Incubation of fungal cultures: how long is long enough?

Precision diagnostics in paediatric dermatology: Advancing management of tinea capitis through dermatophyte PCR

BACKGROUND

Tinea capitis (TC) is the most frequent dermatophyte infection in children requiring systemic and topical treatment for several weeks. Traditionally, diagnosis and treatment monitoring were based on microscopic examination and fungal culture of scales and plucked hairs, which both have significant limitations.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the role of dermatophyte polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the treatment of TC.

METHODS

Scales and plucked hairs of children with TC were investigated by dermatophyte PCR, microscopic examination and fungal culture at baseline and during antifungal treatment.

RESULTS

Seventeen children with TC were included. At baseline, sensitivity of PCR was 100% as compared to 60% and 87% for direct microscopy and fungal culture, respectively. Species identification by PCR and fungal culture was consistent in all cases. During follow-up, analysis of 38 samples under treatment showed a sensitivity of PCR, direct microscopy and fungal culture of 68%, 26% and 89% while specificity was 84%, 100% and 100%, respectively. PCR during therapy proved to be false-negative in six and false-positive in three instances. The latter turned negative after 4 weeks without further systemic treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Dermatophyte PCR is an excellent tool for baseline diagnostics of TC providing rapid and accurate results. Our findings suggest that due to the fast and reliable results, it may replace direct microscopy and fungal culture to confirm or exclude TC in children. In the treatment course, diagnostic accuracy and performance of PCR seem reduced as compared to fungal culture, limiting its value for treatment monitoring. Mycological cure ascertained by fungal culture should currently remain the therapeutic goal.

Clinical, radiological, and laboratory features of HIV-negative pulmonary cryptococcosis with regard to serum lateral flow assay

Introduction

Cryptococcosis is the second most common invasive yeast infection in China. Pulmonary cryptococcosis (PC) is difficult to diagnose due to the lack of specific clinical features and the limitation of diagnostic techniques. Although lateral flow assay was very useful in diagnosing cryptococcal infection, quite a few patients with PC presented negative serum lateral flow assay (sLFA).

Methods

We conducted a retrospective study of HIV-negative patients who were diagnosed with PC in our hospital over the past decade to explore the potential relationship between the clinical profiles and sLFA in PC.

Results

In total, 112 patients with sLFA tested were enrolled in this study, of which 58.93% were male. The positivity rate of sLFA for PC was 91.07%. The extent of pulmonary lesions was positively correlated with sLFA grade (Spearman r = 0.268, p < 0.01). Solitary nodule (SN) and pneumonia were the most common imaging findings in PC with negative and positive sLFA respectively. Among 65 symptomatic PC patients, 14 presented with fever and had higher hypersensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) level and more extensive pulmonary involvement (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.05) than those without fever. Symptomatic PC patients were more likely to have positive results of sLFA (Mann-Whitney U test, p = 0.05) compared against asymptomatic ones.

Discussion

In conclusion, negative sLFA cannot exclude PC in patients with a solitary nodule in lung. Positive sLFA is more reliable in diagnosing PC in symptomatic patients with diffused lesions in lung who generally experience a more severe systemic inflammatory reaction.

Diagnostic limitations and challenges in current clinical guidelines and potential application of metagenomic sequencing to manage pulmonary invasive fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancies

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary invasive fungal infections (pIFI) disproportionately affect patients with haematological malignancies (HM). Establishing a rapid and accurate diagnosis of pIFI is challenging. Multiple guidelines recommend diagnostic testing of invasive fungal infections but lack consensus and may contribute to inconsistent diagnostic approaches.

OBJECTIVE

To identify key diagnostic challenges and review metagenomic sequencing data.

SOURCES

PubMed, professional consortium, and scientific society websites search to identify relevant, published, evidence-based clinical guidelines within the past 5 years. PubMed searchs for papers describing clinically relevant novel diagnostic technologies.

