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Masaku J, Gachohi JM, Sinkeet A, Maghanga M, Wakesho F, Omondi W, Monnier N, Steinmann P, Reigl LS, Lange IL, Winkler AS, Njenga SM, Amuyunzu-Nyamongo M. Community preferred drug delivery approaches for pilot roll-out of a potential novel paediatric schistosomiasis treatment option in two endemic counties of Kenya: A mixed methods study. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 4:e0003221. [PMID: 38820456 PMCID: PMC11142487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0003221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Treating preschool age children (PSAC) for schistosomiasis has remained a challenge due to lack of a pediatric formulation. In response to this unmet need, the Paediatric Praziquantel Consortium has developed a potential novel paediatric treatment option. In advance to its roll-out to follow regulatory response, we conducted a social science study to gather information on preferred drug delivery approaches to inform implementation. A cross-sectional study was conducted in eight villages in two purposively selected Kenyan counties. A questionnaire was administered on 690 parents/guardians of PSAC at household level. Preferred drug delivery approaches were analyzed using frequencies and proportions. We conducted key informant interviews with 17 opinion leaders and 28 healthcare workers, and 12 focus group discussions with parents/guardians of PSAC and 7 with community health volunteers (CHVs). Thematic analysis was performed on the qualitative data. Majority of the 690 respondents were women 594 (86.1%) with a mean age of 34.1 (SD = 11.3, min-max = 18-86). Community-based mass drug administration (cMDA) was the most preferred drug delivery method by 598 participants (86.7%), followed by health facility/fixed points by 398 participants (57.7%). Similarly, in the qualitative data participants indicated they prefer cMDA since the CHVs who would distribute the medication are familiar with households with PSAC and are trusted to explain the drug effects. Health facilities/fixed points were the second most preferred drug delivery approach, but some health workers we interviewed expressed concern about potential understaffing and overcrowding of facilities. Appropriate timing of the drug distribution, not to interfere with farming activities, was considered critical, irrespective of the approach used. All profiles of study participants preferred cMDA over the other delivery approaches due to the convenience of receiving drugs at home and providing explanations about the new drug. For positive outcomes, adequate planning, proper timings and community involvement are highly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Masaku
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
- School of Public Health, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - John M. Gachohi
- School of Public Health, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Alice Sinkeet
- African Institute for Health and Development (AIHD), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mary Maghanga
- African Institute for Health and Development (AIHD), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Florence Wakesho
- Division of Vector Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases (DVB/NTDs), Ministry of Health (MoH), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Wyckliff Omondi
- Division of Vector Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases (DVB/NTDs), Ministry of Health (MoH), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nora Monnier
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peter Steinmann
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Sophie Reigl
- Department of Neurology, Center for Global Health, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Munich, Germany
| | - Isabelle L. Lange
- Department of Neurology, Center for Global Health, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Munich, Germany
| | - Andrea S. Winkler
- Department of Neurology, Center for Global Health, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Munich, Germany
- Department of Community Medicine and Global Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sammy M. Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mary Amuyunzu-Nyamongo
- Division of Vector Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases (DVB/NTDs), Ministry of Health (MoH), Nairobi, Kenya
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Wagnew F, Alene KA, Kelly M, Gray D. Geospatial Overlap of Undernutrition and Tuberculosis in Ethiopia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:7000. [PMID: 37947558 PMCID: PMC10647613 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20217000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Undernutrition is a key driver of the global tuberculosis (TB) epidemic, yet there is limited understanding regarding the spatial overlap of both diseases. This study aimed to determine the geographical co-distribution and socio-climatic factors of undernutrition and TB in Ethiopia. Data on undernutrition were found from the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS). Data on TB were obtained from the Ethiopia national TB prevalence survey. We applied a geostatistical model using a Bayesian framework to predict the prevalence of undernutrition and TB. Spatial overlap of undernutrition and TB prevalence was detected in the Afar and Somali regions. Population density was associated with the spatial distribution of TB [β: 0.008; 95% CrI: 0.001, 0.014], wasting [β: -0.017; 95% CrI: -0.032, -0.004], underweight [β: -0.02; 95% CrI: -0.031, -0.011], stunting [β: -0.012; 95% CrI: -0.017, -0.006], and adult undernutrition [β: -0.007; 95% CrI: -0.01, -0.005]. Distance to a health facility was associated with the spatial distribution of stunting [β: 0.269; 95% CrI: 0.08, 0.46] and adult undernutrition [β: 0.176; 95% CrI: 0.044, 0.308]. Healthcare access and demographic factors were associated with the spatial distribution of TB and undernutrition. Therefore, geographically targeted service integration may be more effective than nationwide service integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fasil Wagnew
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health (NCEPH), College of Health and Medicine, The Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia;
- College of Health Sciences, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos P.O. Box 269, Ethiopia
- Geospatial and Tuberculosis Research Team, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands 6009, Australia;
| | - Kefyalew Addis Alene
- Geospatial and Tuberculosis Research Team, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands 6009, Australia;
- School of Population Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley 6102, Australia
| | - Matthew Kelly
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health (NCEPH), College of Health and Medicine, The Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia;
| | - Darren Gray
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, Australia;
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Grover EN, Allshouse WB, Lund AJ, Liu Y, Paull SH, James KA, Crooks JL, Carlton EJ. Open-source environmental data as an alternative to snail surveys to assess schistosomiasis risk in areas approaching elimination. Int J Health Geogr 2023; 22:12. [PMID: 37268933 DOI: 10.1186/s12942-023-00331-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the presence of intermediate snails is a necessary condition for local schistosomiasis transmission to occur, using them as surveillance targets in areas approaching elimination is challenging because the patchy and dynamic quality of snail host habitats makes collecting and testing snails labor-intensive. Meanwhile, geospatial analyses that rely on remotely sensed data are becoming popular tools for identifying environmental conditions that contribute to pathogen emergence and persistence. METHODS In this study, we assessed whether open-source environmental data can be used to predict the presence of human Schistosoma japonicum infections among households with a similar or improved degree of accuracy compared to prediction models developed using data from comprehensive snail surveys. To do this, we used infection data collected from rural communities in Southwestern China in 2016 to develop and compare the predictive performance of two Random Forest machine learning models: one built using snail survey data, and one using open-source environmental data. RESULTS The environmental data models outperformed the snail data models in predicting household S. japonicum infection with an estimated accuracy and Cohen's kappa value of 0.89 and 0.49, respectively, in the environmental model, compared to an accuracy and kappa of 0.86 and 0.37 for the snail model. The Normalized Difference in Water Index (an indicator of surface water presence) within half to one kilometer of the home and the distance from the home to the nearest road were among the top performing predictors in our final model. Homes were more likely to have infected residents if they were further from roads, or nearer to waterways. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that in low-transmission environments, leveraging open-source environmental data can yield more accurate identification of pockets of human infection than using snail surveys. Furthermore, the variable importance measures from our models point to aspects of the local environment that may indicate increased risk of schistosomiasis. For example, households were more likely to have infected residents if they were further from roads or were surrounded by more surface water, highlighting areas to target in future surveillance and control efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise N Grover
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - William B Allshouse
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Andrea J Lund
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Sichuan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China.
| | - Sara H Paull
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Katherine A James
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - James L Crooks
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, National Jewish Health, Denver, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Carlton
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
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Njenga SM, Kanyi HM, Mwatele CM, Mukoko DA, Bockarie MJ, Kelly-Hope LA. Integrated survey of helminthic neglected tropical diseases and comparison of two mosquito sampling methods for lymphatic filariasis molecular xenomonitoring in the River Galana area, Kilifi County, coastal Kenya. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278655. [PMID: 36490233 PMCID: PMC9733851 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A lymphatic filariasis (LF) endemic focus along the River Galana/ Sabaki in Kilifi County, coastal Kenya, provided a platform to conduct an integrated survey for three helminthic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), namely soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH), schistosomiasis (SCH) and LF. Additionally, the study compared the performance of two mosquito trapping methods for LF molecular xenomonitoring (MX). Cross-sectional surveys measuring STH, SCH and LF prevalence were conducted in four villages. Mosquitoes were trapped using the CDC light trap (CDC-LT) and the Ifakara A tent trap (Ifakara-TT) methods and stored in pools which were tested for Wuchereria bancrofti DNA using the real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. A total of 907 people (436 adults; 471 children) participated in the parasitological testing. Among the STH infections, Trichuris trichiura and hookworms were most prevalent among the children and adult populations, respectively. The schistosome worm eggs detected belonged to the species Schistosoma haematobium and the prevalence of the infection was generally higher among the children compared with the adult population. The prevalence of LF infection among the adult population ranged from 1.8% to 7.6% across all 4 villages (P < 0.05). A total of 3,652 mosquitoes, including Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia, and Aedes species were collected. One mosquito pool consisting of Anopheles mosquitoes tested positive for filarial DNA out of 1,055 pools that were tested. The CDC-LT caught significantly more mosquitoes compared with the Ifakara-TT (P < 0.001). This study demonstrated that integrated epidemiological surveys using standard parasitological and entomological methods can provide useful information on co-endemic parasitic diseases which could help direct interventions and surveillance activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sammy M. Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Henry M. Kanyi
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Cassian M. Mwatele
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Dunstan A. Mukoko
- Division of Vector Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Moses J. Bockarie
- School of Community Health Sciences, Njala University, Bo, Sierra Leone
| | - Louise A. Kelly-Hope
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Neglected Tropical Diseases, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Shey RA, Ghogomu SM, Nebangwa DN, Shintouo CM, Yaah NE, Yengo BN, Nkemngo FN, Esoh KK, Tchatchoua NMT, Mbachick TT, Dede AF, Lemoge AA, Ngwese RA, Asa BF, Ayong L, Njemini R, Vanhamme L, Souopgui J. Rational design of a novel multi-epitope peptide-based vaccine against Onchocerca volvulus using transmembrane proteins. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2022.1046522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost a decade ago, it was recognized that the global elimination of onchocerciasis by 2030 will not be feasible without, at least, an effective prophylactic and/or therapeutic vaccine to complement chemotherapy and vector control strategies. Recent advances in computational immunology (immunoinformatics) have seen the design of novel multi-epitope onchocerciasis vaccine candidates which are however yet to be evaluated in clinical settings. Still, continued research to increase the pool of vaccine candidates, and therefore the chance of success in a clinical trial remains imperative. Here, we designed a multi-epitope vaccine candidate by assembling peptides from 14 O. volvulus (Ov) proteins using an immunoinformatics approach. An initial 126 Ov proteins, retrieved from the Wormbase database, and at least 90% similar to orthologs in related nematode species of economic importance, were screened for localization, presence of transmembrane domain, and antigenicity using different web servers. From the 14 proteins retained after the screening, 26 MHC-1 and MHC-II (T-cell) epitopes, and linear B-lymphocytes epitopes were predicted and merged using suitable linkers. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis Resuscitation-promoting factor E (RPFE_MYCTU), which is an agonist of TLR4, was then added to the N-terminal of the vaccine candidate as a built-in adjuvant. Immune simulation analyses predicted strong B-cell and IFN-γ based immune responses which are necessary for protection against O. volvulus infection. Protein-protein docking and molecular dynamic simulation predicted stable interactions between the 3D structure of the vaccine candidate and human TLR4. These results show that the designed vaccine candidate has the potential to stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses and should therefore be subject to further laboratory investigation.
