi-specific antibodies. We now show that Salp15 from both Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes scapularis protects serum-sensitive isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato against complement-mediated killing. I. ricinus Salp15 showed strong protective effects compared to those of I. scapularis Salp15. Deposition of terminal C5b to C9 (one molecule each of C5b, C6, C7, and C8 and one or more molecules of C9) complement complexes, part of the membrane attack complex, on the surface of B. burgdorferi was inhibited in the presence of Salp15. In the presence of normal human serum, serum-sensitive Borrelia burgdorferi requires protection against complement-mediated killing, which is provided, at least in part, by the binding to the tick salivary protein Salp15.
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36
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Abstract
Joppe Hovius and colleagues review anticoagulant and immunosuppressive proteins present in tick saliva, and discuss how immunologically targeting such molecules could prevent transmission of tick-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joppe W R Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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37
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The Important and Diverse Roles of Antibodies in the Host Response to Borrelia Infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2008; 319:63-103. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-73900-5_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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38
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In vitro splenocyte proliferation responses of BALB/c mice to salivary gland extracts of three ixodid tick species (Acari: Ixodidae). Biologia (Bratisl) 2007. [DOI: 10.2478/s11756-007-0141-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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39
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Lyme arthritis: current concepts and a change in paradigm. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2007; 15:21-34. [PMID: 18003815 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00330-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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40
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Müller-Doblies UU, Maxwell SS, Boppana VD, Mihalyo MA, McSorley SJ, Vella AT, Adler AJ, Wikel SK. Feeding by the tick, Ixodes scapularis, causes CD4+T cells responding to cognate antigen to develop the capacity to express IL-4. Parasite Immunol 2007; 29:485-99. [PMID: 17883452 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2007.00966.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Effects of tick feeding on an early antigen-specific T cell response were studied by monitoring a clonotypic population of adoptively transferred T cell receptor (TCR) transgenic CD4 cells responding to a tick-associated antigen. When recipient mice were infested with pathogen-free Ixodes scapularis nymphs several days prior to T cell transfer and intradermal injection of soluble cognate antigen at the feeding site, the clonotypic CD4 cells gained the ability to express the Th2 effector cytokine IL-4. Notably, this effect was not only observed in BALB/c mice predisposed towards developing Th2 responses but also in B10.D2 mice predisposed towards Th1 responsiveness. Furthermore, tick feeding was able to superimpose IL-4 expression potential onto a strong Th1 response (indicated by robust IFN-gamma expression potential) elicited by immunization with a vaccinia virus expressing the cognate antigen. The magnitude to which tick feeding was able to programme IL-4 expression potential in CD4 cells was partially reduced in mice that had been previously exposed to pathogen-free tick nymphs 6 weeks earlier, as well as when the nymphs were infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. Intradermal injection of salivary gland extract programmed IL-4 expression potential similar to that of tick infestation, suggesting that IL-4 programming activity is contained within tick saliva.
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41
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Narasimhan S, DePonte K, Marcantonio N, Liang X, Royce TE, Nelson KF, Booth CJ, Koski B, Anderson JF, Kantor F, Fikrig E. Immunity against Ixodes scapularis salivary proteins expressed within 24 hours of attachment thwarts tick feeding and impairs Borrelia transmission. PLoS One 2007; 2:e451. [PMID: 17505544 PMCID: PMC1866177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2007] [Accepted: 04/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In North America, the black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis, an obligate haematophagus arthropod, is a vector of several human pathogens including Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease agent. In this report, we show that the tick salivary gland transcriptome and proteome is dynamic and changes during the process of engorgement. We demonstrate, using a guinea pig model of I. scapularis feeding and B. burgdorferi transmission, that immunity directed against salivary proteins expressed in the first 24 h of tick attachment — and not later — is sufficient to evoke all the hallmarks of acquired tick-immunity, to thwart tick feeding and also to impair Borrelia transmission. Defining this subset of proteins will promote a mechanistic understanding of novel I. scapularis proteins critical for the initiation of tick feeding and for Borrelia transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukanya Narasimhan
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Kathleen DePonte
- Section of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Nancy Marcantonio
- Section of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Xianping Liang
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Thomas E. Royce
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Kenneth F. Nelson
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Carmen J. Booth
- Section of Comparative Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Koski