CONTENT

Current guidelines for patients with HM and suspected pIFI recommend chest computed tomography imaging and specimen testing with microscopic examination (including calcofluor white stain, histopathology, cytopathology, etc.), Aspergillus galactomannan, β-D-glucan, PCR, and culture, each with certain limitations. Emerging real-world data support the adjunctive use of metagenomic sequencing-based tests for the timely diagnosis of pIFI.

IMPLICATIONS

High-quality evidence from robust clinical trials is needed to determine whether guidelines should be updated to include novel diagnostic technologies. Trials should ask whether the combination of powerful novel diagnostics, such as pathogen-agnostic metagenomic sequencing technologies in conjunction with conventional testing can optimize the diagnostic yield for all potential pIFI pathogens that impact the health of patients with HM.

Value of Acid-Fast Bacilli and Fungal Cultures in Foot and Ankle Surgery in a US Hospital System

BACKGROUND

Acid-fast bacilli(AFB) and fungi are generally slow-growing, difficult to culture, and rarely the cause of infection. The goal of this study was to evaluate the value of routinely obtaining AFB and fungal cultures in foot and ankle surgery at a US hospital.

METHODS

A retrospective review was conducted to determine the number of positive AFB and fungal cultures out of the total number of foot and ankle samples tested. Between 2014 and 2019, patients who underwent surgery for a foot and ankle infection for soft tissue infection, septic arthritis, infectious postoperative complications were identified. Charts were reviewed to identify the results of the microbiological tests performed. To determine the value of running AFB and fungal cultures, the costs of each were provided by the microbiology lab at our institution.

RESULTS

Of the 322 patient charts reviewed, there were 434 AFB and 525 fungal cultures performed. None of these cultures were indicated to be positive for AFB (0%), and 22 (4.19%) were positive for fungi. The total labor and material costs were calculated to be $38 767. The AFB cultures cost $23 967, the positive fungal cultures cost $2371, and the negative fungal cultures cost $36 395.36.

CONCLUSION

This 322-case series of surgically managed foot and ankle infections showed 0% and 4.1% positivity rates of AFB and fungal cultures, respectively. Additionally, only 20% of cases with positive cultures were identified as pathologic requiring antifungal treatment. Further analysis is needed to determine best practices for obtaining vs declining to culture for AFB or fungal species, including assessing patient outcomes in the series of culture-positive(fungal-only) cases. Our results suggest that in our clinical setting of a US hospital system, routine fungal and AFB cultures may not be necessary but should be considered for chronic/recalcitrant infections, immunocompromised patients, and those with high surgeon suspicion.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, case series.

Rapid and Accurate Diagnosis of Dermatophyte Infections Using the DendrisCHIP® Technology

Dermatophytosis is a superficial fungal infection with an ever-increasing number of patients. Culture-based mycology remains the most commonly used diagnosis, but it takes around four weeks to identify the causative agent. Therefore, routine clinical laboratories need rapid, high throughput, and accurate species-specific analytical methods for diagnosis and therapeutic management. Based on these requirements, we investigated the feasibility of DendrisCHIP® technology as an innovative molecular diagnostic method for the identification of a subset of 13 pathogens potentially responsible for dermatophytosis infections in clinical samples. This technology is based on DNA microarray, which potentially enables the detection and discrimination of several germs in a single sample. A major originality of DendrisCHIP® technology is the use of a decision algorithm for probability presence or absence of pathogens based on machine learning methods. In this study, the diagnosis of dermatophyte infection was carried out on more than 284 isolates by conventional microbial culture and DendrisCHIP®DP, which correspond to the DendrisCHIP® carrying oligoprobes of the targeted pathogens implicated in dermatophytosis. While convergence ranging from 75 to 86% depending on the sampling procedure was obtained with both methods, the DendrisCHIP®DP proved to identify more isolates with pathogens that escaped the culture method. These results were confirmed at 86% by a third method, which was either a specific RT-PCR or genome sequencing. In addition, diagnostic results with DendrisCHIP®DP can be obtained within a day. This faster and more accurate identification of fungal pathogens with DendrisCHIP®DP enables the clinician to quickly and successfully implement appropriate antifungal treatment to prevent the spread and elimination of dermatophyte infection. Taken together, these results demonstrate that this technology is a very promising method for routine diagnosis of dermatophytosis.