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Assoum M, Ortu G, Basáñez MG, Lau C, Clements ACA, Halton K, Fenwick A, Magalhães RJS. Impact of a 5-Year Mass Drug Administration Programme for Soil-Transmitted Helminthiases on the Spatial Distribution of Childhood Anaemia in Burundi from 2007 to 2011. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:tropicalmed7100307. [PMID: 36288048 PMCID: PMC9611614 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7100307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Childhood anaemia affects 1.8 billion people globally. Little is known about the long-term impact of mass drug administration (MDA) for the control of soil-transmitted helminthiases (STH) on the spatiotemporal variation of anaemia prevalence and severity. We describe the long-term spatiotemporal impact of a 5-year STH MDA programme (2007−2011) on the prevalence of anaemia and anaemia severity in school-aged children (SAC) in Burundi. Methodology/Principal Findings: We used annual haemoglobin concentration and STH data collected during 2007−2011 in 31 schools in Burundi. Spatial dependence in prevalence and severity of anaemia was assessed using semivariograms. Bayesian geostatistical models were developed to (a) quantify the role of STH (adjusted for other anaemia determinants) in the spatiotemporal distribution of anaemia prevalence/severity, and (b) predict the geographical variation of both outcomes across Burundi. Adjusted population data were used to estimate the geographical distribution of the number of SAC at risk of anaemia and with low and moderate/severe anaemia. Infections with Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura were positively and significantly associated with childhood anaemia; hookworm infections were not. A significant decrease in anaemia prevalence, from 40−50% (2008) to 10−20% (2011) was predicted in western areas. The predicted prevalence of low-severity anaemia decreased from 40−50% (2008) to <20% (2011) in southern and eastern areas. Moderate/high-severity anaemia was concentrated in western regions of Burundi, with pockets of moderate/high-severity anaemia in central and northern regions in 2008. The overall number of predicted anaemic children decreased from 443,657 (2008) to 232,304 (2011), with a resurgence after MDA disruption in 2010 (to 480,605). Prevalence of low- and moderate-severity anaemia was higher in boys than in girls. Conclusions/Significance: Despite ongoing MDA, the prevalence of anaemia in SAC remained high and increased in certain parts of the country. It is recommended that MDA programmes targeting STH are complemented with specific anaemia interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Assoum
- Children’s Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Via Warrego Highway, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Giuseppina Ortu
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary’s Campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research and MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Colleen Lau
- Children’s Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
- Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Archie C. A. Clements
- Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Kate Halton
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovations, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4059, Australia
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary’s Campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Ricardo J. Soares Magalhães
- Children’s Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Via Warrego Highway, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
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Using Routinely Collected Health Records to Identify the Fine-Resolution Spatial Patterns of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections in Rwanda. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:tropicalmed7080202. [PMID: 36006294 PMCID: PMC9416347 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7080202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) are parasitic diseases with significant public health impact. Analysis is generally based on cross-sectional prevalence surveys; outcomes are mostly aggregated to larger spatial units. However, recent research demonstrates that infection levels and spatial patterns differ between STH species and tend to be localized. Methods. Incidence data of STHs including roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) and hookworms per primary health facility for 2008 were linked to spatially delineated primary health center service areas. Prevalence data per district for individual and combined STH infections from the 2008 nationwide survey in Rwanda were also obtained. Results. A comparison of reported prevalence and incidence data indicated significant positive correlations for roundworm (R2 = 0.63) and hookworm (R2 = 0.27). Weak positive correlations were observed for whipworm (R2 = 0.02) and the three STHs combined (R2 = 0.10). Incidence of roundworm and whipworm were found to be focalized with significant spatial autocorrelation (Moran’s I > 0: 0.05−0.38 and p ≤ 0.03), with (very) high incidence rates in some focal areas. In contrast, hookworm incidence is ubiquitous and randomly distributed (Moran’s I > 0: 0.006 and p = 0.74) with very low incidence rates. Furthermore, an exploratory regression analysis identified relationships between helminth infection cases and potential environmental and socio-economic risk factors. Conclusions. Findings show that the spatial distribution of STH incidence is significantly associated with soil properties (sand proportion and pH), rainfall, wetlands and their uses, population density and proportion of rural residents. Identified spatial patterns are important for guiding STH prevention and control programs.
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Alene KA, Elagali A, Barth DD, Rumisha SF, Amratia P, Weiss DJ, Atalell KA, Erena AK, Gething PW, Clements ACA. Spatial codistribution of HIV, tuberculosis and malaria in Ethiopia. BMJ Glob Health 2022; 7:bmjgh-2021-007599. [PMID: 35217531 PMCID: PMC8867247 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV, tuberculosis (TB) and malaria are the three most important infectious diseases in Ethiopia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Understanding the spatial codistribution of these diseases is critical for designing geographically targeted and integrated disease control programmes. This study investigated the spatial overlap and drivers of HIV, TB and malaria prevalence in Ethiopia. Methods HIV, TB and malaria data were obtained from different nationwide prevalence surveys, and geospatial covariates were obtained from publicly available sources. A Bayesian model-based geostatistical framework was applied to each survey leveraging the strength of high-resolution spatial covariates to predict continuous disease-specific prevalence surfaces and their codistribution. Results The national prevalence was 1.54% (95% CI 1.40 to 1.70) for HIV, 0.39% (95% CI 0.34 to 0.45) for TB and 1.1% (95%CI 0.95 to 1.32) for malaria. Substantial subnational variation was predicted with the highest HIV prevalence estimated in Gambela (4.52%), Addis Ababa (3.52%) and Dire Dawa (2.67%) regions. TB prevalence was highest in Dire Dawa (0.96%) and Gambela (0.88%), while malaria was highest in Gambela (6.1%) and Benishangul-Gumuz (3.8%). Spatial overlap of their prevalence was observed in some parts of the country, mainly Gambela region. Spatial distribution of the diseases was significantly associated with healthcare access, demographic, and climatic factors. Conclusions The national distribution of HIV, TB and malaria was highly focal in Ethiopia, with substantial variation at subnational and local levels. Spatial distribution of the diseases was significantly associated with healthcare access, demographic and climatic factors. Spatial overlap of HIV, TB and malaria prevalence was observed in some parts of the country. Integrated control programmes for these diseases should be targeted to these areas with high levels of co-endemicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kefyalew Addis Alene
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia .,Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Ahmed Elagali
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Dylan D Barth
- University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Wesfarmers Centre for Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Susan F Rumisha
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,National Institute for Medical Research, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Punam Amratia
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Daniel J Weiss
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Kendalem Asmare Atalell
- School of Nursing, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | | | - Peter W Gething
- Geospatial Health and Development, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.,Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Archie C A Clements
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Jeza VT, Mutuku F, Kaduka L, Mwandawiro C, Masaku J, Okoyo C, Kanyi H, Kamau J, Ng'ang'a Z, Kihara JH. Schistosomiasis, soil transmitted helminthiasis, and malaria co-infections among women of reproductive age in rural communities of Kwale County, coastal Kenya. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:136. [PMID: 35045848 PMCID: PMC8772099 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-12526-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schistosoma haematobium, soil transmitted helminthes (STH), and malaria lead to a double burden in pregnancy that eventually leads to poor immunity, increased susceptibility to other infections, and poor pregnancy outcomes. Many studies have been carried out on pre-school and school aged children but very little has been done among the at risk adult population including women of reproductive age (WRA). Our current study sought to establish the risk factors and burden of co-infection with S. haematobium, STH, and Plasmodium sp. among WRA in Kwale County, Coastal Kenya. Methods A total of 534 WRA between the ages of 15–50 were enrolled in this cross-sectional study from four villages; Bilashaka and Mwaluphamba in Matuga sub-County, and Mwachinga and Dumbule in Kinango sub-County. Socio-demographic information was collected using a pre-tested standardized questionnaire. Parasitological examination was done using urine filtration method for Schistosoma haematobium, Kato Katz for STH (Ascaris lumbricoides, Hookworm, Trichuris trichiura), and standard slide microscopy for Plasmodium sp. Statistical analyses were carried out using STATA version 15.1. Results The overall prevalence of S. haematobium was 3.8% (95% CI: 2.6–5.4) while that for malaria was 4.9% (95% CI: 2.0–11.7). The prevalence of STH was 5.6% (95% CI: 2.8–11.3) with overall prevalence of 5.3% (95% CI: 2.5–10.9) for hookworm and 0.6% (95% CI: 0.2–1.9) for T. trichiura. The occurrence of co-infection was low and was recorded between S. haematobium and P. falciparum (0.6%), followed by S. haematobium and STH (0.4%). Among pregnant women, 2.6% had co-infection with S. haematobium and P. falciparum. Only 1.3% had co-infection with S. haematobium and hookworm or T. trichiura. Among non-pregnant women, co-infection with S. haematobium and P. falciparum was 0.2%. Similarly, co-infection with S. haematobium and hookworm or T. trichiura was 0.2%. Bed net ownership and usage among pregnant women was 87.8 and 96.6%, respectively. 66.3% of the women reported using improved water sources for drinking while 78.1% reported using improved sanitation facilities. Conclusion The use of improved WASH activities might have contributed to the low prevalence of STHs and S. haematobium infections. Further, bed net ownership and usage might have resulted in the low prevalence of Plasmodium sp. infections observed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-12526-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Tunje Jeza
- Department of Medical Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa, Kenya.
| | - Francis Mutuku
- Department of Environment and Health Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa, Kenya
| | - Lydia Kaduka
- Center for Publich Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Charles Mwandawiro
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Janet Masaku
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Collins Okoyo
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Henry Kanyi
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joyce Kamau
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Zipporah Ng'ang'a
- Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor, South Eastern Kenya University, Kitui, Kenya
| | - Jimmy Hussein Kihara
- Eastern and Southern Africa Center for International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
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Okoyo C, Campbell SJ, Owaga C, Owuor N, Medley G, Mwandawiro C. Statistical Regression Model of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene; Treatment Coverage; and Environmental Influences on School-Level Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Schistosome Prevalence in Kenya: Secondary Analysis of the National Deworming Program Data. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021; 104:2251-2263. [PMID: 33844645 PMCID: PMC8176504 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-1189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
According to the Kenya National School-Based Deworming program launched in 2012 and implemented for the first 5 years (2012-2017), the prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths (STH) and schistosomiasis substantially reduced over the mentioned period among the surveyed schools. However, this reduction is heterogeneous. In this study, we aimed to determine the factors associated with the 5-year school-level infection prevalence and relative reduction (RR) in prevalence in Kenya following the implementation of the program. Multiple variables related to treatment, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and environmental factors were assembled and included in mixed-effects linear regression models to identify key determinants of the school location STH and schistosomiasis prevalence and RR. Reduced prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides was associated with low (< 1%) baseline prevalence, seven rounds of treatment, high (50-75%) self-reported coverage of household handwashing facility equipped with water and soap, high (20-25°C) land surface temperature, and community population density of 5-10 people per 100 m2. Reduced hookworm prevalence was associated with low (< 1%) baseline prevalence and the presence of a school feeding program. Reduced Trichuris trichiura prevalence was associated with low (< 1%) baseline prevalence. Reduced Schistosoma mansoni prevalence was associated with low (< 1%) baseline prevalence, three treatment rounds, and high (> 75%) reported coverage of a household improved water source. Reduced Schistosoma haematobium was associated with high aridity index. Analysis indicated that a combination of factors, including the number of treatment rounds, multiple related program interventions, community- and school-level WASH, and several environmental factors had a major influence on the school-level infection transmission and reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Collins Okoyo
- 1Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya.,2School of Mathematics, College of Biological and Physical Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Suzy J Campbell
- 3Deworm the World, Evidence Action, Washington, District of Columbia
| | | | - Nelson Owuor
- 2School of Mathematics, College of Biological and Physical Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Graham Medley
- 5Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Charles Mwandawiro
- 1Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
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Risk Factors Associated with Helminthic Intestinal Infection in Lurambi Subcounty, Kakamega, Kenya. J Parasitol Res 2021; 2020:8810519. [PMID: 33489319 PMCID: PMC7790573 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8810519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) and schistosome infections have been known to be major causes of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan countries. School aged and preschool children are known to be at high risk of infection. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with soil-transmitted helminths among school-going children in Lurambi Subcounty, Kakamega, Kenya. Method A cross-sectional study was conducted from Jan 2020 to Feb 2020 among 392 randomly selected primary school-going children aged 5 to 14 years old in six primary schools. Risk factors associated with STH infection were obtained using a structured questionnaire answered by the children's caregivers. Stool samples were examined using the standard quantitative Kato-Katz technique. The data was analyzed using SPSS version 20 and Epi Info version 7.2.3.1. Result A total of 278 children provided stool samples for analysis. The overall prevalence of intestinal helminths was 14.4% (40/278). The prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides was 11.5% (32/278), 0.4% (1/278) for hookworm, 0.4% (1/278) for Trichuris trichiura, and 2.1% (6/278) for Schistosoma mansoni; coinfection was detected in 0.4% (1/278). The intensity of infection ranged between light and moderate. Significant risk factors for STH infection included failure to wash hands before eating (OR: 3.529; P = 0.041), failure to wash fruits and vegetables before eating (OR: 2.3129; P = 0.005), and not washing hands after soil contact (OR: 2.1529; P = 0.005). Age (Z = 2.4006, P = 0.0164) was a risk factor only for infection with Schistosoma mansoni. Conclusion Preventive chemotherapy and proper hygienic and sanitation practices should be integrated to achieve elimination of STH and Schistosoma mansoni in Lurambi Subcounty and at large in Kenya.