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - John F. Anderson
- Department of Entomology, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Fred Kantor
- Section of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Caljon G, Van Den Abbeele J, Stijlemans B, Coosemans M, De Baetselier P, Magez S. Tsetse fly saliva accelerates the onset of Trypanosoma brucei infection in a mouse model associated with a reduced host inflammatory response. Infect Immun 2006; 74:6324-30. [PMID: 16954393 PMCID: PMC1695494 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01046-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) are the vectors that transmit African trypanosomes, protozoan parasites that cause human sleeping sickness and veterinary infections in the African continent. These blood-feeding dipteran insects deposit saliva at the feeding site that enables the blood-feeding process. Here we demonstrate that tsetse fly saliva also accelerates the onset of a Trypanosoma brucei infection. This effect was associated with a reduced inflammatory reaction at the site of infection initiation (reflected by a decrease of interleukin-6 [IL-6] and IL-12 mRNA) as well as lower serum concentrations of the trypanocidal cytokine tumor necrosis factor. Variant-specific surface glycoprotein-specific antibody isotypes immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG2a, implicated in trypanosome clearance, were not suppressed. We propose that tsetse fly saliva accelerates the onset of trypanosome infection by inhibiting local and systemic inflammatory responses involved in parasite control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Caljon
- Unit of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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43
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Titus RG, Bishop JV, Mejia JS. The immunomodulatory factors of arthropod saliva and the potential for these factors to serve as vaccine targets to prevent pathogen transmission. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:131-41. [PMID: 16542315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00807.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In general, attempts to develop vaccines for pathogens transmitted by arthropods have met with little or no success. It has been widely observed that the saliva of arthropods that transmit disease enhances the infectivity of pathogens the arthropod transmits to the vertebrate host. Indeed, it has been observed that vaccinating against components of the saliva of arthropods or against antigens expressed in the gut of arthropods can protect the host from infection and decrease the viability of the arthropod. These results suggest that multi-subunit vaccines that target the pathogen itself as well as arthropod salivary gland components and arthropod gut antigens may be the most effective at controlling arthropod-borne pathogens as these vaccines would target several facets of the lifecycle of the pathogen. This review covers known immunomodulators in arthropod salivary glands, instances when arthropod saliva has been shown to enhance infection and a limited number of examples of antiarthropod vaccines, with emphasis on three arthropods: sandflies, mosquitoes and hard ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Titus
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 80523, USA
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Labuda M, Trimnell AR, Ličková M, Kazimírová M, Davies GM, Lissina O, Hails RS, Nuttall PA. An antivector vaccine protects against a lethal vector-borne pathogen. PLoS Pathog 2006; 2:e27. [PMID: 16604154 PMCID: PMC1424664 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2005] [Accepted: 03/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines that target blood-feeding disease vectors, such as mosquitoes and ticks, have the potential to protect against the many diseases caused by vector-borne pathogens. We tested the ability of an anti-tick vaccine derived from a tick cement protein (64TRP) of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus to protect mice against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) transmitted by infected Ixodes ricinus ticks. The vaccine has a “dual action” in immunized animals: when infested with ticks, the inflammatory and immune responses first disrupt the skin feeding site, resulting in impaired blood feeding, and then specific anti-64TRP antibodies cross-react with midgut antigenic epitopes, causing rupture of the tick midgut and death of engorged ticks. Three parameters were measured: “transmission,” number of uninfected nymphal ticks that became infected when cofeeding with an infected adult female tick; “support,” number of mice supporting virus transmission from the infected tick to cofeeding uninfected nymphs; and “survival,” number of mice that survived infection by tick bite and subsequent challenge by intraperitoneal inoculation of a lethal dose of TBEV. We show that one dose of the 64TRP vaccine protects mice against lethal challenge by infected ticks; control animals developed a fatal viral encephalitis. The protective effect of the 64TRP vaccine was comparable to that of a single dose of a commercial TBEV vaccine, while the transmission-blocking effect of 64TRP was better than that of the antiviral vaccine in reducing the number of animals supporting virus transmission. By contrast, the commercial antitick vaccine (TickGARD) that targets only the tick's midgut showed transmission-blocking activity but was not protective. The 64TRP vaccine demonstrates the potential to control vector-borne disease by interfering with pathogen transmission, apparently by mediating a local cutaneous inflammatory immune response at the tick-feeding site. Blood-sucking vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks transmit hundreds of micro-organisms that cause diseases like malaria and Lyme disease. Controlling so many diseases is an enormous challenge. A new idea is to make vaccines against the vectors rather than against all the individual disease agents they carry. The authors examined this hypothesis using a vaccine prepared from tick cement. This cement is secreted by ticks to help them attach to a human or animal to feed. A mouse model was used in which mice were infested with ticks infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), the most important vector-borne virus in Europe and northern Asia. The control mice developed fatal encephalitis and died about a week after being bitten by the infected tick. By contrast, the tick cement vaccine gave protection similar to the level seen in mice immunized with a single shot of the commercial TBEV vaccine for humans. However, a commercial tick vaccine used to control cattle ticks did not protect the mice. The authors' tick cement vaccine appeared to work by causing a cellular immune response in the skin where ticks were feeding. These results show that it is feasible to produce a vaccine against a tick that protects against the disease agent it transmits.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/pathogenicity