Sterility testing of germ-free mouse colonies

In biomedical research, germ-free and gnotobiotic mouse models enable the mechanistic investigation of microbiota-host interactions and their role on (patho)physiology. Throughout any gnotobiotic experiment, standardized and periodic microbiological testing of defined gnotobiotic housing conditions is a key requirement. Here, we review basic principles of germ-free isolator technology, the suitability of various sterilization methods, and the use of sterility testing methods to monitor germ-free mouse colonies. We also discuss their effectiveness and limitations, and share the experience with protocols used in our facility. In addition, possible sources of isolator contamination are discussed and an overview of reported contaminants is provided.

Clinical evaluation of a dermatophyte RT-PCR assay and its impact on the turn-around-time: A prospective study

Onychomycosis is an important public health problem whose prevalence continues to grow and impact public health at several levels. Nevertheless, today the main diagnostic methods used in routine practice have many drawbacks. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the clinical performance of a new multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Novaplex®) in the identification of the causative agent on nail samples, and its impact on the turnaround time, compared to our traditional laboratory methods. From June 2022 to December 2022, all nail samples sent to our laboratory for suspected onychomycosis were included in this prospective study. We collected for each sample the results obtained with the Novaplex® PCR method and with the traditional direct microscopy examination and culture. Each discordant result was checked using a third method, which is another PCR method (DermaGenius® kit) as a resolver. For culture-positive samples, a turnaround time was calculated and compared to the one obtained with the Novaplex® method. A total of 131 samples were included. Among them, 5 were positive (3.8%) on direct microscopy, 33 were positive (25.2%) after culture, and 98 were negative (74.8%). All positive (n = 33) and negative (n = 69) cultures were also positive/negative with the Novaplex® PCR. Twenty-nine samples were positive with the Novaplex® method but negative with culture (discordant results). The percentage agreement between the culture and the Novaplex® methods was 77.9% (102 out of 131). While tested with the resolver (DermaGenius® PCR), 28 out of 29 discordant results were similarly found positive. The percentage agreement between the two PCR methods (Novaplex® and DermaGenius®) was 96.6%. The Novaplex® PCR method evaluated proved to be very reliable and allowed the direct identification of 62 out of 131 positive samples (47.3%) with the following distribution: 79.0% of Trichophyton rubrum complex, 11.3% of Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex, 6.5% of both Trichophyton rubrum complex and Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex, and 3.2% of Candida albicans. The median time [± 95% CI] for positive culture (between incubation and validation of the final identification) was 15 [12-23] days, while the turnaround time for the Novaplex® method adapted to our clinical laboratory routine is ≤7 days. Laboratory confirmation of onychomycosis is crucial and should always be obtained before starting treatment. The evaluated PCR method offered a rapid, reliable, robust, and inexpensive method of identification of the causative agent compared to traditional methods.

Bovine ringworm - Detection of Trichophyton verrucosum by SYBR-Green real-time PCR

Trichophyton verrucosum is the most commonly dermatophyte involved in cattle ringworm. This work reported a case of bovine dermatophytosis due to Trichophyton verrucosum detected from the clinical sample by SYBR-Green real-time PCR. The strategy was based on the DNA extraction directly from the infected hair followed by real-time PCR and melting-point analysis. A faster and differential diagnosis was observed when compared to the conventional mycological methodology for detection and identification of Trichophyton verrucosum.