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Clark NJ, Owada K, Ruberanziza E, Ortu G, Umulisa I, Bayisenge U, Mbonigaba JB, Mucaca JB, Lancaster W, Fenwick A, Soares Magalhães RJ, Mbituyumuremyi A. Parasite associations predict infection risk: incorporating co-infections in predictive models for neglected tropical diseases. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:138. [PMID: 32178706 PMCID: PMC7077138 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04016-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schistosomiasis and infection by soil-transmitted helminths are some of the world's most prevalent neglected tropical diseases. Infection by more than one parasite (co-infection) is common and can contribute to clinical morbidity in children. Geostatistical analyses of parasite infection data are key for developing mass drug administration strategies, yet most methods ignore co-infections when estimating risk. Infection status for multiple parasites can act as a useful proxy for data-poor individual-level or environmental risk factors while avoiding regression dilution bias. Conditional random fields (CRF) is a multivariate graphical network method that opens new doors in parasite risk mapping by (i) predicting co-infections with high accuracy; (ii) isolating associations among parasites; and (iii) quantifying how these associations change across landscapes. METHODS We built a spatial CRF to estimate infection risks for Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus) and Schistosoma mansoni using data from a national survey of Rwandan schoolchildren. We used an ensemble learning approach to generate spatial predictions by simulating from the CRF's posterior distribution with a multivariate boosted regression tree that captured non-linear relationships between predictors and covariance in infection risks. This CRF ensemble was compared against single parasite gradient boosted machines to assess each model's performance and prediction uncertainty. RESULTS Parasite co-infections were common, with 19.57% of children infected with at least two parasites. The CRF ensemble achieved higher predictive power than single-parasite models by improving estimates of co-infection prevalence at the individual level and classifying schools into World Health Organization treatment categories with greater accuracy. The CRF uncovered important environmental and demographic predictors of parasite infection probabilities. Yet even after capturing demographic and environmental risk factors, the presences or absences of other parasites were strong predictors of individual-level infection risk. Spatial predictions delineated high-risk regions in need of anthelminthic treatment interventions, including areas with higher than expected co-infection prevalence. CONCLUSIONS Monitoring studies routinely screen for multiple parasites, yet statistical models generally ignore this multivariate data when assessing risk factors and designing treatment guidelines. Multivariate approaches can be instrumental in the global effort to reduce and eventually eliminate neglected helminth infections in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Clark
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343 Australia
| | - Kei Owada
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343 Australia
- Children Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, South Brisbane, QLD 4101 Australia
| | - Eugene Ruberanziza
- Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Parasitic Diseases Unit, Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Giuseppina Ortu
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Irenee Umulisa
- Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Parasitic Diseases Unit, Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Ursin Bayisenge
- Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Parasitic Diseases Unit, Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Jean Bosco Mbonigaba
- Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Parasitic Diseases Unit, Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Jean Bosco Mucaca
- Microbiology Unit, National Reference Laboratory (NRL) Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Ministry of Health, Kigali, Rwanda
| | | | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Ricardo J. Soares Magalhães
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343 Australia
- Children Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, South Brisbane, QLD 4101 Australia
| | - Aimable Mbituyumuremyi
- Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Center, Ministry of Health, Kigali, Rwanda
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Makata K, Kinung’hi S, Hansen C, Ayieko P, Sichalwe S, Mcharo O, Ensink J, Dreibelbis R, Rockowitz S, Okello E, Grosskurth H, Kapiga S. Hand hygiene intervention to optimize helminth infection control: Design and baseline results of Mikono Safi-An ongoing school-based cluster-randomised controlled trial in NW Tanzania. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242240. [PMID: 33296365 PMCID: PMC7725373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Soil transmitted helminths (STH) can affect over 50% of children in some parts of Tanzania. Control measures involve annual deworming campaigns in schools, but re-infection is rapid. This paper presents the design and baseline survey results of an ongoing school-based cluster-randomised controlled trial in Kagera region, NW Tanzania. The trial aims to determine whether the effect of routine deworming on the prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections among school aged children can be sustained when combined with a behaviour change intervention promoting handwashing with water and soap. METHODS As part of the trial, a total of 16 schools were randomised to receive the intervention (N = 8) or as controls (N = 8). Randomisation was stratified per district and restricted to ensure pre-trial STH prevalence was balanced between study arms. The combination intervention to be tested comprises class-room based teacher-led health education, improvement of handwash stations, coloured nudges to facilitate handwashing and parental engagement sessions. The impact evaluation involves two cross-sectional surveys conducted at baseline and endline. The objectives of the baseline survey were: (i) to confirm whether the deworming campaign was successful, and identify and treat students still infected about 2 weeks after deworming, (ii) to document any baseline differences in STH prevalence between trial arms, and (iii) to assess handwashing behaviours, and access to water and sanitation at school and home. We randomly sampled 35 students per class in Grades 1-6 (an average of 200 children per school), stratified to ensure equal representation between genders. Assenting students were interviewed using a structured questionnaire and asked to provide a stool specimen. RESULTS Results of the baseline survey conducted about 2 weeks after deworming shows balanced demographic and STH prevalence data across trial arms. We observed a low prevalence of ascariasis (< 5%) as expected; however, the prevalence of trichuriasis was still about 35% in both arms. CONCLUSION The randomisation procedure was successful in achieving a balanced distribution of demographic characteristics and helminth infections between trial arms. The intervention is being rolled out. The current deworming treatment regimen may need to be revised with regards to the treatment of trichuriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christian Hansen
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Ayieko
- Mwanza Intervention Trials Unit, Mwanza, Tanzania
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Onike Mcharo
- Mwanza Intervention Trials Unit, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Jeroen Ensink
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Dreibelbis
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Rockowitz
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Heiner Grosskurth
- Mwanza Intervention Trials Unit, Mwanza, Tanzania
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza, Tanzania
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Saidi Kapiga
- Mwanza Intervention Trials Unit, Mwanza, Tanzania
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza, Tanzania
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Risk factors for intestinal parasitoses among children and youth of Buenos Aires, Argentina. One Health 2019; 9:100116. [PMID: 31872035 PMCID: PMC6909185 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2019.100116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Intestinal parasitoses affect millions of people worldwide, especially children of developing countries. In Argentina, the prevalence of these infections varies among areas according to socio-economic and climatic variability. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of intestinal parasitoses and risk factors in child and youth populations from neighbourhoods of La Plata (Buenos Aires province, Argentina) affected by occasional floods, including a serious flood in 2013. Methods Serial stool samples and anal swabs of 398 individuals were processed using techniques of sedimentation and flotation. Socio-economic variables were surveyed using a semi-structured questionnaire and the land use/cover was determined by classification of a satellite image. Results Of all examined individuals, 70.9% were parasitized by at least one of the 12 parasites identified. The most prevalent species were Blastocystis sp. (42.7%), Enterobius vermicularis (34.7%) and Giardia lamblia (17.6%). Infection risk factors included houses built with makeshift materials and dirt floors; lack of piped water and public waste collection service, bed-sharing and living in the non-urban area. >70.3% of the participants that lived within <200 m from watercourses or permanent water bodies were parasitized. Conclusion This research shows that parasitic infections are still a serious public health problem and that they are strongly associated with socio-economic conditions and land use/cover. In this context, studies focused on One Health strategy are need to ensure the diagnosis and surveillance of parasitosis and to tackle zoonotic diseases as well as to encourage the development of sanitary and educational programs sustainable over time.
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Risk profiling of soil-transmitted helminth infection and estimated number of infected people in South Asia: A systematic review and Bayesian geostatistical Analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007580. [PMID: 31398200 PMCID: PMC6709929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In South Asia, hundreds of millions of people are infected with soil-transmitted helminths (Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm, and Trichuris trichiura). However, high-resolution risk profiles and the estimated number of people infected have yet to be determined. In turn, such information will assist control programs to identify priority areas for allocation of scarce resource for the control of soil-transmitted helminth infection. Methodology We pursued a systematic review to identify prevalence surveys pertaining to soil-transmitted helminth infections in four mainland countries (i.e., Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan) of South Asia. PubMed and ISI Web of Science were searched from inception to April 25, 2019, without restriction of language, study design, and survey date. We utilized Bayesian geostatistical models to identify environmental and socioeconomic predictors, and to estimate infection risk at high spatial resolution across the study region. Principal findings A total of 536, 490, and 410 georeferenced surveys were identified for A. lumbricoides, hookworm, and T. trichiura, respectively. We estimate that 361 million people (95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI) 331–395 million), approximately one-quarter of the South Asia population, was infected with at least one soil-transmitted helminth species in 2015. A. lumbricoides was the predominant species. Moderate to high prevalence (>20%) of any soil-transmitted helminth infection was predicted in the northeastern part and some northern areas of the study region, as well as the southern coastal areas of India. The annual treatment needs for the school-age population requiring preventive chemotherapy was estimated at 165 million doses (95% BCI: 146–185 million). Conclusions/significance Our risk maps provide an overview of the geographic distribution of soil-transmitted helminth infection in four mainland countries of South Asia and highlight the need for up-to-date surveys to accurately evaluate the disease burden in the region. Hundreds of millions of people in South Asia are infected with parasitic worms, such as hookworm, roundworm, and whipworm. However, precise information on where these infections occur and the exact number of people affected is not available. Such information though is important to aid control programs, so that interventions can be targeted to priority areas and limited financial and human resources allocated in a cost-effective manner. We did a systematic review of the literature to collect prevalence data on soil-transmitted helminth infections and used Bayesian geostatistical models to predict infection risk at high spatial resolution in four mainland countries (i.e., Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan) of South Asia. These countries account for 97% of the population in the region. We estimate that more than 350 million people were infected with at least one species of parasitic worms in 2015. The risk maps provide an overview of the geographic distribution of parasitic worm infections in the study region. Our results highlight the need for up-to-date surveys to more accurately evaluate the disease burden in South Asia.
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Use of Geospatial Surveillance and Response Systems for Vector-Borne Diseases in the Elimination Phase. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010015. [PMID: 30669341 PMCID: PMC6473698 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The distribution of diseases caused by vector-borne viruses and parasites are restricted by the environmental requirements of their vectors, but also by the ambient temperature inside the host as it influences the speed of maturation of the infectious agent transferred. The launch of the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) satellite in 2015, and the new ECOSTRESS instrument onboard the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018, established the leadership of the National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in ecology and climate research by allowing the structural and functional classification of ecosystems that govern vector sustainability. These advances, and the availability of sub-meter resolution data from commercial satellites, contribute to seamless mapping and modelling of diseases, not only at continental scales (1 km2) and local community or agricultural field scales (15–30 m2), but for the first time, also at the habitat–household scale (<1 m2). This communication presents current capabilities that are related to data collection by Earth-observing satellites, and draws attention to the usefulness of geographical information systems (GIS) and modelling for the study of important parasitic diseases.
