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Ac-Pangan MF, Engeseth NJ, Cadwallader KR. Identification of Important Aroma Components and Sensory Profiles of Minimally Processed (Unroasted) and Conventionally Roasted Dark Chocolates. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 37307497 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c01366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Roasting is an important unit operation for the development of characteristic chocolate aroma during manufacturing. However, there is an increase in interest in minimally processed chocolate products due to their potential positive health benefits. The odor-important compounds and sensory characteristics of minimally processed (unroasted) and conventionally roasted dark chocolates were determined by gas chromatography-olfactometry, aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA), and stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA). Except for acetic acid, all odorants had higher odor-activity values (OAVs) in roasted chocolate. Acetic acid, developed during fermentation and drying, had the highest OAV in both chocolates but was better preserved in unroasted chocolate. Compounds making a greater aroma impact on roasted chocolate compared with unroasted chocolate included dimethyl trisulfide, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, and 3-methylbutanal. Nine significant sensory attributes in unroasted and roasted chocolates were identified. Vinegar (aroma) and roasted (aroma and aroma by mouth), sweet (taste), and hardness (texture) attributes differed between unroasted and roasted chocolates. The results of this study enforce the embracement of low thermal processes to showcase the inherent flavor potential of cacao beans but also to support the concept of chocolate "terroir" by potentially preserving important aroma compounds developed during fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlon F Ac-Pangan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1230 Washington Street Southwest, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Nicki J Engeseth
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 905 South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Keith R Cadwallader
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1302 West Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Iacumin L, Pellegrini M, Colautti A, Orecchia E, Comi G. Microbial Characterization of Retail Cocoa Powders and Chocolate Bars of Five Brands Sold in Italian Supermarkets. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182753. [PMID: 36140882 PMCID: PMC9497492 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A microbial characterization of cocoa powder and chocolate bars of three batches of five different brands sold in Italian markets was performed. The results showed a variable microbial population consisting of mesophilic and thermophilic spore formation in both types of products. The chocolate bars were also contaminated with molds of environmental origin. Bacillus spp. and Geobacillus spp. were found in both products. The chocolate bars were also contaminated by molds belonging to the genera Penicillium and Cladosporium. The sporogenous strains mainly originate from the raw materials, i.e., cocoa beans, as the heat treatments involved (roasting of the beans and conching of the chocolate) are not sufficient to reach commercial sterility. Furthermore, the identified spore-forming species have often been isolated from cocoa beans. The molds isolated from chocolate seem to have an origin strictly linked to the final phases of production (environment and packaging). However, the level of contaminants is limited (<2 log CFU/g); the molds do not develop in both products due to their low Aw (<0.6) and do not affect the safety of the products. However, a case of mold development in chocolate bars was observed. Among the isolated molds, only Penicillium lanosocoeruleum demonstrated a high xero-tolerance and grew under some conditions on chocolate bars. Its growth could be explained by a cocoa butter bloom accompanied by the presence of humidity originating from the bloom or acquired during packaging.
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Rahardjo YP, Syamsu K, Rahardja S, Samsudin, Mangunwijaya D. Impact of controlled fermentation on the volatile aroma of roasted cocoa. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/1981-6723.27020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract The study of controlled methods of cocoa fermentation on a small scale is important to assess the maintenance of heat generated in the last days of fermentation. The research aimed to study the impact of spontaneous fermentation in controlled fermentation systems on the quality and acceptability of fermented cocoa beans. A 2×3 complete factorial design used different controlled fermentation systems (jacket system, solar heater and wooden box) and pulp reduction as variables. Samples were analyzed for fermentation index and volatile aroma composition profile using Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The profile of volatile compounds is evaluated for the studied variables using a multivariate Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The results showed increasing fermentation times in the jacket system seeing that it raised the fermentation rate and accelerated it to five days of fermentation combined with pulp reduction. The PCA analysis showed differences in the chemical composition of volatile compounds that were mainly associated with the reduction of the pulping process than the type of controlled system in four days of fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogi Purna Rahardjo
- IPB University, Indonesia; Central Sulawesi Assessment Institute for Agricultural, Indonesia
| | | | | | - Samsudin
- Indonesian Industrial and Beverage Crops Research Institute, Indonesia
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Abstract
AbstractThe compounds responsible for smoky and mouldy–musty off-flavours in fermented cocoa have recently been elucidated; however, their behaviour during further processing into chocolate was still unclear. The compounds 2-methoxyphenol, 3-methylphenol, 4-methylphenol, 3-ethylphenol, 4-ethylphenol, and 3-propylphenol known to contribute to smoky off-flavours showed a tendency towards a minor increase during roasting and processing into cocoa liquor. This increase amounted to 1.4-fold at the most, however, was clearly compensated by losses of 30–63% during further processing into chocolate mass and conching. Among the off-flavour compounds identified in mouldy–musty smelling cocoa, faecal, mothball-like 3-methyl-1H-indole showed a clear decrease during roasting and processing into cocoa liquor, at least at rather high roasting temperatures, and a further decrease during processing into chocolate mass and conching. In contrast, faecal, mothball-like 1H-indole substantially increased during roasting and processing into cocoa liquor, namely from concentrations below its odour threshold value to concentrations up to 8 times beyond its odour threshold value. During processing into chocolate mass and conching, 1H-indole remained virtually unchanged. The data suggested that the monitoring of off-flavour compounds at the incoming goods inspection in the chocolate industry should not be limited to the fermented beans as such but additionally include the analysis of a bean sample after test roasting to correctly assess the off-flavour potential of 3-methyl-1H-indole and 1H-indole.