Imaging of Invasive Fungal Infections- The Role of PET/CT

Over the last decades, the population at risk for invasive fungal disease (IFD) has increased because of medical therapy advances and diseases compromising patients' immune systems. The high morbidity and mortality associated with invasive fungal disease in the immunocompromised present the challenge of early diagnosis of the IFD and the need to closely monitor the infection during treatment. The definitive diagnosis of invasive fungal disease based on culture or histopathological methods often has reduced diagnostic accuracy in the immunocompromised and may be very invasive. Less invasive and indirect evidence of the fungal infection by serology and imaging has been used for the early diagnosis of fungal infection before definitive results are available or when the definitive methods of diagnosis are suboptimal. Imaging in invasive fungal disease is a non-invasive biomarker that helps in the early diagnosis of invasive fungal disease but helps follow-up the infection during treatment. Different imaging modalities are used in the workup to evaluate fungal disease. The different imaging modalities have advantages and disadvantages at different sites in the body and may complement each other in the management of IFD. Positron emission tomography integrated with computed tomography with [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG PET/CT) has helped manage IFD. The combined functional data from PET and anatomical data from the CT from almost the whole body allows noninvasive evaluation of IFD and provides a semiquantitative means of assessing therapy. FDG PET/CT adds value to anatomic-based only imaging modalities. The nonspecificity of FDG uptake has led to the evaluation of other tracers in the assessment of IFD. However, these are mainly still at the preclinical level and are yet to be translated to humans. FDG PET/CT remains the most widely evaluated radionuclide-based imaging modality in IFD management. The limitations of FDG PET/CT must be well understood, and more extensive prospective studies in uniform populations are needed to validate its role in the management of IFD that can be international guidelines.

Deep Learning Assisted Diagnosis of Onychomycosis on Whole-Slide Images

Background: Onychomycosis numbers among the most common fungal infections in humans affecting finger- or toenails. Histology remains a frequently applied screening technique to diagnose onychomycosis. Screening slides for fungal elements can be time-consuming for pathologists, and sensitivity in cases with low amounts of fungi remains a concern. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have revolutionized image classification in recent years. The goal of our project was to evaluate if a U-NET-based segmentation approach as a subcategory of CNNs can be applied to detect fungal elements on digitized histologic sections of human nail specimens and to compare it with the performance of 11 board-certified dermatopathologists. Methods: In total, 664 corresponding H&E- and PAS-stained histologic whole-slide images (WSIs) of human nail plates from four different laboratories were digitized. Histologic structures were manually annotated. A U-NET image segmentation model was trained for binary segmentation on the dataset generated by annotated slides. Results: The U-NET algorithm detected 90.5% of WSIs with fungi, demonstrating a comparable sensitivity with that of the 11 board-certified dermatopathologists (sensitivity of 89.2%). Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that machine-learning-based algorithms applied to real-world clinical cases can produce comparable sensitivities to human pathologists. Our established U-NET may be used as a supportive diagnostic tool to preselect possible slides with fungal elements. Slides where fungal elements are indicated by our U-NET should be reevaluated by the pathologist to confirm or refute the diagnosis of onychomycosis.

Periprosthetic Joint Infections Caused by Candida Species—A Single-Center Experience and Systematic Review of the Literature