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Gwitira I, Murwira A, Mberikunashe J, Masocha M. Spatial overlaps in the distribution of HIV/AIDS and malaria in Zimbabwe. BMC Infect Dis 2018; 18:598. [PMID: 30482166 PMCID: PMC6260695 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3513-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In most developing economies particularly in Africa, more people are likely to die of HIV/AIDS and malaria compared to other diseases. HIV/AIDS tends to be superimposed on the long standing malaria burden particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The detection and understanding of spatial overlaps in disease occurrence is important for integrated and targeted disease control. Integrated disease control can enhance efficiency and cost-effectiveness through the development of drugs targeting multiple infections in the same geographic space. METHODS Using Zimbabwe as a case study, this study tests the hypothesis that malaria clusters coincide with HIV/AIDS clusters in space. Case data for the two diseases were obtained from the Ministry of Health and Child Care in Zimbabwe at district level via the District Health Information System (DHIS). Kulldorff's spatial scan statistic was used to test for spatial overlaps in clusters of high cases of HIV/AIDS and malaria at district level. The spatial scan test was used to identify areas with higher cases of HIV/AIDS and malaria than would be expected under spatial randomness. RESULTS Results of this study indicate that primary clusters of HIV/AIDS and malaria were not spatially coincident in Zimbabwe. While no spatial overlaps were detected between primary clusters of the two diseases, spatial overlaps were detected among statistically significant secondary clusters of HIV/AIDS and malaria. Spatial overlaps between HIV/AIDS and malaria occurred in five districts in the northern and eastern regions of Zimbabwe. In addition, findings of this study indicate that HIV/AIDS is more widespread in Zimbabwe compared to malaria. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study may therefore be used as a basis for spatially-targeted control of HIV/AIDS and malaria particularly in high disease burden areas. This is important as previous interventions have targeted the two diseases separately. Thus, targeted control could assist in resource allocation through prioritising areas in greatest need hence maximising the impact of disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaiah Gwitira
- Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Zimbabwe, P. O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Amon Murwira
- Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Zimbabwe, P. O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Joseph Mberikunashe
- Ministry of Health and Child Care, 4th Floor, Kaguvi Building, Central Avenue (between 4th and 5th Street), Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Mhosisi Masocha
- Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Zimbabwe, P. O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
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Assoum M, Ortu G, Basáñez MG, Lau C, Clements ACA, Halton K, Fenwick A, Soares Magalhães RJ. Spatiotemporal distribution and population at risk of soil-transmitted helminth infections following an eight-year school-based deworming programme in Burundi, 2007-2014. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:583. [PMID: 29169386 PMCID: PMC5701347 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2505-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Investigating the effect of successive annual deworming rounds on the spatiotemporal distribution of infection prevalence and numbers at risk for soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) can help identify communities nearing elimination and those needing further interventions. In this study, we aim to quantify the impact of an 8-year mass drug administration (MDA) programme (from 2007 to 2014) on the spatiotemporal distribution of prevalence of STH infections and to estimate the number of school-aged children infected with STHs in Burundi. Methods During annual longitudinal school-based surveys in Burundi between 2007 and 2011, STH infection and anthropometric data for a total of 40,656 children were collected; these data were supplemented with data from a national survey conducted in 2014. Bayesian model based geostatistics (MBG) were used to generate predictive prevalence maps for each STH species and year. The numbers of children at-risk of infection per district between 2008 and 2014 were estimated as the product of the predictive prevalence maps and population density maps. Results Overall, the degree of spatial clustering of STH infections decreased between 2008 and 2011; in 2014 the geographical clusters of all STH infections reappeared. The reduction in prevalence was small for Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura in the centre and central north of the country. Our predictive prevalence maps for hookworm indicate a reduction in prevalence along the periphery of the country. The predicted number of children infected with any STH species decreased substantially between 2007 and 2011, but in 2014 there was an increase in the predicted number of children infected with A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura. In 2014, the districts with the highest predicted number of children infected with A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura and hookworms were Kibuye district (n = 128,903), Mabayi district (n = 35,302) and Kiremba (n = 87,511), respectively. Conclusions While the MDA programme in Burundi resulted in a reduction in STH prevalence, this reduction was spatiotemporally heterogeneous, with some pockets of high prevalence remaining, suggesting that treatment coverage and complementary interventions should be evaluated to improve impact. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2505-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Assoum
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. .,UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland (Gatton Campus), Via Warrego Highway QLD, Gatton, 4343, Australia. .,School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Giuseppina Ortu
- Present address: Malaria Consortium Headquarters. Development House, 56-64 Leonard Street EC2A 4LT, London, UK
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, School of Public Health, Norfolk Place W2 1PG, London, UK
| | - Colleen Lau
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Archie C A Clements
- Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Kate Halton
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, W2 1PG, London, UK
| | - Ricardo J Soares Magalhães
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland (Gatton Campus), Via Warrego Highway QLD, Gatton, 4343, Australia
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Masaku J, Mutungi F, Gichuki PM, Okoyo C, Njomo DW, Njenga SM. High prevalence of helminths infection and associated risk factors among adults living in a rural setting, central Kenya: a cross-sectional study. Trop Med Health 2017; 45:15. [PMID: 28680323 PMCID: PMC5493853 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-017-0055-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schistosome infection and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) are major public health problems in many developing countries where they contribute to the suffering of populations living in poor settings. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in four rural villages in central region of Kenya to provide information on the status of schistosome and STH infections. Previous studies conducted in the area among primary school children showed that there were high STH and Schistosoma mansoni infections. This paper presents the results of a parasitological investigation and the associated risk factors of infection among adults living in the study villages. Methods A total of 495 adults (18–84 years) from systematically selected households were sampled during this cross-sectional survey. They were interviewed and screened for S. mansoni and STHs using duplicate Kato-Katz thick smears. Comparison of prevalence by age group and gender was explored by confidence interval plots, and 95% CI were obtained by generalized least squares (GLS) random effects model. Risk factors associated with S. mansoni infection were determined using mixed effects logistic regression at 95% CI taking into account household clusters. Results The study revealed that the prevalence of S. mansoni infection was 33.5% (95% CI 29.6–38.0) among adults in the study villages, while the prevalence of STH infection was 0.2% (95% CI 0–1.4) with hookworm being the only detected STH species. However, the village and education level were the only risk factors which showed significant evidence of association with S. mansoni infections. Conclusions The current study shows that adult communities in the study area were highly infected with S. mansoni. The study suggests that it may be necessary to develop contemporary approaches towards preventive chemotherapy interventions to adults in high endemic areas to complement the ongoing school-based deworming programme. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s41182-017-0055-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Masaku
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Faith Mutungi
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Paul M Gichuki
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Collins Okoyo
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Doris W Njomo
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Sammy M Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
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Knowles SCL, Sturrock HJW, Turner H, Whitton JM, Gower CM, Jemu S, Phillips AE, Meite A, Thomas B, Kollie K, Thomas C, Rebollo MP, Styles B, Clements M, Fenwick A, Harrison WE, Fleming FM. Optimising cluster survey design for planning schistosomiasis preventive chemotherapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005599. [PMID: 28552961 PMCID: PMC5464666 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cornerstone of current schistosomiasis control programmes is delivery of praziquantel to at-risk populations. Such preventive chemotherapy requires accurate information on the geographic distribution of infection, yet the performance of alternative survey designs for estimating prevalence and converting this into treatment decisions has not been thoroughly evaluated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We used baseline schistosomiasis mapping surveys from three countries (Malawi, Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia) to generate spatially realistic gold standard datasets, against which we tested alternative two-stage cluster survey designs. We assessed how sampling different numbers of schools per district (2-20) and children per school (10-50) influences the accuracy of prevalence estimates and treatment class assignment, and we compared survey cost-efficiency using data from Malawi. Due to the focal nature of schistosomiasis, up to 53% simulated surveys involving 2-5 schools per district failed to detect schistosomiasis in low endemicity areas (1-10% prevalence). Increasing the number of schools surveyed per district improved treatment class assignment far more than increasing the number of children sampled per school. For Malawi, surveys of 15 schools per district and 20-30 children per school reliably detected endemic schistosomiasis and maximised cost-efficiency. In sensitivity analyses where treatment costs and the country considered were varied, optimal survey size was remarkably consistent, with cost-efficiency maximised at 15-20 schools per district. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Among two-stage cluster surveys for schistosomiasis, our simulations indicated that surveying 15-20 schools per district and 20-30 children per school optimised cost-efficiency and minimised the risk of under-treatment, with surveys involving more schools of greater cost-efficiency as treatment costs rose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. L. Knowles
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Hugh J. W. Sturrock
- Global Health Group, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Hugo Turner
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jane M. Whitton
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte M. Gower
- The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel Jemu
- Ministry of Health, Capital City, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
| | - Anna E. Phillips
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aboulaye Meite
- Ministry of Health and Social Welfare of Côte d’Ivoire, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Brent Thomas
- Fliarial Programme Support Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Karsor Kollie
- Neglected Tropical and Non Communicable Diseases Program, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Monrovia 10, Liberia
| | - Catherine Thomas
- Neglected Tropical and Non Communicable Diseases Program, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Monrovia 10, Liberia
| | - Maria P. Rebollo
- Fliarial Programme Support Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ben Styles
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- National Foundation for Educational Research, Upton Park, Slough, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Clements
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy E. Harrison
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona M. Fleming
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
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Ortu G, Ndayishimiye O, Clements M, Kayugi D, Campbell CH, Lamine MS, Zivieri A, Magalhaes RS, Binder S, King CH, Fenwick A, Colley DG, Jourdan PM. Countrywide Reassessment of Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Burundi Using a Urine-Circulating Cathodic Antigen Rapid Test: Informing the National Control Program. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 96:664-673. [PMID: 28115675 PMCID: PMC5361543 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Following implementation of the national control program, a reassessment of Schistosoma mansoni prevalence was conducted in Burundi to determine the feasibility of moving toward elimination. A countrywide cluster-randomized cross-sectional study was performed in May 2014. At least 25 schools were sampled from each of five eco-epidemiological risk zones for schistosomiasis. Fifty randomly selected children 13–14 years of age per school were included for a single urine-circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) rapid test and, in a subset of schools, for duplicate Kato-Katz slide preparation from a single stool sample. A total of 17,331 children from 347 schools were tested using CCA. The overall prevalence of S. mansoni infection, when CCA trace results were considered negative, was 13.5% (zone range [zr] = 4.6–17.8%), and when CCA trace results were considered positive, it was 42.8% (zr = 34.3–49.9%). In 170 schools, prevalence of this infection determined using Kato-Katz method was 1.5% (zr ==0–2.7%). The overall mean intensity of S. mansoni infection determined using Kato-Katz was 0.85 eggs per gram (standard deviation = 10.86). A majority of schools (84%) were classified as non-endemic (prevalence = 0) using Kato-Katz; however, a similar proportion of schools were classified as endemic when CCA trace results were considered negative (85%) and nearly all (98%) were endemic when CCA trace results were considered positive. The findings of this nationwide reassessment using a CCA rapid test indicate that Schistosoma infection is still widespread in Burundi, although its average intensity is probably low. Further evidence is now needed to determine the association between CCA rapid test positivity and low-intensity disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina Ortu
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Onésime Ndayishimiye
- Programme National Intégré de lutte contre les Maladies Tropicales Négligées et la Cécité (PNIMTNC), Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Lutte contre le SIDA, Bujumbura, Burundi
| | - Michelle Clements
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Donatien Kayugi
- Programme National Intégré de lutte contre les Maladies Tropicales Négligées et la Cécité (PNIMTNC), Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Lutte contre le SIDA, Bujumbura, Burundi
| | - Carl H Campbell
- Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE), Department of Microbiology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | | | - Antonio Zivieri
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ricardo Soares Magalhaes
- Children's Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, South Brisbane, Australia.,School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton, Australia
| | - Sue Binder
- Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE), Department of Microbiology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Charles H King
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio.,Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE), Department of Microbiology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel G Colley
- Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE), Department of Microbiology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Peter Mark Jourdan
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Masaku J, Mwende F, Odhiambo G, Musuva R, Matey E, Kihara JH, Thuita IG, Njomo DW. Knowledge, practices and perceptions of geo-helminthes infection among parents of pre-school age children of coastal region, Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005514. [PMID: 28358802 PMCID: PMC5388494 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soil-transmitted helminthes (STHs) are common human parasitic diseases in most of the developing world particularly in Kenya. The ongoing National School-Based Deworming Programme (NSBDP) was launched in 2012 and is currently targeting 28 of the 47 endemic Counties. In an effort to improve treatment intervention strategies among Pre-School Age Children (PSAC) attending Early Childhood Development Centres (ECDC), we sought to assess parents' knowledge, perceptions and practices on worm infection. METHODOLOGY We conducted a qualitative cross-sectional study in four endemic sub-counties of two counties of coastal region of Kenya. A total of 20 focus group discussions (FGDs) categorized by gender were conducted among parents of pre-school age children. Participants were purposively selected based on homogenous characteristics with the saturation model determining the number of focus group discussions conducted. The data collected was analyzed manually by study themes. FINDINGS The majority of the parents had knowledge on worms and modes of transmission of the parasitic infections among the pre-school children. Also, most of the participants knew the causes of worm infection and the pre- disposing factors mentioned included poor hygiene and sanitation practices. Due to poor knowledge of signs and symptoms, misconceptions about the drugs administered during the NSBDP were common with a large majority of the parents indicating that the drugs were ineffective in worm control. The findings also indicated that most of the participants sought medical care on the onset of the signs and symptoms of worm infestation and preferred services provided at public health facilities as opposed to private health facilities or buying drugs from the local market citing mistrust of such services. Cultural beliefs, high cost of building and availability of vast pieces of land for human waste disposal were factors that contributed to low or lack of latrine ownership and usage by a large majority of the respondents. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that to a large extent the parents of the pre-school age children have information on worm infections. However, some cultural beliefs and practices on the pathology and mode of transmission mentioned could be a hindrance to prevention and control efforts. There is need to implement health promotion campaigns to strengthen the impact of control strategies and reduce infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Masaku
- Eastern & Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Faith Mwende
- Eastern & Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gladys Odhiambo
- Centre for Global Health Research (CGHR) Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Rosemary Musuva
- Centre for Global Health Research (CGHR) Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Elizabeth Matey
- Centre for Microbiology Research (CMR), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jimmy H. Kihara
- Directorate of Basic Education, Early Childhood Education Section, Ministry of Education, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Isaac G. Thuita
- Division of Vector Borne Diseases, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Doris W. Njomo
- Eastern & Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
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Stanton MC, Adriko M, Arinaitwe M, Howell A, Davies J, Allison G, LaCourse EJ, Muheki E, Kabatereine NB, Stothard JR. Intestinal schistosomiasis in Uganda at high altitude (>1400 m): malacological and epidemiological surveys on Mount Elgon and in Fort Portal crater lakes reveal extra preventive chemotherapy needs. Infect Dis Poverty 2017; 6:34. [PMID: 28162096 PMCID: PMC5292801 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-017-0248-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Intestinal schistosomiasis is of public health importance in Uganda but communities living above 1400 m are not targeted for control as natural transmission is thought unlikely. To assess altitudinal boundaries and at-risk populations, conjoint malacological and epidemiological surveys were undertaken on Mount Elgon (1139 m–3937 m), in Fort Portal crater lakes and in the Rwenzori Mountains (1123 m–4050 m). Methods Seventy freshwater habitats [Mount Elgon (37), Fort Portal crater lakes (23), Rwenzori Mountains (8) and Lake Albert (2)] were inspected for Biomphalaria species. Water temperature, pH and conductivity were recorded. A parasitological examination of 756 schoolchildren [Mount Elgon (300), Fort Portal crater lakes (456)] by faecal microscopy of duplicate Kato-Katz smears from two consecutive stool samples was bolstered by antigen (urine-CCA dipstick) and antibody (SEA-ELISA) diagnostic assays. Results Biomphalaria spp. was found up to 1951 m on Mount Elgon and 1567 m in the Fort Portal crater lakes. Although no snail from Mount Elgon shed cercariae, molecular analysis judged 7.1% of snails sampled at altitudes above 1400 m as having DNA of Schistosoma mansoni; in Fort Portal crater lakes three snails shed schistosome cercariae. Prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis as measured in schoolchildren by Kato-Katz (Mount Elgon = 5.3% v. Fort Portal crater lakes = 10.7%), CCA urine-dipsticks (18.3% v. 34.4%) and SEA-ELISA (42.3% v. 63.7%) showed negative associations with increasing altitude with some evidence of infection up to 2000 m. Conclusions Contrary to expectations, these surveys clearly show that natural transmission of intestinal schistosomiasis occurs above 1400 m, possibly extending up to 2000 m. Using spatial epidemiological predictions, this now places some extra six million people at-risk, denoting an expansion of preventive chemotherapy needs in Uganda. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-017-0248-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle C Stanton
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Moses Adriko
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Kampala, P.O. Box 1661, Uganda
| | - Moses Arinaitwe
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Kampala, P.O. Box 1661, Uganda
| | - Alison Howell
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Juliet Davies
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Gillian Allison
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - E James LaCourse
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Edridah Muheki
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Kampala, P.O. Box 1661, Uganda
| | - Narcis B Kabatereine
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Kampala, P.O. Box 1661, Uganda.,Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - J Russell Stothard
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
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Mapping Soil Transmitted Helminths and Schistosomiasis under Uncertainty: A Systematic Review and Critical Appraisal of Evidence. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005208. [PMID: 28005901 PMCID: PMC5179027 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spatial modelling of STH and schistosomiasis epidemiology is now commonplace. Spatial epidemiological studies help inform decisions regarding the number of people at risk as well as the geographic areas that need to be targeted with mass drug administration; however, limited attention has been given to propagated uncertainties, their interpretation, and consequences for the mapped values. Using currently published literature on the spatial epidemiology of helminth infections we identified: (1) the main uncertainty sources, their definition and quantification and (2) how uncertainty is informative for STH programme managers and scientists working in this domain. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We performed a systematic literature search using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) protocol. We searched Web of Knowledge and PubMed using a combination of uncertainty, geographic and disease terms. A total of 73 papers fulfilled the inclusion criteria for the systematic review. Only 9% of the studies did not address any element of uncertainty, while 91% of studies quantified uncertainty in the predicted morbidity indicators and 23% of studies mapped it. In addition, 57% of the studies quantified uncertainty in the regression coefficients but only 7% incorporated it in the regression response variable (morbidity indicator). Fifty percent of the studies discussed uncertainty in the covariates but did not quantify it. Uncertainty was mostly defined as precision, and quantified using credible intervals by means of Bayesian approaches. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE None of the studies considered adequately all sources of uncertainties. We highlighted the need for uncertainty in the morbidity indicator and predictor variable to be incorporated into the modelling framework. Study design and spatial support require further attention and uncertainty associated with Earth observation data should be quantified. Finally, more attention should be given to mapping and interpreting uncertainty, since they are relevant to inform decisions regarding the number of people at risk as well as the geographic areas that need to be targeted with mass drug administration.
