Progesterone increases dopamine neurone number in differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells

Changes in the conflicting nongenomic effects of progesterone in rat myometrium during pregnancy

AIMS

Although the functions of progesterone in the myometrium are well-established, the nongenomic effects of progesterone in pregnant myometrial contractions are still unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate changes in the nongenomic effects of progesterone during pregnancy.

MAIN METHODS

Myometrial strips were obtained from non-pregnant, pregnant, and postpartum rats, and the nongenomic effects of progesterone in the myometrium during pregnancy were examined. Additionally, the influence of actinomycin D and cycloheximide and the effects of Org OD-02-0 (a specific membrane progesterone receptor (mPR) agonist) in the myometrium were investigated. Moreover, DNA microarray and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) were performed to identify genes involved in progesterone-induced effects in the myometrium.

KEY FINDINGS

Progesterone did not cause rhythmic contractions in non-pregnant myometrium but induced rhythmic contractions in pregnant myometrium, with the effects peaking at 20 d + 8 h of pregnancy. However, myometrial contractions decreased after delivery and were restored to non-pregnant levels at 7 d postpartum. Additionally, progesterone stably inhibited high KCl-induced myometrial contractions during pregnancy. Moreover, the nongenomic effects of progesterone were unaffected by actinomycin D or cycloheximide, and Org OD-02-0 effectively mimicked these effects. DNA microarray analysis and qRT-PCR revealed a significant increase in mPRβ gene expression during pregnancy. However, mPRα, mPRγ, mPRδ, and mPRε expression levels remained unchanged.

SIGNIFICANCE

The stimulatory nongenomic effect of progesterone, which was inducible and mPRβ-dependent during pregnancy, may be involved in parturition. The inhibitory effect, which was constitutive and depended on other mPRs, may be involved in pregnancy maintenance.

Progesterone signaling in uterine leiomyoma biology: Implications for potential targeted therapy

Uterine leiomyomas (ULs) are the most common benign smooth muscle cell steroid-dependent tumors that occur in women of reproductive age. Progesterone (P4) is a major hormone that promotes the ULs development and growth. P4 action in ULs is mediated mainly by its nuclear progesterone receptors (PGRs), although rapid non-genomic responses have also been observed. Data on the membrane progesterone receptors (mPRs) regulated signaling pathways in ULs in the available literature is still very limited. One of the essential characteristics of ULs is the excessive production of extracellular matrix (ECM). P4 has been shown to stimulate ECM production and collagen synthesis in ULs. Recent research demonstrated that, despite their benign nature, ULs may present with abnormal vasculature. P4 has been shown to regulate angiogenesis in ULs through the upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and by controlling the secretion of permeability factors. This review summarizes the key findings regarding the role of PGRs and mPRs in ULs, especially highlighting the potential ECM and angiogenesis modulation by P4. An increased understanding of this mechanistic role of nuclear and specifically mPRs in the biology of P4-modulated ECM and angiogenesis in the growth of ULs could turn out to be fundamental for developing effective targeted therapies for ULs.

The Role of Various Factors in Neural Differentiation of Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells with a Special Focus on the Physical Stimulants

Human umbilical cord matrix-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMs) are considered as ideal tools for cell therapy procedures and regenerative medicine. The capacity of these cells to differentiate into neural lineage cells make them potentially important in the treatment of various neurodegenerative diseases. An electronic search was performed in Web of Science, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus and Google Scholar databases for articles published from January 1990 to March 2022. This review discusses the current knowledge on the effect of various factors, including physical, chemical and biological stimuli which play a key role in the differentiation of hUCMs into neural and glial cells. Moreover, the currently understood molecular mechanisms involved in the neural differentiation of hUCMs under various environmental stimuli are reviewed. Various stimuli, especially physical stimuli and specifically different light sources, have revealed effects on neural differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, including hUCMs; however, due to the lack of information about the exact mechanisms, there is still a need to find optimal conditions to promote the differentiation capacity of these cells which in turn can lead to significant progress in the clinical application of hUCMs for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Translocator protein in the rise and fall of central nervous system neurons