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Dissecting industrial fermentations of fine flavour cocoa through metagenomic analysis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8638. [PMID: 33883642 PMCID: PMC8060343 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88048-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The global demand for fine-flavour cocoa has increased worldwide during the last years. Fine-flavour cocoa offers exceptional quality and unique fruity and floral flavour attributes of high demand by the world's elite chocolatiers. Several studies have highlighted the relevance of cocoa fermentation to produce such attributes. Nevertheless, little is known regarding the microbial interactions and biochemistry that lead to the production of these attributes on farms of industrial relevance, where traditional fermentation methods have been pre-standardized and scaled up. In this study, we have used metagenomic approaches to dissect on-farm industrial fermentations of fine-flavour cocoa. Our results revealed the presence of a shared core of nine dominant microorganisms (i.e. Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pestalotiopsis rhododendri, Acetobacter aceti group, Bacillus subtilis group, Weissella ghanensis group, Lactobacillus_uc, Malassezia restricta and Malassezia globosa) between two farms located at completely different agro-ecological zones. Moreover, a community metabolic model was reconstructed and proposed as a tool to further elucidate the interactions among microorganisms and flavour biochemistry. Our work is the first to reveal a core of microorganisms shared among industrial farms, which is an essential step to process engineering aimed to design starter cultures, reducing fermentation times, and controlling the expression of undesirable phenotypes.
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Füllemann D, Steinhaus M. Characterization of Odorants Causing Smoky Off-Flavors in Cocoa. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:10833-10841. [PMID: 32902973 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Application of an aroma extract dilution analysis in parallel applied to the volatiles isolated from a sample of fermented cocoa with a pronounced smoky off-flavor and a reference sample with flawless aroma revealed seven potential off-flavor compounds with smoky/phenolic odor qualities and higher flavor dilution factors in the off-flavor sample than in the reference sample. These compounds were 2-methoxyphenol, 3- and 4-methylphenol, 3- and 4-ethylphenol, and 3- and 4-propylphenol. Their quantitation in seven off-flavor samples and two reference samples without off-flavor showed that 4-propylphenol did not exceed its odor threshold value. From the concentrations obtained for the other six compounds and their odor threshold values in deodorized cocoa butter, maximum tolerable concentrations were derived for the incoming goods inspection in the chocolate industry. The suggested limits are 2 μg/kg for 3-ethylphenol and 3-propylphenol, 20 μg/kg for 4-methylphenol, 3-methylphenol, and 4-ethylphenol, and 70 μg/kg for 2-methoxyphenol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Füllemann
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich (Leibniz-LSB@TUM), Lise-Meitner-Straße 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Martin Steinhaus
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich (Leibniz-LSB@TUM), Lise-Meitner-Straße 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
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Schlüter A, Hühn T, Kneubühl M, Chatelain K, Rohn S, Chetschik I. Novel Time- and Location-Independent Postharvest Treatment of Cocoa Beans: Investigations on the Aroma Formation during "Moist Incubation" of Unfermented and Dried Cocoa Nibs and Comparison to Traditional Fermentation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:10336-10344. [PMID: 31885268 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b06119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The aroma properties of cocoa nibs obtained by applying a novel postharvest treatment were investigated using methods of the molecular sensory science approach, i.e., solvent extraction and solvent-assisted flavor evaporation, aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA), stable isotope dilution analysis, calculation of odor activity values (OAVs), and orthonasal sensory evaluation; those properties were then compared to the unfermented and dried raw material and a traditionally fermented sample of the same harvest. For the treatment, unfermented and dried cocoa nibs were, first, rehydrated with lactic acid and ethanol solution to adjust the pH value to 5.1 and, second, incubated under aerobic conditions for 72 h at 45 °C and subsequently dried. This treatment was used to induce enzymatic reactions within the cotyledon matrix, which also occur inside the bean during microbial fermentation of the surrounding fruit pulp. The results of the AEDA showed that many of the key aroma compounds found in fermented and dried cocoa increased during the incubation treatment. Especially some "fruity" esters were found with an equal or even higher flavor dilution (FD) factor in the incubated sample compared to the fermented sample, whereas the fermented sample showed high FD factors for "pungent, sour" and "sweaty" acids, such as acetic acid and 2- and 3-methylbutanoic acids. The quantitative data and calculated OAVs for the samples supported the findings of the AEDA, underlining the potential of this approach as a controllable and reproducible alternative postharvest treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansgar Schlüter