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Overgaard HJ, Alexander N, Matiz MI, Jaramillo JF, Olano VA, Vargas S, Sarmiento D, Lenhart A, Stenström TA. A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial to Reduce Diarrheal Disease and Dengue Entomological Risk Factors in Rural Primary Schools in Colombia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005106. [PMID: 27820821 PMCID: PMC5098800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As many neglected tropical diseases are co-endemic and have common risk factors, integrated control can efficiently reduce disease burden and relieve resource-strained public health budgets. Diarrheal diseases and dengue fever are major global health problems sharing common risk factors in water storage containers. Where provision of clean water is inadequate, water storage is crucial. Fecal contamination of stored water is a common source of diarrheal illness, but stored water also provides breeding sites for dengue vector mosquitoes. Integrating improved water management and educational strategies for both diseases in the school environment can potentially improve the health situation for students and the larger community. The objective of this trial was to investigate whether interventions targeting diarrhea and dengue risk factors would significantly reduce absence due to diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in schools. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A factorial cluster randomized controlled trial was carried out in 34 rural primary schools (1,301 pupils) in La Mesa and Anapoima municipalities, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Schools were randomized to one of four study arms: diarrhea interventions (DIA), dengue interventions (DEN), combined diarrhea and dengue interventions (DIADEN), and control (CON). Interventions had no apparent effect on pupil school absence due to diarrheal disease (p = 0.45) or on adult female Aedes aegypti density (p = 0.32) (primary outcomes). However, the dengue interventions reduced the Breteau Index on average by 78% (p = 0.029), with Breteau indices of 10.8 and 6.2 in the DEN and DIADEN arms, respectively compared to 37.5 and 46.9 in the DIA and CON arms, respectively. The diarrhea interventions improved water quality as assessed by the amount of Escherichia coli colony forming units (CFU); the ratio of Williams mean E. coli CFU being 0.22, or 78% reduction (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Integrated control of dengue and diarrhea has never been conducted before. This trial presents an example for application of control strategies that may affect both diseases and the first study to apply such an approach in school settings. The interventions were well received and highly appreciated by students and teachers. An apparent absence of effect in primary outcome indicators could be the result of pupils being exposed to risk factors outside the school area and mosquitoes flying in from nearby uncontrolled breeding sites. Integrated interventions targeting these diseases in a school context remain promising because of the reduced mosquito breeding and improved water quality, as well as educational benefits. However, to improve outcomes in future integrated approaches, simultaneous interventions in communities, in addition to schools, should be considered; using appropriate combinations of site-specific, effective, acceptable, and affordable interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov no. ISRCTN40195031.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans J. Overgaard
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs, Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, Montpellier, France
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Neal Alexander
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London
| | - Maria Ines Matiz
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente, Universidad El Bosque, Bogota, Colombia
| | | | | | - Sandra Vargas
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente, Universidad El Bosque, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Diana Sarmiento
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente, Universidad El Bosque, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Audrey Lenhart
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, United States of America
| | - Thor Axel Stenström
- SARChI Chair, Institute for Water and Waste Water Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
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Ortu G, Assoum M, Wittmann U, Knowles S, Clements M, Ndayishimiye O, Basáñez MG, Lau C, Clements A, Fenwick A, Magalhaes RJS. The impact of an 8-year mass drug administration programme on prevalence, intensity and co-infections of soil-transmitted helminthiases in Burundi. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:513. [PMID: 27660114 PMCID: PMC5034474 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1794-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are amongst the most prevalent infections in the world. Mass drug administration (MDA) programmes have become the most commonly used national interventions for endemic countries to achieve elimination. This paper aims to describe the effect of an 8-year MDA programme on the prevalence, intensity of infection and co-infection of STH in Burundi from 2007 to 2014 and critically appraise the trajectory towards STH elimination in the country. Results Annual STH parasitological surveys (specifically, a “pilot study” from 2007 to 2011, an “extension study” from 2008 to 2011, and a “national reassessment” in 2014; n = 27,658 children), showed a significant drop in prevalence of infection with any STH (“pooled STH”) between baseline and 2011 in both studies, falling from 32 to 16 % in the pilot study, and from 35 to 16 % in the extension study. Most STH infections were of low intensity according to WHO classification. The national reassessment in 2014 showed that prevalence of pooled STH remained significantly below the prevalence in 2007 in both studies but there was no further decrease in STH prevalence from 2011 levels during this time. Spatial dependence analysis showed that prevalence of Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides had a tendency to cluster over the years, whilst only trends in spatial dependence were evident for hookworm infections. Spatial dependence fluctuated over the course of the programme for Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura. However, spatial trends in spatial dependence were evident in 2010 for Ascaris lumbricoides. Analysis of spatial clustering of intensity of infection and heavy infections revealed that the intensity changed over time for all parasites. Heavy intensity was only evident in Ascaris lumbricoides for 2008 and did not appear in proceeding years and other parasites. Conclusions These results demonstrate that sustained annual MDA significantly reduced the prevalence of STH infection in school-age children but was unable to achieve elimination. Additionally, significant decline in prevalence was accompanied by a drop in spatial clustering of infection indicators across all sites from 2008. The lack of consistency in the results of the spatial dependence analysis highlights that MDA programmes can interrupt the normal transmission dynamics of STH parasites. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1794-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina Ortu
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK.
| | - Mohamad Assoum
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Udo Wittmann
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Sarah Knowles
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Michelle Clements
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Onésime Ndayishimiye
- Programme National Intégré de lutte contre les Maladies Tropicales Négligées et la Cécité (PNIMTNC) - Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la lutte contre le SIDA, Bujumbura, Burundi
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK.,London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Colleen Lau
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Archie Clements
- Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St. Mary's Campus), Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Ricardo J Soares Magalhaes
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland (Gatton Campus), Via Warrego Highway, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia
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Li XX, Ren ZP, Wang LX, Zhang H, Jiang SW, Chen JX, Wang JF, Zhou XN. Co-endemicity of Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Intestinal Helminth Infection in the People's Republic of China. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004580. [PMID: 27088504 PMCID: PMC4835095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Both pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and intestinal helminth infection (IHI) affect millions of individuals every year in China. However, the national-scale estimation of prevalence predictors and prevalence maps for these diseases, as well as co-endemic relative risk (RR) maps of both diseases' prevalence are not well developed. There are co-endemic, high prevalence areas of both diseases, whose delimitation is essential for devising effective control strategies. Bayesian geostatistical logistic regression models including socio-economic, climatic, geographical and environmental predictors were fitted separately for active PTB and IHI based on data from the national surveys for PTB and major human parasitic diseases that were completed in 2010 and 2004, respectively. Prevalence maps and co-endemic RR maps were constructed for both diseases by means of Bayesian Kriging model and Bayesian shared component model capable of appraising the fraction of variance of spatial RRs shared by both diseases, and those specific for each one, under an assumption that there are unobserved covariates common to both diseases. Our results indicate that gross domestic product (GDP) per capita had a negative association, while rural regions, the arid and polar zones and elevation had positive association with active PTB prevalence; for the IHI prevalence, GDP per capita and distance to water bodies had a negative association, the equatorial and warm zones and the normalized difference vegetation index had a positive association. Moderate to high prevalence of active PTB and low prevalence of IHI were predicted in western regions, low to moderate prevalence of active PTB and low prevalence of IHI were predicted in north-central regions and the southeast coastal regions, and moderate to high prevalence of active PTB and high prevalence of IHI were predicted in the south-western regions. Thus, co-endemic areas of active PTB and IHI were located in the south-western regions of China, which might be determined by socio-economic factors, such as GDP per capita.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Xu Li
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhou-Peng Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li-Xia Wang
- National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Zhang
- National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shi-Wen Jiang
- National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jia-Xu Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jin-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Nong Zhou
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
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Easton AV, Oliveira RG, O'Connell EM, Kepha S, Mwandawiro CS, Njenga SM, Kihara JH, Mwatele C, Odiere MR, Brooker SJ, Webster JP, Anderson RM, Nutman TB. Multi-parallel qPCR provides increased sensitivity and diagnostic breadth for gastrointestinal parasites of humans: field-based inferences on the impact of mass deworming. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:38. [PMID: 26813411 PMCID: PMC4729172 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1314-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although chronic morbidity in humans from soil transmitted helminth (STH) infections can be reduced by anthelmintic treatment, inconsistent diagnostic tools make it difficult to reliably measure the impact of deworming programs and often miss light helminth infections. METHODS Cryopreserved stool samples from 796 people (aged 2-81 years) in four villages in Bungoma County, western Kenya, were assessed using multi-parallel qPCR for 8 parasites and compared to point-of-contact assessments of the same stools by the 2-stool 2-slide Kato-Katz (KK) method. All subjects were treated with albendazole and all Ascaris lumbricoides expelled post-treatment were collected. Three months later, samples from 633 of these people were re-assessed by both qPCR and KK, re-treated with albendazole and the expelled worms collected. RESULTS Baseline prevalence by qPCR (n = 796) was 17 % for A. lumbricoides, 18 % for Necator americanus, 41 % for Giardia lamblia and 15% for Entamoeba histolytica. The prevalence was <1% for Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale, Strongyloides stercoralis and Cryptosporidium parvum. The sensitivity of qPCR was 98% for A. lumbricoides and N. americanus, whereas KK sensitivity was 70% and 32%, respectively. Furthermore, qPCR detected infections with T. trichiura and S. stercoralis that were missed by KK, and infections with G. lamblia and E. histolytica that cannot be detected by KK. Infection intensities measured by qPCR and by KK were correlated for A. lumbricoides (r = 0.83, p < 0.0001) and N. americanus (r = 0.55, p < 0.0001). The number of A. lumbricoides worms expelled was correlated (p < 0.0001) with both the KK (r = 0.63) and qPCR intensity measurements (r = 0.60). CONCLUSIONS KK may be an inadequate tool for stool-based surveillance in areas where hookworm or Strongyloides are common or where intensity of helminth infection is low after repeated rounds of chemotherapy. Because deworming programs need to distinguish between populations where parasitic infection is controlled and those where further treatment is required, multi-parallel qPCR (or similar high throughput molecular diagnostics) may provide new and important diagnostic information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice V Easton
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Rita G Oliveira
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Elise M O'Connell
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. elise.o'
| | - Stella Kepha
- School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Charles S Mwandawiro
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Sammy M Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Jimmy H Kihara
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Cassian Mwatele
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Maurice R Odiere
- Neglected Tropical Diseases Research Unit, Center for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya.