Translocator protein (TSPO), a 18 kDa protein found in the outer mitochondrial membrane, has historically been associated with the transport of cholesterol in highly steroidogenic tissues though it is found in all cells throughout the mammalian body. TSPO has also been associated with molecular transport, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and energy metabolism. TSPO levels are typically low in the central nervous system (CNS), but a significant upregulation is observed in activated microglia during neuroinflammation. However, there are also a few specific regions that have been reported to have higher TSPO levels than the rest of the brain under normal conditions. These include the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the olfactory bulb, the subventricular zone, the choroid plexus, and the cerebellum. These areas are also all associated with adult neurogenesis, yet there is no explanation of TSPO's function in these cells. Current studies have investigated the role of TSPO in microglia during neuron degeneration, but TSPO's role in the rest of the neuron lifecycle remains to be elucidated. This review aims to discuss the known functions of TSPO and its potential role in the lifecycle of neurons within the CNS.

The importance of translationally evaluating steroid hormone contributions to substance use

Clinically, women appear to be more susceptible to certain aspects of substance use disorders (SUDs). The steroid hormones 17β-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (Pg) have been linked to women-specific drug behaviors. Here, we review clinical and preclinical studies investigating how cycling ovarian hormones affect nicotine-, cocaine-, and opioid-related behaviors. We also highlight gaps in the literature regarding how synthetic steroid hormone use may influence drug-related behaviors. In addition, we explore how E2 and Pg are known to interact in brain reward pathways and provide evidence of how these interactions may influence drug-related behaviors. The synthesis of this review demonstrates the critical need to study women-specific factors that may influence aspects of SUDs, which may play important roles in addiction processes in a sex-specific fashion. It is important to understand factors that impact women's health and may be key to moving the field forward toward more efficacious and individualized treatment strategies.

Progesterone exerts a neuroprotective action in a Parkinson's disease human cell model through membrane progesterone receptor α (mPRα/PAQR7)

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide, and current treatment options are unsatisfactory on the long term. Several studies suggest a potential neuroprotective action by female hormones, especially estrogens. The potential role of progestogens, however, is less defined, and no studies have investigated the potential involvement of membrane progesterone receptors (mPRs). In the present study, the putative neuroprotective role for mPRs was investigated in SH-SY5Y cells, using two established pharmacological treatments for cellular PD models, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). Our results show that both the physiologic agonist progesterone and the specific mPR agonist Org OD 02-0 were effective in reducing SH-SY5Y cell death induced by 6-OHDA and MPP⁺, whereas the nuclear PR agonist promegestone (R5020) and the GABA_A receptor agonist muscimol were ineffective. Experiments performed with gene silencing technology and selective pharmacological agonists showed that mPRα is the isoform responsible for the neuroprotective effects we observed. Further experiments showed that the PI3K-AKT and MAP kinase signaling pathways are involved in the mPRα-mediated progestogen neuroprotective action in SH-SY5Y cells. These findings suggest that mPRα could play a neuroprotective role in PD pathology and may be a promising target for the development of therapeutic strategies for PD prevention or management.

Estradiol and progesterone in female reward-learning, addiction, and therapeutic interventions

Sex steroid hormones like estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) guide the sexual organization and activation of the developing brain and control female reproductive behavior throughout the lifecycle; importantly, these hormones modulate functional activity of not just the endocrine system, but most of the nervous system including the brain reward system. The effects of E2 and P4 can be seen in the processing of and memory for rewarding stimuli and in the development of compulsive reward-seeking behaviors like those seen in substance use disorders. Women are at increased risk of developing substance use disorders; however, the origins of this sex difference are not well understood and therapeutic interventions targeting ovarian hormones have produced conflicting results. This article reviews the contribution of the E2 and P4 in females to functional modulation of the brain reward system, their possible roles in origins of addiction vulnerability, and the development and treatment of compulsive reward-seeking behaviors.

Association Between Maternal Hormonal Contraception Use and Central Nervous System Tumors in Children

IMPORTANCE

The incidence of central nervous system (CNS) tumors in children appears to be increasing, yet few risk factors are established. There is limited information regarding whether maternal hormonal contraception use increases this risk.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between maternal hormonal contraception use and CNS tumors in children (<20 years).

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this nationwide cohort study based on population-based registry data, 1 185 063 children born in Denmark between January 1, 1996, and December 31, 2014, were followed up for a diagnosis of a CNS tumor (final follow-up on December 31, 2018).