Background: The aim of this study was to analyze the treatment results of fungal periprosthetic joint infections (PJI) caused by Candida species from a single orthopedic center and to compare them with reports from other institutions. Methods: Eight patients operated on from January 2014 to December 2021 met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in terms of clinical outcomes. A systematic review of the literature identified 153 patients with Candida PJIs extracted from 12 studies according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Results: The success rate of the treatment in the case series was 50%. The most frequent pathogens were Candida albicans (three cases; 37.5%) and Candida parapsilosis (three cases; 37.5%). In one patient (12.5%), bacterial co-infection was noted, and in five patients (62.5%) significant risk factors of PJI were confirmed. The overall success rate on the basis of data collected for systematic review was 65.5%. A sub-analysis of 127 patients revealed statistically significant differences (p = 0.02) with a higher success rate for the knees (77.6%) than for the hips (58%). In 10 studies the analysis of risk factors was performed and among 106 patients in 77 (72.6%) comorbidities predispose to fungal PJI were confirmed. Bacterial co-infection was noted in 84 patients (54.9%). In 93 patients (60.7%) Candida albicans was the culprit pathogen, and in 39 patients (25.5%) Candida parapsilosis was the culprit pathogen. Based on these two most frequent Candida species causing PJI, the success rate of the treatment was statistically different (p = 0.03), and was 60.3% and 83.3%, respectively. The two-stage strategy was more favorable for patients with Candida parapsilosis infections (94.4% success rate) than the one-stage protocol (50% success rate; p = 0.02); as well as in comparison to the two-stage treatment of Candida albicans (65% success rate; p = 0.04). Conclusions: The analysis of the literature showed no differences in the overall success rate between one- and two-stage surgical strategies for all Candida species, but differed significantly comparing the two most frequent strains and concerning PJI localization. The frequent presence of bacterial co-infections makes it necessary to consider the additional administration of antibiotics in the case of fungal PJI.

Cultivation of the Dematiaceous Fungus Cladosporium sphaerospermum Aboard the International Space Station and Effects of Ionizing Radiation

In Space, cosmic radiation is a strong, ubiquitous form of energy with constant flux, and the ability to harness it could greatly enhance the energy-autonomy of expeditions across the solar system. At the same time, radiation is the greatest permanent health risk for humans venturing into deep space. To protect astronauts beyond Earth's magnetosphere, advanced shielding against ionizing as well as non-ionizing radiation is highly sought after. In search of innovative solutions to these challenges, biotechnology appeals with suitability for in situ resource utilization (ISRU), self-regeneration, and adaptability. Where other organisms fail, certain microscopic fungi thrive in high-radiation environments on Earth, showing high radioresistance. The adaptation of some of these molds to areas, such as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has coined the terms positive "radiotropism" and "radiotrophy", reflecting the affinity to and stimulation by radiation, and sometimes even enhanced growth under ionizing conditions. These abilities may be mediated by the pigment melanin, many forms of which also have radioprotective properties. The expectation is that these capabilities are extendable to radiation in space. To study its growth in space, an experiment cultivating Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penzig ATCC® 11289™ aboard the International Space Station (ISS) was conducted while monitoring radiation beneath the formed biomass in comparison to a no-growth negative control. A qualitative growth advantage in space was observable. Quantitatively, a 1.21 ± 0.37-times higher growth rate than in the ground control was determined, which might indicate a radioadaptive response to space radiation. In addition, a reduction in radiation compared to the negative control was discernable, which is potentially attributable to the fungal biomass.

Fungal periprosthetic joint infection: Rare but challenging problem

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is the most difficult complication following total joint arthroplasty. Most of the etiological strains, accounting for over 98% of PJI, are bacterial species, with Staphylococcusaureus and Coagulase-negative staphylococci present in between 50% and 60% of all PJIs. Fungi, though rare, can also cause PJI in 1%-2% of cases and can be challenging to manage. The management of this uncommon but complex condition is challenging due to the absence of a consistent algorithm. Diagnosis of fungal PJI is difficult as isolation of the organisms by traditional culture may take a long time, and some of the culture-negative PJI can be caused by fungal organisms. In recent years, the introduction of next-generation sequencing has provided opportunity for isolation of the infective organisms in culture-negative PJI cases. The suggested treatment is based on consensus and includes operative and non-operative measures. Two-stage revision surgery is the most reliable surgical option for chronic PJI caused by fungi. Pharmacological therapy with antifungal agents is required for a long period of time with antibiotics and included to cover superinfections with bacterial species. The aim of this review article is to report the most up-to-date information on the diagnosis and treatment of fungal PJI with the intention of providing clear guidance to clinicians, researchers and surgeons.