| | - Simon J Brooker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | - Joanne P Webster
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hertfordshire, UK.
| | - Roy M Anderson
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Thomas B Nutman
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Campbell SJ, Nery SV, McCarthy JS, Gray DJ, Soares Magalhães RJ, Clements ACA. A Critical Appraisal of Control Strategies for Soil-Transmitted Helminths. Trends Parasitol 2016; 32:97-107. [PMID: 26795294 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Interventions that lead to reductions in soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) include chemotherapy with anthelmintic drugs and improvements in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). In this opinion article we aim to determine the evidence for optimal approaches for STH control. First we explore the evidence for the above interventions. We then appraise two integration strategies: current chemotherapy-oriented integrated neglected tropical disease (NTD) control and expanded 'multicomponent integration', which includes integrated chemotherapy, WASH, and other intervention strategies. While multicomponent integrated control may be an effective approach to sustainably reduce STH transmission, there is a need for evidence to prove the feasibility of this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzy J Campbell
- Research School of Population Health, College of Medicine, Biology, and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
| | - Susana V Nery
- Research School of Population Health, College of Medicine, Biology, and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - James S McCarthy
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia; School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Darren J Gray
- Research School of Population Health, College of Medicine, Biology, and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ricardo J Soares Magalhães
- Children's Health and Environment Program, Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, Australia
| | - Archie C A Clements
- Research School of Population Health, College of Medicine, Biology, and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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Parker ME, Mosites E, Reider K, Ndayishimiye N, Waring M, Nyandimbane G, Masumbuko D, Ndikuriyo L, Matthias D. A Blinded, Cluster-Randomized, Placebo-Controlled School FeedingTrial in Burundi Using Rice Fortified With Iron, Zinc, Thiamine, and Folic Acid. Food Nutr Bull 2015; 36:481-92. [PMID: 26612421 DOI: 10.1177/0379572115615234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Iron-deficiency anemia is a major public health problem among school-aged children in sub-Saharan Africa. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effectiveness of micronutrient-fortified rice to increase hemoglobin (Hb) concentration and reduce the prevalence of anemia among schoolchildren. METHODS Nine hundred four schoolchildren participated in this cluster-randomized trial during a 7-month intervention period. The study was conducted in 12 primary schools in rural Burundi. Hemoglobin, socioeconomic status, febrile illness, and dietary diversity were measured at baseline and follow-up. The changes in Hb concentration and anemia status were analyzed using linear and logistic mixed models, respectively. The micronutrient formulation contained an iron-to-zinc molar ratio of approximately 2.2. RESULTS There was no significant difference in Hb concentration between the intervention and control groups (β = .09 g/dL; 95% confidence interval: -0.21 to 0.38) following the 7-month intervention. Nearly half the children reported having a fever within 2 weeks prior to baseline or follow-up. Children with febrile illness preceding follow-up were less than half as likely to show improvement in anemia status (odds ratio = 0.47, P < .001), with an average 0.56 g/dL smaller improvement in Hb at follow-up (P < .001). CONCLUSION The high prevalence of fever and low iron-to-zinc molar ratio of the Ultra Rice formulation may have contributed to the lack of improvement in Hb. Alternatively, the detected anemia may not have been due to nutrient deficiencies. Anemia interventions in Burundi should implement multiple strategies to eliminate both iron deficiency and infectious causes of anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emily Mosites
- The University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Melody Waring
- Institute for Research on Poverty University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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Siza JE, Kaatano GM, Chai JY, Eom KS, Rim HJ, Yong TS, Min DY, Chang SY, Ko Y, Changalucha JM. Prevalence of Schistosomes and Soil-Transmitted Helminths among Schoolchildren in Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2015; 53:515-24. [PMID: 26537030 PMCID: PMC4635830 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2015.53.5.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of this study was to conduct a survey on schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections in order to come up with feasible control strategies in Lake Victoria basin, Tanzania. Depending on the size of the school, 150-200 schoolchildren were recruited for the study. Duplicate Kato-Katz stool smears were prepared from each child and microscopically examined for Schistosoma mansoni and STHs. Urine specimens were examined for Schistosoma haematobium eggs using the filtration technique. After the survey, mass drug administration was done using praziquantel and albendazole for schistosomiasis and STHs infections, respectively. A total of 5,952 schoolchildren from 36 schools were recruited for the study and had their stool and urine specimens examined. Out of 5,952 schoolchildren, 898 (15.1%) were positive for S. mansoni, 754 (12.6%) for hookworms, 188 (3.2%) for Ascaris lumblicoides, and 5 (0.008%) for Trichuris trichiura. Out of 5,826 schoolchildren who provided urine samples, 519 (8.9%) were positive for S. haematobium eggs. The results revealed that intestinal schistosomiasis, urogenital schistosomiasis, and STH infections are highly prevalent throughought the lake basin. The high prevalence of intestinal and urogenital schistosomisiasis in the study area was a function of the distance from Lake Victoria, the former being more prevalent at localities close to the lake, whilst the latter is more so away from it. Control of schistosomiasis and STHs in the study area requires an integrated strategy that involves provision of health education to communities, regular treatments, and provision of adequate safe water supply and sanitation facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius E Siza
- National Institute of Medical Research, P.O. Box 1462, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Godfrey M Kaatano
- National Institute of Medical Research, P.O. Box 1462, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Jong-Yil Chai
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Keeseon S Eom
- Department of Parasitology and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University School of Medicine, Cheongju 28644, Korea
| | - Han-Jong Rim
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Tai-Soon Yong
- Department of Environmental Medical Biology and Institute of Tropical Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Duk-Young Min
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Eulji University College of Medicine, Daejeon 35233, Korea
| | - Su Young Chang
- Good Neighbors International, Tanzania Western Chapter, P.O. Box 367, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Yunsuk Ko
- Good Neighbors International, Tanzania Western Chapter, P.O. Box 367, Mwanza, Tanzania
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Lai YS, Biedermann P, Ekpo UF, Garba A, Mathieu E, Midzi N, Mwinzi P, N'Goran EK, Raso G, Assaré RK, Sacko M, Schur N, Talla I, Tchuenté LAT, Touré S, Winkler MS, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P. Spatial distribution of schistosomiasis and treatment needs in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and geostatistical analysis. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2015; 15:927-40. [PMID: 26004859 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(15)00066-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schistosomiasis affects more than 200 million individuals, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa, but empirical estimates of the disease burden in this region are unavailable. We used geostatistical modelling to produce high-resolution risk estimates of infection with Schistosoma spp and of the number of doses of praziquantel treatment needed to prevent morbidity at different administrative levels in 44 countries. METHODS We did a systematic review to identify surveys including schistosomiasis prevalence data in sub-Saharan Africa via PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and African Journals Online, from inception to May 2, 2014, with no restriction of language, survey date, or study design. We used Bayesian geostatistical meta-analysis and rigorous variable selection to predict infection risk over a grid of 1 155 818 pixels at 5 × 5 km, on the basis of environmental and socioeconomic predictors and to calculate the number of doses of praziquantel needed for prevention of morbidity. FINDINGS The literature search identified Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni surveys done in, respectively, 9318 and 9140 unique locations. Infection risk decreased from 2000 onwards, yet estimates suggest that 163 million (95% Bayesian credible interval [CrI] 155 million to 172 million; 18·5%, 17·6-19·5) of the sub-Saharan African population was infected in 2012. Mozambique had the highest prevalence of schistosomiasis in school-aged children (52·8%, 95% CrI 48·7-57·8). Low-risk countries (prevalence among school-aged children lower than 10%) included Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, and Rwanda. The numbers of doses of praziquantel needed per year were estimated to be 123 million (95% CrI 121 million to 125 million) for school-aged children and 247 million (239 million to 256 million) for the entire population. INTERPRETATION Our results will inform policy makers about the number of treatments needed at different levels and will guide the spatial targeting of schistosomiasis control interventions. FUNDING European Research Council, China Scholarship Council, UBS Optimus Foundation, and Swiss National Science Foundation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Si Lai
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Biedermann
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Uwem F Ekpo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - Amadou Garba
- Réseau International Schistosomose, Environnement, Amenagement et Lutte, Niamey, Niger
| | - Els Mathieu
- National Center of Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Pauline Mwinzi
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Eliézer K N'Goran
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire; Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Giovanna Raso
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rufin K Assaré
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Moussa Sacko
- Institut National de Recherche en Santé Publique, Bamako, Mali
| | - Nadine Schur
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Idrissa Talla
- Direction de la Lutte Contre la Maladie, Ministère de la Santé, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Louis-Albert Tchuem Tchuenté
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Ecology, University of Yaoundé, and Center for Schistosomiasis and Parasitology, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Seydou Touré
- Programme National de Lutte Contre la Schistosomiase, Ministère de la Santé, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Mirko S Winkler
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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McCreesh N, Arinaitwe M, Arineitwe W, Tukahebwa EM, Booth M. Effect of water temperature and population density on the population dynamics of Schistosoma mansoni intermediate host snails. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:503. [PMID: 25388819 PMCID: PMC4234839 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0503-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mathematical models can be used to identify areas at risk of increased or new schistosomiasis transmission as a result of climate change. The results of these models can be very different when parameterised to different species of host snail, which have varying temperature preferences. Currently, the experimental data needed by these models are available for only a few species of snail. The choice of density-dependent functions can also affect model results, but the effects of increasing densities on Biomphalaria populations have only previously been investigated in artificial aquariums. Methods Laboratory experiments were conducted to estimate Biomphalaria sudanica mortality, fecundity and growth rates at ten different constant water temperatures, ranging from 13-32°C. Snail cages were used to determine the effects of snail densities on B. sudanica and B. stanleyi mortality and fecundity rates in semi-natural conditions in Lake Albert. Results B. sudanica survival and fecundity were highest at 20°C and 22°C respectively. Growth in shell diameter was estimated to be highest at 23°C in small and medium sized snails, but the relationship between temperature and growth was not clear. The fecundity of both B. sudanica and B. stanleyi decreased by 72-75% with a four-fold increase in population density. Increasing densities four-fold also doubled B. stanleyi mortality rates, but had no effect on the survival of B. sudanica. Conclusions The optimum temperature for fecundity was lower for B. sudanica than for previously studied species of Biomphalaria. In contrast to other Biomphalaria species, B. sudanica have a distinct peak temperature for survival, as opposed to a plateau of highly suitable temperatures. For both B. stanleyi and B. sudanica, fecundity decreased with increasing population densities. This means that snail populations may experience large fluctuations in numbers, even in the absence of any external factors such as seasonal temperature changes. Survival also decreased with increasing density for B. stanleyi, in contrast to B. sudanica and other studied Biomphalaria species where only fecundity has been shown to decrease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0503-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicky McCreesh
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
| | - Moses Arinaitwe
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Plot 15 Bombo Road, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Wilber Arineitwe
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Plot 15 Bombo Road, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Edridah M Tukahebwa
- Vector Control Division, Ministry of Health, Plot 15 Bombo Road, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Mark Booth
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
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Chammartin F, Guimarães LH, Scholte RG, Bavia ME, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P. Spatio-temporal distribution of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Brazil. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:440. [PMID: 25230810 PMCID: PMC4262198 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In Brazil, preventive chemotherapy targeting soil-transmitted helminthiasis is being scaled-up. Hence, spatially explicit estimates of infection risks providing information about the current situation are needed to guide interventions. Available high-resolution national model-based estimates either rely on analyses of data restricted to a given period of time, or on historical data collected over a longer period. While efforts have been made to take into account the spatial structure of the data in the modelling approach, little emphasis has been placed on the temporal dimension. Methods We extracted georeferenced survey data on the prevalence of infection with soil-transmitted helminths (i.e. Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm and Trichuris trichiura) in Brazil from the Global Neglected Tropical Diseases (GNTD) database. Selection of the most important predictors of infection risk was carried out using a Bayesian geostatistical approach and temporal models that address non-linearity and correlation of the explanatory variables. The spatial process was estimated through a predictive process approximation. Spatio-temporal models were built on the selected predictors with integrated nested Laplace approximation using stochastic partial differential equations. Results Our models revealed that, over the past 20 years, the risk of soil-transmitted helminth infection has decreased in Brazil, mainly because of the reduction of A. lumbricoides and hookworm infections. From 2010 onwards, we estimate that the infection prevalences with A. lumbricoides, hookworm and T. trichiura are 3.6%, 1.7% and 1.4%, respectively. We also provide a map highlighting municipalities in need of preventive chemotherapy, based on a predicted soil-transmitted helminth infection risk in excess of 20%. The need for treatments in the school-aged population at the municipality level was estimated at 1.8 million doses of anthelminthic tablets per year. Conclusions The analysis of the spatio-temporal aspect of the risk of infection with soil-transmitted helminths contributes to a better understanding of the evolution of risk over time. Risk estimates provide the soil-transmitted helminthiasis control programme in Brazil with useful benchmark information for prioritising and improving spatial and temporal targeting of interventions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-440) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P,O, Box, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
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Parasitic infections on the shore of Lake Victoria (East Africa) detected by Mini-FLOTAC and standard techniques. Acta Trop 2014; 137:140-6. [PMID: 24865791 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Helminths and protozoa infections pose a great burden especially in developing countries, due to morbidity caused by both acute and chronic infection. The aim of our survey was to analyze the intestinal parasitic burden in communities from Mwanza region, Tanzania. METHODS Subjects (n=251) from four villages on the South of Lake Victoria have been analyzed for intestinal parasites with direct smear (DS), formol-ether concentration method (FECM) and the newly developed Mini-FLOTAC technique; urinary schistosomiasis was also assessed in a subsample (n=151); symptoms were registered and correlation between clinic and infections was calculated by chi-squared test and logistical regression. RESULTS Out of the subjects screened for intestinal and for urinary parasites, 87% (218/251) were found positive for any infection, 69% (174/251) carried a helminthic and 67% (167/251) a protozoan infection, almost half of them had a double or triple infection. The most common helminths were hookworms, followed by Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium. Among protozoa, the most common was Entamoeba coli followed by Entamoeba histolytica/dispar and Giardia intestinalis. Mini-FLOTAC detected a number of helminth infections (61.7%) higher than FECM (38.6%) and DS (17.9%). Some positive associations with abdominal symptoms were found and previous treatment was negatively correlated with infection. CONCLUSION Despite the limited size of the examined population the current study indicates a high prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection in Bukumbi area, Tanzania, and Mini-FLOTAC showed to be a promising diagnostic tool for helminth infections. This high parasitic burden calls for starting a regular deworming programme and other preventive interventions in schools and in the community.