EXPOSURES

Maternal hormonal contraception use was analyzed according to any use, regimen (combined/progestin only), and route of administration (oral/nonoral), categorized as recent use (≤3 months before start and during pregnancy), previous use (>3 months before start of pregnancy), and no use. For injections, implants, and intrauterine devices that are used for a different time period, the categorization was appropriately altered.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Hazard ratio (HR) and incidence rate difference (IRD) of CNS tumors diagnosed at younger than 20 years.

RESULTS

After 15 335 990 person-years of follow-up (mean follow-up, 12.9 years), 725 children were diagnosed with a CNS tumor. The mean age at diagnosis was 7 years, and 342 (47.2%) of the diagnosed children were female. The adjusted incidence rate of CNS tumors per 100 000 person-years was 5.0 for children born to mothers with recent hormonal contraception use (n = 136 022), 4.5 for children born to mothers with previous use (n = 778 843), and 5.3 for children born to mothers with no use (n = 270 198). The corresponding HRs were 0.95 ([95% CI, 0.74-1.23]; 84 children with CNS tumors; IRD, -0.3 [95% CI, -1.6 to 1.0]) for recent use and 0.86 ([95% CI, 0.72-1.02]; 421 children with CNS tumors; IRD, -0.8 [95% CI, -1.7 to 0.0]) for previous use, compared with no use. No statistically significant associations were found for recent or previous use of oral combined, nonoral combined, oral progestin only, or nonoral products compared with no use of hormonal contraception.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Among Danish children, there was no statistically significant association between any maternal hormonal contraception use and CNS tumor risk.

Neurosteroids: A novel promise for the treatment of stroke and post-stroke complications

Stroke is the primary reason for death and disability worldwide, with few treatment strategies to date. Neurosteroids, which are natural molecules in the brain, have aroused great interest in the field of stroke. Neurosteroids are a kind of steroid that acts on the nervous system, and are synthesized in the mitochondria of neurons or glial cells using cholesterol or other steroidal precursors. Neurosteroids mainly include estrogen, progesterone (PROG), allopregnanolone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and vitamin D (VD). Most of the preclinical studies have confirmed that neurosteroids can decrease the risk of stroke, and improve stroke outcomes. In the meantime, neurosteroids have been shown to have a positive therapeutic significance in some post-stroke complications, such as epilepsy, depression, anxiety, cardiac complications, movement disorders, and post-stroke pain. In this review, we report the historical background, modulatory mechanisms of neurosteroids in stroke and post-stroke complications, and emphasize on the application prospect of neurosteroids in stroke therapy.

Progesterone and fetal-neonatal neuroprotection

The role of progesterone goes beyond the maintenance of pregnancy. The hormone, indeed, protects the developing fetal brain and influences its maturation. Metabolomes analyzed by mass spectrometric methods have revealed the great diversity of steroids in maternal plasma and fetal fluids, but their developmental significance remains to be investigated. Progesterone and its metabolites reach highest levels during the third trimester, when the brain growth spurt occurs: its volume triples, synaptogenesis is particularly active, and axons start to be myelinated. This developmental stage coincides with a period of great vulnerability. Studies in sheep have shown that progesterone and its metabolite allopregnanolone protect the vulnerable fetal brain. Work in rats and mice have demonstrated that progesterone plays an important role in myelin formation. These experimental studies are discussed in relation to preterm birth. Influences of progesterone on very early stages of neural development at the beginning of pregnancy are yet to be explored.

Brainstem Organoids From Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

The brainstem is a posterior region of the brain, composed of three parts, midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. It is critical in controlling heartbeat, blood pressure, and respiration, all of which are life-sustaining functions, and therefore, damages to or disorders of the brainstem can be lethal. Brain organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) recapitulate the course of human brain development and are expected to be useful for medical research on central nervous system disorders. However, existing organoid models are limited in the extent hPSCs recapitulate human brain development and hence are not able to fully elucidate the diseases affecting various components of the brain such as brainstem. Here, we developed a method to generate human brainstem organoids (hBSOs), containing midbrain/hindbrain progenitors, noradrenergic and cholinergic neurons, dopaminergic neurons, and neural crest lineage cells. Single-cell RNA sequence (scRNA-seq) analysis, together with evidence from proteomics and electrophysiology, revealed that the cellular population in these organoids was similar to that of the human brainstem, which raises the possibility of making use of hBSOs in investigating central nervous system disorders affecting brainstem and in efficient drug screenings.