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Tilo Hühn
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Markus Kneubühl
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Karin Chatelain
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Rohn
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Irene Chetschik
- Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
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Brunetto MDR, Gallignani M, Orozco W, Clavijo S, Delgado Y, Ayala C, Zambrano A. The effect of fermentation and roasting on free amino acids profile in Criollo cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) grown in Venezuela. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/1981-6723.15019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract The development of cocoa flavor and aroma is a complex phenomenon that depends on how the fermentation and roasting processes are carried out. During fermentation, the formation of some compounds so-called “aroma and flavor precursors” takes place, which are finally expressed during the roasting stage. Therefore, the evaluation of aroma precursors such as the amino acids formed during fermentation is crucial in order to determine the quality of the cocoa. In this context, we developed and validated a method for the study of these compounds in cocoa samples. The amino acids were quantitatively converted into their trimethylsilyl derivatives before their determination by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection. The results were verified performing precision and accuracy studies. The inter and intra assay coefficients of variation (C.V, n = 5) were lower than 4.7% and 4%, respectively. The analytical recoveries (95% to 108% with C.V < 4.2, n = 5) demonstrated the high performance of the extraction procedure. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of the amino acids in 110 samples of Venezuelan Criollo cocoa during the three days of fermentation and roasting (110 °C for 25 min). All samples had an appreciable content of free amino acids ranging between 3.87 and 5.97 g/kg in the absence of fermentation. We observed degradation of the acidic amino acids during the first day of fermentation, while the rest of amino acids increased progressively during the fermentation process with a predominance of the hydrophobic ones, mainly leucine, phenylalanine, valine, alanine and isoleucine. Additionally, during the roasting stage a fraction of the amino acids, especially the hydrophobic ones, was partially degraded through Maillard reaction to form the compounds associated with the cocoa aroma and flavor.
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Brunetto MDR, Gallignani de Bernardi MA, Orozco Contreras WJ, Clavijo Roa SDS, Delgado Cayama YJ, Ayala Montilla CD, Zambrano García A. RP-HPLC-DAD determination of free amino acids in cocoa samples during fermentation and roasting. REVISTA COLOMBIANA DE QUÍMICA 2020. [DOI: 10.15446/rev.colomb.quim.v1n49.77811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acids (AA) composition in cocoa beans can predict the synthesis of compounds which affect cocoa flavor. Thus, their determination is of great interest for the community implied in the commercialization and production of cocoa. In consequence, in this work, the analysis of AA produced during cocoa beans fermentation and roasting was carried out. A high-performance liquid chromatographic method with DAD detection at 254 nm was optimized and validated for their selective determination in six varieties of cocoa beans with different genotypes, all of them grown in Venezuela. AA were extracted by defatted milled cocoa powder ultrasonication using purified water at 70 ºC. Then, they were derivatized with phenyl isothiocyanate, and their derivatives were separated, using a reversed-phase column with gradient elution, achieving a satisfactory resolution among the peaks (greater than 1.0) in less than 29 min. 110 cocoa samples were analyzed. Results showed a significant content of free AA, ranging from 3.87 to 5.97 g/kg in absence of fermentation with a predominance of acidic AA. Moreover, there is a progressive increase in the AA content while fermentation process occurs, with a predominance of hydrophobic AA such as alanine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine. On the other hand, all cocoa types showed a partial degradation of free AA during the roasting step, especially the hydrophobic ones.