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Lankowski AJ, Tsai AC, Kanyesigye M, Bwana M, Haberer JE, Wenger M, Martin JN, Bangsberg DR, Hunt PW, Siedner MJ. Empiric deworming and CD4 count recovery in HIV-infected Ugandans initiating antiretroviral therapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3036. [PMID: 25101890 PMCID: PMC4125278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is conflicting evidence on the immunologic benefit of treating helminth co-infections ("deworming") in HIV-infected individuals. Several studies have documented reduced viral load and increased CD4 count in antiretroviral therapy (ART) naïve individuals after deworming. However, there are a lack of data on the effect of deworming therapy on CD4 count recovery among HIV-infected persons taking ART. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS To estimate the association between empiric deworming therapy and CD4 count after ART initiation, we performed a retrospective observational study among HIV-infected adults on ART at a publicly operated HIV clinic in southwestern Uganda. Subjects were assigned as having received deworming if prescribed an anti-helminthic agent between 7 and 90 days before a CD4 test. To estimate the association between deworming and CD4 count, we fit multivariable regression models and analyzed predictors of CD4 count, using a time-by-interaction term with receipt or non-receipt of deworming. From 1998 to 2009, 5,379 subjects on ART attended 21,933 clinic visits at which a CD4 count was measured. Subjects received deworming prior to 668 (3%) visits. Overall, deworming was not associated with a significant difference in CD4 count in either the first year on ART (β = 42.8; 95% CI, -2.1 to 87.7) or after the first year of ART (β = -9.9; 95% CI, -24.1 to 4.4). However, in a sub-analysis by gender, during the first year of ART deworming was associated with a significantly greater rise in CD4 count (β = 63.0; 95% CI, 6.0 to 120.1) in females. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Empiric deworming of HIV-infected individuals on ART conferred no significant generalized benefit on subsequent CD4 count recovery. A significant association was observed exclusively in females and during the initial year on ART. Our findings are consistent with recent studies that failed to demonstrate an immunologic advantage to empirically deworming ART-naïve individuals, but suggest that certain sub-populations may benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J. Lankowski
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Alexander C. Tsai
- Center for Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Chester M. Pierce MD Division of Global Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Mwebesa Bwana
- Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Jessica E. Haberer
- Center for Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Megan Wenger
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey N. Martin
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - David R. Bangsberg
- Center for Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Peter W. Hunt
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Siedner
- Center for Global Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Nagi S, Chadeka EA, Sunahara T, Mutungi F, Justin YKD, Kaneko S, Ichinose Y, Matsumoto S, Njenga SM, Hashizume M, Shimada M, Hamano S. Risk factors and spatial distribution of Schistosoma mansoni infection among primary school children in Mbita District, Western Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2991. [PMID: 25058653 PMCID: PMC4109881 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background An increasing risk of Schistosoma mansoni infection has been observed around Lake Victoria, western Kenya since the 1970s. Understanding local transmission dynamics of schistosomiasis is crucial in curtailing increased risk of infection. Methodology/Principal Findings We carried out a cross sectional study on a population of 310 children from eight primary schools. Overall, a total of 238 (76.8%) children were infected with S. mansoni, while seven (2.3%) had S. haematobium. The prevalence of hookworm, Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides were 6.1%, 5.2% and 2.3%, respectively. Plasmodium falciparum was the only malaria parasite detected (12.0%). High local population density within a 1 km radius around houses was identified as a major independent risk factor of S. mansoni infection. A spatial cluster of high infection risk was detected around the Mbita causeway following adjustment for population density and other potential risk factors. Conclusions/Significance Population density was shown to be a major factor fuelling schistosome infection while individual socio-economic factors appeared not to affect the infection risk. The high-risk cluster around the Mbita causeway may be explained by the construction of an artificial pathway that may cause increased numbers of S. mansoni host snails through obstruction of the waterway. This construction may have, therefore, a significant negative impact on the health of the local population, especially school-aged children who frequently come in contact with lake water. It is estimated that more than ten percent of the world's population is at risk of schistosome transmission, with over 90% of infections occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya, schistosomiasis remains a major public health concern particularly around Lake Victoria. The objective of this study was to identify the risk factors associated with Schistosoma mansoni infection among schoolchildren on the shores and adjacent islands of Lake Victoria in Mbita district, western Kenya. High local population density was identified as an important risk factor for S. mansoni infection. Socio-economic factors were not found to be significantly associated with infection risk. Our study suggests that environmental changes related to causeway construction and the dense human population around Mbita town may result in favourable ecological conditions for S. mansoni transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiyo Nagi
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Evans A. Chadeka
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Sunahara
- Department of Vector Biology and Environment, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Faith Mutungi
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Yombo K. Dan Justin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kaneko
- Department of EcoEpidemiology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshio Ichinose
- Nagasaki University Nairobi Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sohkichi Matsumoto
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and International Medicine, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Sammy M. Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control (ESACIPAC), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Masahiro Hashizume
- Department of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Masaaki Shimada
- Department of EcoEpidemiology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
- Nagasaki University Nairobi Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nairobi, Kenya
- * E-mail: (MS); (SH)
| | - Shinjiro Hamano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University (NUITM), Nagasaki, Japan
- Nagasaki University Nairobi Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nairobi, Kenya
- * E-mail: (MS); (SH)
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Bisanzio D, Mutuku F, Bustinduy AL, Mungai PL, Muchiri EM, King CH, Kitron U. Cross-sectional study of the burden of vector-borne and soil-transmitted polyparasitism in rural communities of Coast Province, Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2992. [PMID: 25057825 PMCID: PMC4109907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In coastal Kenya, infection of human populations by a variety of parasites often results in co-infection or poly-parasitism. These parasitic infections, separately and in conjunction, are a major cause of chronic clinical and sub-clinical human disease and exert a long-term toll on economic welfare of affected populations. Risk factors for these infections are often shared and overlap in space, resulting in interrelated patterns of transmission that need to be considered at different spatial scales. Integration of novel quantitative tools and qualitative approaches is needed to analyze transmission dynamics and design effective interventions. Methodology Our study was focused on detecting spatial and demographic patterns of single- and co-infection in six villages in coastal Kenya. Individual and household level data were acquired using cross-sectional, socio-economic, and entomological surveys. Generalized additive models (GAMs and GAMMs) were applied to determine risk factors for infection and co-infections. Spatial analysis techniques were used to detect local clusters of single and multiple infections. Principal findings Of the 5,713 tested individuals, more than 50% were infected with at least one parasite and nearly 20% showed co-infections. Infections with Schistosoma haematobium (26.0%) and hookworm (21.4%) were most common, as was co-infection by both (6.3%). Single and co-infections shared similar environmental and socio-demographic risk factors. The prevalence of single and multiple infections was heterogeneous among and within communities. Clusters of single and co-infections were detected in each village, often spatially overlapped, and were associated with lower SES and household crowding. Conclusion Parasitic infections and co-infections are widespread in coastal Kenya, and their distributions are heterogeneous across landscapes, but inter-related. We highlighted how shared risk factors are associated with high prevalence of single infections and can result in spatial clustering of co-infections. Spatial heterogeneity and synergistic risk factors for polyparasitism need to be considered when designing surveillance and intervention strategies. In Coast Province, Kenya, infections with Schistosoma haematobium, Plasmodium spp., filarial nematodes, and geohelminths are common, resulting in high levels of both single infections and polyparasitism. The long-term effect of these infections, separately or in combination, has a major impact on human health and on the economic welfare of affected populations. The transmission dynamics of these parasitic infections can be linked to shared risk factors that often overlap in space. We studied human and environmental factors driving transmission and the resulting spatial pattern of infections in six communities, using cross-sectional, socio-economic and entomological surveys. Single and co-infections were widespread in the communities, and were associated with environmental, demographic and socio-economic risk factors, including distance of community from the coast, sanitation and human age and crowding. The spatial patterns of single and co-infections were heterogeneous among and within communities, with overlapping clusters of single and multiple infections in areas where houses with lower socio-economic status and more crowding were located. The heterogeneities among and within communities can provide important insights when designing surveillance and intervention strategies when planning appropriate surveillance and control strategies targeting polyparasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal Bisanzio
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Francis Mutuku
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Environment and Health Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, Mombasa, Kenya
| | - Amaya L. Bustinduy
- Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Peter L. Mungai
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Eric M. Muchiri
- Division of Vector-Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Charles H. King
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Uriel Kitron
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Control of neglected tropical diseases in Burundi: partnerships, achievements, challenges, and lessons learned after four years of programme implementation. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2684. [PMID: 24785993 PMCID: PMC4006741 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Navaratnam AMD. Advocacy, policies and practicalities of preventive chemotherapy campaigns for African children with schistosomiasis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:733-52. [DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.811931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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A brief review of spatial analysis concepts and tools used for mapping, containment and risk modelling of infectious diseases and other illnesses. Parasitology 2013; 141:581-601. [PMID: 24476672 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182013001972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Fast response and decision making about containment, management, eradication and prevention of diseases, are increasingly important aspects of the work of public health officers and medical providers. Diseases and the agents causing them are spatially and temporally distributed, and effective countermeasures rely on methods that can timely locate the foci of infection, predict the distribution of illnesses and their causes, and evaluate the likelihood of epidemics. These methods require the use of large datasets from ecology, microbiology, health and environmental geography. Geodatabases integrating data from multiple sets of information are managed within the frame of geographic information systems (GIS). Many GIS software packages can be used with minimal training to query, map, analyse and interpret the data. In combination with other statistical or modelling software, predictive and spatio-temporal modelling can be carried out. This paper reviews some of the concepts and tools used in epidemiology and parasitology. The purpose of this review is to provide public health officers with the critical tools to decide about spatial analysis resources and the architecture for the prevention and surveillance systems best suited to their situations.