Effects of progesterone on the cell number of gliomaspheres derived from human glioblastoma cell lines

AIMS

The malignancy of the Glioblastomas (GBM), the most frequent and aggressive brain tumors, have been associated with the presence of glioma stem cells (GSCs) which can form gliomaspheres (GS) in vitro. Progesterone (P) increases the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GBM cell lines through the interaction with its intracellular receptor (PR). However, it is unknown if the PR is expressed and the possible effects of P in the formation/differentiation of GS.

MAIN METHODS

GS were grown from U251 and U87 cell lines by selective culture with serum-free neural stem cell medium. GSCs were identified by the detection of Sox2, Ki67, Nestin, CD133, and CD15 by immunofluorescence. Additionally, the relative expression of PROM1, NES, SOX2, OLIG2, EZH2, BMI1 and PR genes was evaluated by RT-qPCR. The GS were treated with P, and the number of cells was quantified. By RT-PCR the βIII-TUB and GFAP differentiation genes were evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

GS were maintained until passage four. The expression of all GSCs markers was significantly higher in GS as compared with the basal culture of U251 and U87 cells. We demonstrated for the first time that PR is expressed in GS and this expression was higher as compared with the U251 and U87 cells in basal conditions. Also, we observed that P increased the number of cells derived primary gliomaspheres (GS1) from the U251 line, as well as the expression of the neuronal differentiation marker βIII-TUB.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results suggest the participation of P in the growth of GSCs.

Progesterone receptor-mediated actions and the treatment of central nervous system disorders: An up-date of the known and the challenge of the unknown

Progesterone has been shown to exert a wide range of remarkable protective actions in experimental models of central nervous system injury or disease. However, the intimate mechanisms involved in each of these beneficial effects are not fully depicted. In this review, we intend to give the readers a thorough revision on what is known about the participation of diverse receptors and signaling pathways in progesterone-mediated neuroprotective, pro-myelinating and anti-inflammatory outcomes, as well as point out to novel regulatory mechanisms that could open new perspectives in steroid-based therapies.

Lateral flow aptasensor for progesterone: Competitive target recognition and displacement of short complementary sequences

There is a pressing need for simple and accurate analytical tools to assess the level of EDCs in environmental samples. In this work, a simple and highly sensitive competitive lateral flow assay (LFA) was developed for progesterone (P4). Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were functionalized with a previously isolated 60-mer aptamer for P4 and further hybridized with 8-mer complementary sequence modified with biotin. In the absence of P4, AuNP-duplexed aptamer conjugates are capture by a test line made with streptavidin. Conformational change within aptamer sequence upon target recognition causes the release of the biotinylated complementary sequence and disappearance of the colored test line. By optimizing the hybridization location of the 8-mer biotinylated sequences, the sensitivity of sensor was improved by 20-folds to achieve 5 nM detection level of P4 in buffer and spiked tap water samples. The simply fabricated sensor demonstrated a dynamic range in the lower nanomolar range and excellent selectivity against potential interfering molecules including the closely similar 17β-estradiol (E2). The sensor can be used as a fast screening tool to assess the level of P4 in water. Implementing the developed assay avoids applying laborious extraction procedures and lengthily analysis by conventional chromatography based instruments.

Progesterone Actions During Central Nervous System Development

Although progesterone is a steroid hormone mainly associated with female reproductive functions, such as uterine receptivity and maintenance of pregnancy, accumulating data have shown its physiological actions to extend to several non-reproductive functions in the central nervous system (CNS) both in males and females. In fact, progesterone is de novo synthesized in specific brain regions by neurons and glial cells and is involved in the regulation of various molecular and cellular processes underlying myelination, neuroprotection, neuromodulation, learning and memory, and mood. Furthermore, progesterone has been reported to be implicated in critical developmental events, such as cell differentiation and neural circuits formation. This view is supported by the increase in progesterone synthesis observed during pregnancy in both the placenta and the fetal brain. In the present review, we will focus on progesterone actions during CNS development.