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10
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Degradation of cocoa proteins into oligopeptides during spontaneous fermentation of cocoa beans. Food Res Int 2018; 109:506-516. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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12
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Janek K, Niewienda A, Wöstemeyer J, Voigt J. The cleavage specificity of the aspartic protease of cocoa beans involved in the generation of the cocoa-specific aroma precursors. Food Chem 2016; 211:320-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Voigt J, Janek K, Textoris-Taube K, Niewienda A, Wöstemeyer J. Partial purification and characterisation of the peptide precursors of the cocoa-specific aroma components. Food Chem 2016; 192:706-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Crafack M, Keul H, Eskildsen CE, Petersen MA, Saerens S, Blennow A, Skovmand-Larsen M, Swiegers JH, Petersen GB, Heimdal H, Nielsen DS. Impact of starter cultures and fermentation techniques on the volatile aroma and sensory profile of chocolate. Food Res Int 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Voigt J, Biehl B. Precursors of the Cocoa-Specific Aroma Components are Derived from the Vicilin-Class (7S) Globulin of the Cocoa Seeds by Proteolytic Processing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.1995.tb00496.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Saltini R, Akkerman R, Frosch S. Optimizing chocolate production through traceability: A review of the influence of farming practices on cocoa bean quality. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Lima LJR, Almeida MH, Nout MJR, Zwietering MH. Theobroma cacao L., "The food of the Gods": quality determinants of commercial cocoa beans, with particular reference to the impact of fermentation. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2011; 51:731-61. [PMID: 21838556 DOI: 10.1080/10408391003799913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The quality of commercial cocoa beans, the principal raw material for chocolate production, relies on the combination of factors that include the type of planting material, the agricultural practices, and the post-harvest processing. Among these, the fermentation of the cocoa beans is still the most relevant since it is the process whereby the precursors of the cocoa flavor arise. The formation of these precursors depends on the activity of different microbial groups on the beans pulp. A comparison of fermentations in different countries showed that a well-defined microbial succession does not always take place and that the role of Bacillus spp. in this process remains unclear. Considering the overriding importance of the fermentation to achieve high quality commercial cocoa beans, we discuss the need of addressing the impact of the farming system, the ripeness state of the pods, and the role of microbial interactions on the fermentation in future research. In addition, the problem of high acidification cocoa beans, aspects dealing with the volatile fraction of the flavor, and the cocoa butter properties, all were identified as critical aspects that need further investigation. The standardization of the microbiological methods and the application of metagenomic approaches would magnify the knowledge in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lídia J R Lima
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Wageningen University, Bomenweg, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Kratzer U, Frank R, Kalbacher H, Biehl B, Wöstemeyer J, Voigt J. Subunit structure of the vicilin-like globular storage protein of cocoa seeds and the origin of cocoa- and chocolate-specific aroma precursors. Food Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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19
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SHEN C, HSU S, CHANG C. Co-solvent-modified supercritical carbon dioxide extractions of cholesterol and free amino acids from soft-shell turtle fish egg. Sep Purif Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2007.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Specificity and stability of the carboxypeptidase activity in ripe, ungerminated seeds of Theobroma cacao L. Food Chem 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0308-8146(95)92657-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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22
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Voigt J, Heinrichs H, Voigt G, Biehl B. Cocoa-specific aroma precursors are generated by proteolytic digestion of the vicilin-like globulin of cocoa seeds. Food Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/0308-8146(94)90117-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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23
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Voigt J, Biehl B, Heinrichs H, Kamaruddin S, Marsoner G, Hugi A. In-vitro formation of cocoa-specific aroma precursors: aroma-related peptides generated from cocoa-seed protein by co-operation of an aspartic endoprotease and a carboxypeptidase. Food Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/0308-8146(94)90155-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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25
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Kirchhoff PM, Biehl B, Crone G. Peculiarity of the accumulation of free amino acids during cocoa fermentation. Food Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0308-8146(89)90071-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Ziegleder G, Biehl B. Analysis of Cocoa Flavour Components and Flavour Precursors. ANALYSIS OF NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 1988. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-83343-4_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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27
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Danehy JP. Maillard reactions: nonenzymatic browning in food systems with special reference to the development of flavor. ADVANCES IN FOOD RESEARCH 1986; 30:77-138. [PMID: 3526830 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2628(08)60348-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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28
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KIM H, KEENEY PG. Method of Analysis for (-)-Epicatechin in Cocoa Beans by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. J Food Sci 1983. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1983.tb10787.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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29
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Mohr W, Röhrle M, Severin TH. Über die Bildung des Kakaoaromas aus seinen Vorstufen. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1971. [DOI: 10.1002/lipi.19710730810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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30
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Studies in the Degradation of Amino Acids during the Roasting of Accra Cocoa Beans. J Food Sci 1967. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1967.tb00850.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Production of Free Amino Acids during Fermentation of Cocoa Beans. J Food Sci 1967. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1967.tb09693.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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32
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Production of Reducing Sugars during Fermentation of Cocoa Beans. J Food Sci 1967. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1967.tb09694.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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33
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34
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Changes in the Sugars During the Roasting of Cocoa Beans. J Food Sci 1966. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1966.tb00480.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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35
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Changes in the Free Amino Acids During the Roasting of Cocoa Beans. J Food Sci 1966. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1966.tb00479.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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ROHAN TA, STEWART T. The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: The distribution of free amino acids in different commercial varieties of cocoa beans. J Food Sci 1965. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1965.tb01779.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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