Molecular detection, not extended culture incubation, contributes to diagnosis of fungal infection

Background

Despite its low sensitivity, fungal culture remains one of the key methods for diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections, as it identifies the etiology at the genus and species level and affords the opportunity for susceptibility testing. The Manual of Clinical Microbiology recommends that fungal culture screening for all pathogens should routinely be held for 4 weeks to maximize the recovery of slow-growing species. Information on the optimal fungal culture time in this era of expansion of immunocompromised populations and availability of molecular diagnostics is lacking. We reviewed our experience with fungal culture to determine the optimal culture incubation time. In addition, our experience of broad-range ITS PCR for diagnosis of culture-negative fungal infections was also reviewed.

Methods

Fungal culture and ITS PCR results from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2017, were reviewed.

Results

This study included 4234 non-duplicated positive cultures. Ninety-six percent (4058) of the positive cultures were detected in the first 7 days of incubation. During the second week of incubation, 111 (2.8%) positives were detected from day 8 to day 10, and 71 (1.7%) were detected from day 11 to day 14. Only 6 (0.1%) positive cultures were detected in the third week of incubation, and no positive culture was detected in the fourth week of incubation. No clinically significant fungal isolates were recovered after 14 days. Clinically significant pathogens were detected in 16 (0.2%) culture-negative samples by ITS PCR.

Conclusion

Extending culture incubation beyond 2 weeks did not generate clinically relevant results. When culture failed to make a laboratory diagnosis, broad-range internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rRNA gene PCR followed by sequencing produced clinically significant results.

Application of mNGS to describe the clinical and microbial characteristics of severe burn a tanker explosion at a tertiary medical center: a retrospective study patients following

Background

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome secondary to infection is the leading cause of death in burn patients. Bloodstream infection (BSI) and the prognosis of burn patients are negatively correlated. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) can detect many potential pathogens and may be more valuable for patients with severe burns.

Methods

We retrospectively explored the utility of mNGS in describing the clinical and microbial characteristics of severely burned patients with BSI. We compared mNGS with blood culture.

Results

Fourteen patients (127 blood samples) developed 71 episodes of BSIs with 102 unique causative pathogens. The median total body surface area was 93%. The overall 90-day mortality was 43%. In total, 17 (23.9%) episodes were polymicrobial, and 61 (86.1%) episodes originated from the wound. In total, 62/71 cases (87%) showed positive findings by mNGS, while 42/71 cases (59%) showed positive findings using blood culture. We found that mNGS outperformed culture, especially in terms of fungi (27% vs. 6%, p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

The incidence of BSI and polymicrobial in patients with large-area severe burns is high. mNGS has potential value in the diagnosis of fungal infections and coinfections in such patients. In addition, mNGS may provide unique guidance for antibiotic therapy in complicated BSI.

Aspergillus caespitosus ASEF14, an oleaginous fungus as a potential candidate for biodiesel production using sago processing wastewater (SWW)

Background

Oleaginous microorganisms are sustainable alternatives for the production of biodiesel. Among them, oleaginous fungi are known for their rapid growth, short life cycles, no light requirement, easy scalability, and the ability to grow in cheap organic resources. Among all the sources used for biodiesel production, industrial wastewater streams have been least explored. We used oleaginous fungi to decontaminate sago processing wastewater and produce biodiesel.