Membrane progesterone receptors in reproduction and cancer

Progesterone is a sexual steroid hormone that has a critical role in reproductive processes in males and females of several species, including humans. Furthermore, progesterone has been associated with pathological diseases such as breast, gynecological and brain cancer, regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis. In the past, progesterone actions were thought to be only mediated by its intracellular receptor (PR). However, recent evidence has demonstrated that membrane progesterone receptors (mPRs) mediate most of the non-classical progesterone actions. The role of the different mPRs subtypes in progesterone effects in reproduction and cancer is an emerging and exciting research area. Here we review studies to date regarding mPRs role in reproduction and cancer and discuss their functions and clinical relevance, suggesting mPRs as putative pharmacological targets and disease markers in cancer and diseases associated with reproduction.

Markers of Pluripotency in Human Amniotic Epithelial Cells and Their Differentiation to Progenitor of Cortical Neurons

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) have promise for regenerative medicine due to their auto-renovation and differentiation capacities. Nevertheless, there are several ethical and methodological issues about these cells that have not been resolved. Human amniotic epithelial cells (hAEC) have been proposed as source of pluripotent stem cells. Several groups have studied hAEC but have reported inconsistencies about their pluripotency properties. The aim of the present study was the in vitro characterization of hAEC collected from a Mexican population in order to identify transcription factors involved in the pluripotency circuitry and to determine their epigenetic state. Finally, we evaluated if these cells differentiate to cortical progenitors. We analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively the expression of the transcription factors of pluripotency (OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, KLF4 and REX1) by RT-PCR and RT-qPCR in hAEC. Also, we determined the presence of OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, SSEA3, SSEA4, TRA-1-60, E-cadherin, KLF4, TFE3 as well as the proliferation and epigenetic state by immunocytochemistry of the cells. Finally, hAEC were differentiated towards cortical progenitors using a protocol of two stages. Here we show that hAEC, obtained from a Mexican population and cultured in vitro (P0-P3), maintained the expression of several markers strongly involved in pluripotency maintenance (OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, TFE3, KLF4, SSEA3, SSEA4, TRA-1-60 and E-cadherin). Finally, when hAEC were treated with growth factors and small molecules, they expressed markers characteristic of cortical progenitors (TBR2, OTX2, NeuN and β-III-tubulin). Our results demonstrated that hAEC express naïve pluripotent markers (KLF4, REX1 and TFE3) as well as the cortical neuron phenotype after differentiation. This highlights the need for further investigation of hAEC as a possible source of hPSC.

Neurogenic potential of spinal cord organotypic culture

There are several neurogenic niches in the adult mammalian central nervous system. In the central nervous system, neural stem cells (NSC) localize not only to the periventricular area, but are also diffusely distributed in the parenchyma. Here, we assessed neurogenic potential of organotypic cultures prepared from adult mouse spinal cord. Slices were placed on Millipore inserts for organotypic culture and incubated in neurobasal media supplemented with B27 and N2 for up to 9 weeks. After 3-4 weeks, the cell's aggregates formed in the slices. The aggregate's cells were BrdU-uptake, nestin and alkaline phosphatase positive. At the later stage of incubation, we observed Oct3/4 in the inner mass of the neurospheres as well as expression of Dppa1, which is an Oct-4 downstream target gene and a marker for pluripotency. To check differentiation, the formed neurospheres were isolated and cultured for several days in differentiation media. The obtained data demonstrated the cells from isolated neurospheres differentiate into astrocytes and MAP2-positive neurons. Immunostaining for HB9 and Lim2 revealed subsequent differentiation of MAP2-positive cells into motor neurons and interneurons, respectively. We hypothesized neuronal loss and/or long-term culturing of spinal cord slices may trigger a reset of the internal cell program and promote proliferation and further differentiation of NSC.