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Schur N, Hürlimann E, Stensgaard AS, Chimfwembe K, Mushinge G, Simoonga C, Kabatereine NB, Kristensen TK, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P. Spatially explicit Schistosoma infection risk in eastern Africa using Bayesian geostatistical modelling. Acta Trop 2013; 128:365-77. [PMID: 22019933 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis remains one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases in the tropics and subtropics, but current statistics are outdated due to demographic and ecological transformations and ongoing control efforts. Reliable risk estimates are important to plan and evaluate interventions in a spatially explicit and cost-effective manner. We analysed a large ensemble of georeferenced survey data derived from an open-access neglected tropical diseases database to create smooth empirical prevalence maps for Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium for a total of 13 countries of eastern Africa. Bayesian geostatistical models based on climatic and other environmental data were used to account for potential spatial clustering in spatially structured exposures. Geostatistical variable selection was employed to reduce the set of covariates. Alignment factors were implemented to combine surveys on different age-groups and to acquire separate estimates for individuals aged ≤20 years and entire communities. Prevalence estimates were combined with population statistics to obtain country-specific numbers of Schistosoma infections. We estimate that 122 million individuals in eastern Africa are currently infected with either S. mansoni, or S. haematobium, or both species concurrently. Country-specific population-adjusted prevalence estimates range between 12.9% (Uganda) and 34.5% (Mozambique) for S. mansoni and between 11.9% (Djibouti) and 40.9% (Mozambique) for S. haematobium. Our models revealed that infection risk in Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia and Sudan might be considerably higher than previously reported, while in Mozambique and Tanzania, the risk might be lower than current estimates suggest. Our empirical, large-scale, high-resolution infection risk estimates for S. mansoni and S. haematobium in eastern Africa can guide future control interventions and provide a benchmark for subsequent monitoring and evaluation activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Schur
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, P.O. Box, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
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Steiner F, Ignatius R, Friedrich-Jaenicke B, Dieckmann S, Harms G, Poppert S, Mockenhaupt FP. Acute schistosomiasis in European students returning from fieldwork at Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania. J Travel Med 2013; 20:380-3. [PMID: 24112100 DOI: 10.1111/jtm.12069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2013] [Revised: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schistosomiasis is common in many African regions and poses a risk for travelers and the local population. So far, schistosomiasis in travelers or expatriates returning from the Tanzanian bank of Lake Tanganyika has not been reported. METHODS We report a group of students who sought treatment with signs of acute schistosomiasis after having returned from Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania. Information as to travel and exposure as well as clinical and laboratory data were collected. RESULTS Schistosomiasis was diagnosed in 8 of 16 students from Berlin, Germany, who had returned from a 2- to 3-month stay of fieldwork in Kigoma District at Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania. All 16 students reported frequent freshwater exposure at the lake. Six patients showed signs of acute schistosomiasis and had fever, and some of them also had cough, weakness, headache, or abdominal pain. Eosinophilia was present in five of the six symptomatic individuals. Notably, two serologically enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-positive individuals did not report or present with symptoms or abnormal laboratory parameters. Schistosoma mansoni eggs were found in one symptomatic and one asymptomatic individual each. Blood and stool samples from the other eight individuals who were equally exposed to freshwater yielded negative results. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of an outbreak of acute schistosomiasis imported from the Tanzanian shore of Lake Tanganyika and highlights the risk for travelers and the local population of acquiring the infection in that part of Tanzania. It provides arguments for routine serological screening for schistosomiasis in individuals who had prior freshwater contact in endemic areas, irrespective of symptoms or other laboratory findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Steiner
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Barda B, Zepherine H, Rinaldi L, Cringoli G, Burioni R, Clementi M, Albonico M. Mini-FLOTAC and Kato-Katz: helminth eggs watching on the shore of Lake Victoria. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:220. [PMID: 23902918 PMCID: PMC3737047 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the challenges for monitoring helminth control programmes based on preventive chemotherapy is the lack of a copro-parasitological gold-standard method that combines good sensitivity with quantitative performance, low cost, and easy-to-learn technique.The aim of our study was to evaluate and compare, the WHO recommended quantitative diagnostic technique (Kato-Katz) and the Mini-FLOTAC. METHODS Mini-FLOTAC is an innovative method based on floatation of helminths eggs with two different solutions (FS2 and FS7) using a close system (Fill-FLOTAC) with 5% fixative. Kato-Katz was performed following WHO recommendation. The study was carried out in a rural part of Tanzania, close to Lake Victoria, where the laboratory facilities are fairly scarce, and the basic technique used in the local laboratory (direct smear) was taken as reference standard. RESULTS 201 children were screened for intestinal helminths and 91% of them were found to be positive. The agreement among the three techniques was calculated with k Cohen coefficient and was fairly good (k = 0.4), although the Mini-FLOTAC results were more sensitive for hookworm (98%) with FS2, and for S.mansoni (90%) with FS7 followed by Kato-Katz (91% and 60% respectively) and direct smear (30% and 10% respectively). A good agreement was found between Mini-FLOTAC and Kato-Katz (k = 0.81) with FS7 (k = 0.76) for hookworm diagnosis and a fairly good one for S.mansoni diagnosis (k = 0.5). For both infections we had a poor agreement between the two quantitative techniques and the direct smear (k<0.3). Kato-Katz diagnosed a higher number of eggs (calculated by arithmetic mean) both for hookworm (455 vs 424 EPG) and for S.mansoni (71 vs 58 EPG) compared with the Mini-FLOTAC, but the differences were not significant (p = 0.4). CONCLUSIONS Mini-FLOTAC is a promising technique, comparable and as sensitive as the Kato-Katz, which is the recommended method in intestinal helminthology for monitoring helminth control programmes. A comparative advantage of the Mini-FLOTAC is that it comprises of a closed system with preserved samples that both protects the operators and allows subsequent examination of the samples. Further studies are needed to validate the mini-FLOTAC with other quantitative techniques (McMaster) and in different settings where other soil-transmitted helminths are also endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Barda
- Laboratory of Microbiology San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy.
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Yakob L, Williams GM, Gray DJ, Halton K, Solon JA, Clements ACA. Slaving and release in co-infection control. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:157. [PMID: 23721567 PMCID: PMC3691829 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal and human infection with multiple parasite species is the norm rather than the exception, and empirical studies and animal models have provided evidence for a diverse range of interactions among parasites. We demonstrate how an optimal control strategy should be tailored to the pathogen community and tempered by species-level knowledge of drug sensitivity with use of a simple epidemiological model of gastro-intestinal nematodes. METHODS We construct a fully mechanistic model of macroparasite co-infection and use it to explore a range of control scenarios involving chemotherapy as well as improvements to sanitation. RESULTS Scenarios are presented whereby control not only releases a more resistant parasite from antagonistic interactions, but risks increasing co-infection rates, exacerbating the burden of disease. In contrast, synergisms between species result in their becoming epidemiologically slaved within hosts, presenting a novel opportunity for controlling drug resistant parasites by targeting co-circulating species. CONCLUSIONS Understanding the effects on control of multi-parasite species interactions, and vice versa, is of increasing urgency in the advent of integrated mass intervention programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laith Yakob
- Infectious Disease Epidemiology Unit, School of Population Health, University of Queensland, Herston, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia.
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Chammartin F, Scholte RGC, Malone JB, Bavia ME, Nieto P, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P. Modelling the geographical distribution of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Bolivia. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:152. [PMID: 23705798 PMCID: PMC3681678 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The prevalence of infection with the three common soil-transmitted helminths (i.e. Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworm) in Bolivia is among the highest in Latin America. However, the spatial distribution and burden of soil-transmitted helminthiasis are poorly documented. Methods We analysed historical survey data using Bayesian geostatistical models to identify determinants of the distribution of soil-transmitted helminth infections, predict the geographical distribution of infection risk, and assess treatment needs and costs in the frame of preventive chemotherapy. Rigorous geostatistical variable selection identified the most important predictors of A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, and hookworm transmission. Results Results show that precipitation during the wettest quarter above 400 mm favours the distribution of A. lumbricoides. Altitude has a negative effect on T. trichiura. Hookworm is sensitive to temperature during the coldest month. We estimate that 38.0%, 19.3%, and 11.4% of the Bolivian population is infected with A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, and hookworm, respectively. Assuming independence of the three infections, 48.4% of the population is infected with any soil-transmitted helminth. Empirical-based estimates, according to treatment recommendations by the World Health Organization, suggest a total of 2.9 million annualised treatments for the control of soil-transmitted helminthiasis in Bolivia. Conclusions We provide estimates of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Bolivia based on high-resolution spatial prediction and an innovative variable selection approach. However, the scarcity of the data suggests that a national survey is required for more accurate mapping that will govern spatial targeting of soil-transmitted helminthiasis control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédérique Chammartin
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
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Karagiannis-Voules DA, Scholte RGC, Guimarães LH, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P. Bayesian geostatistical modeling of leishmaniasis incidence in Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2213. [PMID: 23675545 PMCID: PMC3649962 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Leishmaniasis is endemic in 98 countries with an estimated 350 million people at risk and approximately 2 million cases annually. Brazil is one of the most severely affected countries. Methodology We applied Bayesian geostatistical negative binomial models to analyze reported incidence data of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil covering a 10-year period (2001–2010). Particular emphasis was placed on spatial and temporal patterns. The models were fitted using integrated nested Laplace approximations to perform fast approximate Bayesian inference. Bayesian variable selection was employed to determine the most important climatic, environmental, and socioeconomic predictors of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. Principal Findings For both types of leishmaniasis, precipitation and socioeconomic proxies were identified as important risk factors. The predicted number of cases in 2010 were 30,189 (standard deviation [SD]: 7,676) for cutaneous leishmaniasis and 4,889 (SD: 288) for visceral leishmaniasis. Our risk maps predicted the highest numbers of infected people in the states of Minas Gerais and Pará for visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis, respectively. Conclusions/Significance Our spatially explicit, high-resolution incidence maps identified priority areas where leishmaniasis control efforts should be targeted with the ultimate goal to reduce disease incidence. Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease that causes approximately 20 to 40 thousand deaths every year. In Brazil, more than 600,000 clinical cases of leishmaniasis have been reported since 1990. Almost 90% of these cases are due to cutaneous leishmaniasis, whereas the remaining 10% are due to visceral leishmaniasis. Understanding of disease transmission, together with model-based incidence maps, will assist in designing and optimizing control efforts. We used reported leishmaniasis incidence data in Brazil covering the period between 2001 and 2010 to explore the association of the disease with climatic, environmental, and socioeconomic variables, and to predict its spatial distribution using Bayesian geostatistical models. We produced countrywide high spatial resolution maps for both forms of leishmaniasis and estimated the number of infected people, stratified by state. We believe that our incidence maps are useful to prioritize the spatial targeting of prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios-Alexios Karagiannis-Voules
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ronaldo G. C. Scholte
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Luiz H. Guimarães
- Serviço de Imunologia, Complexo Hospitalar Universitário Prof. Edgard Santos, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Pullan RL, Sturrock HJW, Soares Magalhães RJ, Clements ACA, Brooker SJ. Spatial parasite ecology and epidemiology: a review of methods and applications. Parasitology 2012; 139:1870-87. [PMID: 23036435 PMCID: PMC3526959 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182012000698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 03/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The distributions of parasitic diseases are determined by complex factors, including many that are distributed in space. A variety of statistical methods are now readily accessible to researchers providing opportunities for describing and ultimately understanding and predicting spatial distributions. This review provides an overview of the spatial statistical methods available to parasitologists, ecologists and epidemiologists and discusses how such methods have yielded new insights into the ecology and epidemiology of infection and disease. The review is structured according to the three major branches of spatial statistics: continuous spatial variation; discrete spatial variation; and spatial point processes.
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Mazigo HD, Nuwaha F, Kinung’hi SM, Morona D, de Moira AP, Wilson S, Heukelbach J, Dunne DW. Epidemiology and control of human schistosomiasis in Tanzania. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:274. [PMID: 23192005 PMCID: PMC3549774 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In Tanzania, the first cases of schistosomiasis were reported in the early 19th century. Since then, various studies have reported prevalences of up to 100% in some areas. However, for many years, there have been no sustainable control programmes and systematic data from observational and control studies are very limited in the public domain. To cover that gap, the present article reviews the epidemiology, malacology, morbidity, and the milestones the country has made in efforts to control schistosomiasis and discusses future control approaches. The available evidence indicates that, both urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis are still highly endemic in Tanzania and cause significant morbidity.Mass drug administration using praziquantel, currently used as a key intervention measure, has not been successful in decreasing prevalence of infection. There is therefore an urgent need to revise the current approach for the successful control of the disease. Clearly, these need to be integrated control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humphrey D Mazigo
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, School of Medicine, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
- Department of Environmental Health and Communicable Disease Control, School of Public Health|, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, P.O. Box 1462, Mwanza, Tanzania
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology Section, Cambridge University, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Fred Nuwaha
- Department of Environmental Health and Communicable Disease Control, School of Public Health|, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Safari M Kinung’hi
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, P.O. Box 1462, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Domenica Morona
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, School of Medicine, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - Angela Pinot de Moira
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology Section, Cambridge University, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Shona Wilson
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology Section, Cambridge University, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Jorg Heukelbach
- Department of Community Health, School of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - David W Dunne
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology Section, Cambridge University, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
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