Results

Among the 15 isolates screened for lipid production and starch utilization using the Nile red staining assay and amylase plate screening, three isolates accumulated > 20% (w/w) of their dry cell mass as lipids. The isolate ASEF14 exhibited the highest lipid accumulation (> 40%) and was identified as Aspergillus caespitosus based on the 28S rRNA gene sequencing. The maximum lipid content of 54.4% in synthetic medium (SM) and 37.2% in sago processing wastewater (SWW) was produced by the strain. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of the fungal oil revealed the presence of functional peaks corresponding to major lipids. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the FTIR data revealed major changes in the fatty acid composition during the transition from the growth phase (Days 1–3) to the lipid accumulation phase (Days 4–7). The fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) analysis of fungal oil from SWW contained 43.82% and 9.62% of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The composition and percentage of individual FAME derived from SWW were different from SM, indicating the effect of nutrient and fermentation time. The fuel attributes of the SM- and SWW-grown fungal biodiesel (kinematic viscosity, iodine value, cetane number, cloud and pour point, linolenic acid content, FA > 4 double bonds) met international (ASTM D6751, EN 14214) and national (IS 15607) biodiesel standards. In addition to biodiesel production, the strain removed various contaminants such as total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and cyanide up to 58.6%, 53.0%, 35.2%, 94.5%, 89.3%, 91.3%, 74.0%, 47.0%, and 53.84%, respectively, from SWW.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that A. caespitosus ASEF14 is a potential candidate with high lipid accumulating ability (37.27%), capable of using SWW as the primary growth medium. The medium and incubation time alter the FAME profile of this fungus. The physical properties of fungal oil were in accordance with the biodiesel standards. Moreover, it decontaminated SWW by reducing several polluting nutrients and toxicants. The fungal biodiesel produced by this cost-effective method could serve as an alternate path to meet global energy demand.

Fungal biodegradation of low-density polyethylene using consortium of Aspergillus species under controlled conditions

Low-Density polyethylene is subject to biodegradation using a fungal consortium comprising of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus oryzae under laboratory conditions. The extent of biodegradation has been compared with the use of potato dextrose broth and czapek dox broth media and also in the presence and absence of Tween 80 additive. Biodegradation was performed replacing the sucrose in czapek dox broth with shredded Low-Density polyethylene as well. The biodegradation was carried out for a period of 55 days. The degree of biodegradation has been analyzed using the loss of weight, FT-IR, and SEM analysis. A maximum weight loss of 26.15% was obtained by using potato dextrose broth over a period of 55 days.

Clinical Accuracy and Impact of Plasma Cell-Free DNA Fungal PCR Panel for Non-Invasive Diagnosis of Fungal Infection

BACKGROUND

Invasive fungal infection (IFI) is a growing cause of morbidity and mortality in oncology and transplant patients. Diagnosis of IFI is often delayed due to need for invasive biopsy and low sensitivity of conventional diagnostic methods. Fungal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) detection in plasma is a novel testing modality for the non-invasive diagnosis of IFI.

METHODS

A novel bioinformatic pipeline was created to interrogate fungal genomes and identify multicopy sequences for cfDNA PCR targeting. A real-time PCR panel was developed for 12 genera and species most commonly causing IFI. Sensitivity and specificity of the fungal PCR panel were determined using plasma samples from patients with IFI and non-IFI controls. Clinical impact of fungal PCR panel was evaluated prospectively based on the treating team's interpretation of the results.

RESULTS

Overall, the sensitivity and specificity were 56.5% (65/115, 95% confidence interval [CI], 47.4%-65.2%) and 99.5% (2064/2075; 95% CI, 99.0%-99.7%), respectively. In the subset of patients with an optimized plasma volume (2mL), sensitivity was 69.6% (48/69; 95% CI, 57.9%-79.2%). Sensitivity was 91.7% (11/12; 95% CI, 62.5%-100%) for detection of Mucorales agents, 56.3% (9/16; 95% CI, 33.2%-76.9%) for Aspergillus species, and 84.6% (11/13; 95% CI, 56.5%-96.9%) for Candida albicans. In a prospective evaluation of 226 patients with suspected IFI, cfDNA testing was positive in 47 (20.8%) patients and resulted in a positive impact on clinical management in 20/47 (42.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

The fungal cfDNA PCR panel offers a non-invasive approach to early diagnosis of IFI, providing actionable results for personalized care.

Commercial Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction versus Periodic Acid-Schiff Testing for the Diagnosis of Onychomycosis

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of onychomycosis using the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) test for sensitive identification of hyphae and fungal culture for identification of species has become the mainstay for many clinical practices. With the advent of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, physicians can identify a fungal toenail infection quickly with the added benefit of species identification. We compared PAS testing with multiplex PCR testing from a clinical perspective.