Persistent genital hyperinnervation following progesterone administration to adolescent female rats

Provoked vestibulodynia, a female pelvic pain syndrome affecting substantial numbers of women, is characterized by genital hypersensitivity and sensory hyperinnervation. Previous studies have shown that the risk of developing provoked vestibulodynia is markedly elevated following adolescent use of oral contraceptives with high progesterone content. We hypothesized that progesterone, a steroid hormone with known neurotropic properties, may alter genital innervation through direct or indirect actions. Female Sprague Dawley rats received progesterone (20 mg/kg subcutaneously) from Days 20-27; tissue was removed for analysis in some rats on Day 28, while others were ovariectomized on Day 43 and infused for 7 days with vehicle or 17beta estradiol. Progesterone resulted in overall increases in vaginal innervation at both Day 28 and 50 due to proliferation of peptidergic sensory and sympathetic (but not parasympathetic) axons. Estradiol reduced innervation in progesterone-treated and untreated groups. To assess the mechanisms of sensory hyperinnervation, we cultured dissociated dorsal root ganglion neurons and found that progesterone increases neurite outgrowth by small unmyelinated (but not myelinated) sensory neurons, it was receptor mediated, and it was nonadditive with NGF. Pretreatment of ganglion with progesterone also increased neurite outgrowth in response to vaginal target explants. However, pretreatment of vaginal target with progesterone did not improve outgrowth. We conclude that adolescent progesterone exposure may contribute to provoked vestibulodynia by eliciting persistent genital hyperinnervation via a direct effect on unmyelinated sensory nociceptor neurons and that estradiol, a well-documented therapeutic, may alleviate symptoms in part by reducing progesterone-induced sensory hyperinnervation.

Mifepristone-inducible caspase-1 expression in mouse embryonic stem cells eliminates tumor formation but spares differentiated cells in vitro and in vivo

Embryonic stem cell (ESC)-based therapy is a promising treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. But there is always a risk of tumor formation that is due to contamination of undifferentiated ESCs. To reduce the risk and improve ESC-based therapy, we have established a novel strategy by which we can selectively eliminate tumor cells derived from undifferentiated ESCs but spare differentiated cells. In this study, we generated a caspase-1-ESC line transfected with a mifepristone-regulated caspase-1 expression system. Mifepristone induced caspase-1 overexpression both in differentiated and undifferentiated caspase-1-ESCs. All the undifferentiated caspase-1-ESCs were induced to death after mifepristone treatment. Tumors derived from undifferentiated caspase-1-ESCs were eliminated following 3 weeks of mifepristone treatment in vivo. However, differentiated caspase-1-ESCs survived well under the condition of mifepristone-induced caspase-1 overexpression. To examine in vivo the impact of mifepristone-induced caspase-1 activation on grafted cells, we transplanted wild-type ESCs or caspase-1-ESCs into nude mice brains. After 8 weeks of mifepristone treatment, we could not detect any tumor cells in the caspase-1-ESC grafts in the brains of mice. However, we found that donor dopamine neurons survived in the recipient brains. These data demonstrate that mifepristone-induced caspase-1 overexpression in ESCs can eliminate the potential tumor formation meanwhile spares the differentiated cells in the host brains. These results suggest that this novel ESC-based therapy can be used in Parkinson's disease and other related disorders without the risk of tumor formation.

Small molecules greatly improve conversion of human-induced pluripotent stem cells to the neuronal lineage

Efficient in vitro differentiation into specific cell types is more important than ever after the breakthrough in nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells and its potential for disease modeling and drug screening. Key success factors for neuronal differentiation are the yield of desired neuronal marker expression, reproducibility, length, and cost. Three main neuronal differentiation approaches are stromal-induced neuronal differentiation, embryoid body (EB) differentiation, and direct neuronal differentiation. Here, we describe our neurodifferentiation protocol using small molecules that very efficiently promote neural induction in a 5-stage EB protocol from six induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) lines from patients with Parkinson's disease and controls. This protocol generates neural precursors using Dorsomorphin and SB431542 and further maturation into dopaminergic neurons by replacing sonic hedgehog with purmorphamine or smoothened agonist. The advantage of this approach is that all patient-specific iPSC lines tested in this study were successfully and consistently coaxed into the neural lineage.