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/physiology
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/prevention & control
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/transmission
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/virology
- Female
- Insect Vectors/immunology
- Insect Vectors/virology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Skin Diseases, Viral/prevention & control
- Skin Diseases, Viral/transmission
- Skin Diseases, Viral/virology
- Tick Infestations/pathology
- Tick Infestations/prevention & control
- Ticks/immunology
- Ticks/virology
- Vaccination/methods
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Labuda
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Adama R Trimnell
- Natural Environment Research Council Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Martina Ličková
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Gillian M Davies
- Natural Environment Research Council Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Olga Lissina
- Natural Environment Research Council Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Rosie S Hails
- Natural Environment Research Council Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia A Nuttall
- Natural Environment Research Council Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Fikrig E, Narasimhan S. Borrelia burgdorferi–Traveling incognito? Microbes Infect 2006; 8:1390-9. [PMID: 16698304 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2005] [Accepted: 12/26/2005] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
We outline in this review how Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, moves from the tick to the vertebrate host, and what molecules are potentially involved in this challenging commute. The survival strategies utilized by the spirochete during transmission and the initial stages of infection are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erol Fikrig
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, Room 525A, 300 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA.
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Yu D, Liang J, Yu H, Wu H, Xu C, Liu J, Lai R. A tick B-cell inhibitory protein from salivary glands of the hard tick, Hyalomma asiaticum asiaticum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343:585-90. [PMID: 16554026 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.02.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Some studies done to date suggest that B-cell inhibitory factor occurred in tick saliva. In this study, a novel protein having B-cell inhibitory activity was purified and characterized from the salivary glands of the hard tick, Hyalomma asiaticum asiaticum. This protein was named B-cell inhibitory factor (BIF). The cDNA encoding BIF was cloned by cDNA library screening. The predicted protein from the cDNA sequence is composed of 138 amino acids including the mature BIF. No similarity was found by Blast search. The lipopolysaccharide-induced B-cell proliferation was inhibited by BIF. This is the first report of the identification and characterization of B-cell inhibitory protein from tick. The current study facilitates the study of identifying the interaction among tick, Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, and host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Yu
- Key Laboratory of Microbiological Engineering of Agricultural Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Life Sciences College of Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
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Kashino SS, Resende J, Sacco AMS, Rocha C, Proença L, Carvalho WA, Firmino AA, Queiroz R, Benavides M, Gershwin LJ, De Miranda Santos IKF. Boophilus microplus: the pattern of bovine immunoglobulin isotype responses to high and low tick infestations. Exp Parasitol 2005; 110:12-21. [PMID: 15804374 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2005.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2004] [Revised: 01/19/2005] [Accepted: 01/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cattle present variable levels of resistance to ticks and the immune correlates of these heritable phenotypes must be known in order to develop effective vaccines. The antibody responses to tick salivary antigens were examined in cattle of tick-susceptible (Holstein) and tick-resistant (Nelore) breeds. After heavy infestations, levels of IgG1 and IgG2 antibodies decreased in Holsteins and remained the same in Nelores. Conversely, levels of IgE antibodies increased in Holsteins. Different sizes of tick burdens modulated the IgG1 antibody response in a susceptible breed (Aberdeen): levels were higher than in controls in heavily infested animals, but not in those undergoing intermediary or minimal infestations. The three experimental groups presented similar levels of IgG2 antibodies. Levels of IgE antibodies were higher only in animals undergoing intermediate infestations. These results indicate that tick infestations suppress the IgG antibody response in susceptible breeds, that IgE antibodies are not protective, and that the dose of tick saliva modulates the isotype of host antibody responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suely S Kashino
- Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária--Embrapa, Brasília DF, Brazil
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