Therapeutic potential of motor neurons differentiated from embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells

Degeneration of motor neurons (MN) caused by disease or injury leads to paralysis and is fatal in some conditions. To date, there are no effective treatments for MN disorders; therefore, cell therapy is a promising strategy to replace lost MN. Embryonic stem (ES) cells isolated from the inner cell mass of mammalian blastocysts self-renew and are pluripotent because they differentiate into cell types of the three germinal layers. Reprogramming of adult cells to a state similar to ES cells, termed induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, has been recently reported. It is well established that pluripotent cell types can give rise to specialized phenotypes, including neurons. Mouse, monkey and human MN can be differentiated from ES and iPS cells using procedures generally involving embryoid bodies formation and stimulation with retinoic acid and Sonic hedgehog. Differentiated MN express characteristic molecular markers such as Islet1, HB9 and Choline acetyltransferase, exhibit electrophysiological maturity and are able to form synaptic contacts similar to neuromuscular junctions in vitro. Furthermore, transplanted MN promote functional recovery in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases and MN injury. The potential clinical applications of stem cell-derived MN was enhanced after iPS cell derivation, which makes possible the generation of patient-specific pluripotent cells for autologous cell replacement therapies and may be used for drug development and disease modeling. This review summarizes MN differentiation protocols from ES and iPS cells in regard to neuronal differentiation efficiency, expression of MN markers and functional properties in vitro, as well as their therapeutic effects after grafting.

An experimental mixed bacterial infection induced differential secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα) and proMMP-9 in human fetal membranes

Overall, 1-4% of all births in the US are complicated by choriamnionitis. Choriamnionitis is a polymicrobial infection most often due to ascending genital microbes which, in over 65% of positive amniotic fluid cultures, involves two or more organisms. In this study, we determine the cytokines expression (IL-1β, TNFα) and prometalloproteinase activation (proMMP-2 and proMMP-9) after double o single infection an in vitro model of human fetal membranes. Fetal membranes at term were mounted in the Transwell culture system and after 24 h of infection, choriodecidual, and amnion media was collected. IL-1β and TNFα were evaluated by ELISA, whereas proMMP-9 and proMMP-2 were determined by substrate gel zymography. The choriodecidual and amnion compartments actively respond to the infectious process, which induced the secretion of IL-1β, TNFα, and proMMP-9 after either mixed or single infection. The proMMP-2 secretion profile was the same after all experimental conditions. There was no synergy between Streptococcus agalactiae and Escherichia coli for inducing the secretion of inflammatory factors or degradative metalloproteinase. In conclusion, these two bacteria could initiate different pathways to induce chorioamnioitis.

Progesterone and 17β-estradiol increase differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells to motor neurons

Embryonic stem (ES) cells have the capacity to differentiate into endodermal, mesodermal, and ectodermal lineages. Motor neuron (MN) differentiation of mouse ES cells involves embryoid bodies formation with addition of Sonic hedgehog and retinoic acid. In this work, using immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, and quantitative RT-PCR, we investigated whether progesterone or 17β-estradiol have inductive effects on ES cell-derived MN, as it has been demonstrated that these hormones modify proliferation and neural differentiation of pluripotent cells. When 100 nM progesterone was added during differentiation, we found higher proportions of MN, compared to the control condition; coincubation of progesterone with the progesterone receptor (PR) antagonist RU-486 caused a decrease in the number of MN to a percentage even lower than controls. The addition of nanomolar concentrations of 17β-estradiol also significantly induced MN differentiation. This effect of estradiol was completely antagonized by addition of the general estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist ICI 182,780. To identify the ER subtype mediating the increase on MN differentiation, we incubated estradiol with the ER-α antagonist MPP or with the ER-β blocker PHTPP. When we coincubated 17β-estradiol with MPP, we found a significant decrease in the percentage of MN. In contrast, the coincubation of 17β-estradiol with PHTPP had no effect on the induction of MN differentiation. All these effects on cell number were confirmed by significant changes in the expression of the MN markers Islet-1 and Choline acetyl transferase, assessed by real-time RT-PCR. Cell proliferation in embryoid bodies was significantly enhanced by progesterone treatment. No changes in apoptotic cell death were found in differentiating cells after progesterone or 17β-estradiol addition. Our findings indicate that progesterone and 17β-estradiol induce a higher proportion of MN derived from mouse ES cells through intracellular PR and ER, respectively. Furthermore, the effect of estradiol was mediated by specific activation of ER-α.