METHODS

A total of 209 patients with clinically diagnosed onychomycosis were recruited. A high-resolution picture was taken of the affected hallux nail, and the nail was graded using the Onychomycosis Severity Index. A proximal sample of the affected toenail and subungual debris were obtained and split into two equal samples. One sample was sent for multiplex PCR testing and the other for PAS testing. The results were analyzed and compared.

RESULTS

Six patients were excluded due to insufficient sample size for PCR testing. Of the remaining 203 patients, 109 (53.7%) tested positive with PAS, 77 (37.9%) tested positive with PCR. Forty-one patients tested positive with PAS but negative with PCR, and nine tested positive with PCR but negative with PAS.

CONCLUSIONS

Physicians should continue the practice of using PAS biopsy staining for confirmation of a fungal toenail infection before using oral antifungal therapy. Because multiplex PCR allows species identification, some physicians may elect to perform both tests.

Recent advances in the diagnosis of dermatophytosis

Dermatophytosis is a disease of global significance caused by pathogenic keratinolytic fungi called dermatophytes in both animals and humans. The recent taxonomy of dermatophytes classifies them into six pathogenic genera, namely Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton, Nannizzia, Lophophyton and Arthroderma. It is because of the delayed diagnostic nature and low accuracy of dermatophyte detection by conventional methods that paved the path for the evolution of molecular diagnostic techniques, which provide the accurate and rapid diagnosis of dermatophytosis for an appropriate, timely antifungal therapy that prevents the nonspecific over-the-counter self-medication. This review focuses on the importance of rapid and accurate diagnosis of dermatophytosis, limitations of conventional methods, selection of targets in diagnosis, and factors affecting sensitivity and specificity of various molecular diagnostic technologies in the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. Generally, all the molecular techniques have a significant edge over the conventional methods of culture and microscopy in the dermatophytosis diagnosis. However, in mycology laboratory, the suitability of any molecular diagnostic technique in the diagnosis of dermatophytosis is driven by the requirement of time, economy, complexity, the range of species spectrum detected and the scale of diagnostic output required. Thus, various choices involved in the pursuit of a diagnosis of dermatophytosis are determined by the available conditions and the facilities in the laboratory.

An unusual presentation of disseminated histoplasmosis in a non-HIV patient from Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Histoplasmosis is a systemic infection caused by the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, naturally found in nitrogen-rich soil, whose main transmission route is the inhalation of conidia. Up to 95% of histoplasmosis cases are asymptomatic or transient, and the remaining 5% of cases have pathological manifestations in the lungs, bone marrow, liver, spleen, intestine, mucous membranes, and rarely on the skin. This mycosis has been reported from many endemic areas, mainly in immunosuppressed patients, such as HIV-positive patients, and its disseminated form is rarely reported.

CASE REPORT

Histoplama capsulatum was isolated and identified by means of microscopy, culture characteristics and nested PCR from the cutaneous lesions of a non-HIV patient from Vietnam. The patient improved significantly with systemic itraconazole treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Disseminated histoplasmosis with cutaneous involvement in non-HIV patients is an extremely unusual presentation.

Personalizing the Management of Pneumonia

Pneumonia is a highly prevalent disease with considerable morbidity and mortality. However, diagnosis and therapy still rely on antiquated methods, leading to the vast overuse of antimicrobials, which carries risks for both society and the individual. Furthermore, outcomes in severe pneumonia remain poor. Genomic techniques have the potential to transform the management of pneumonia through deep characterization of pathogens as well as the host response to infection. This characterization will enable the delivery of selective antimicrobials and immunomodulatory therapy that will help to offset the disorder associated with overexuberant immune responses.

Deceptively asymptomatic cryptococcaemia in a renal transplant recipient: the lull before a storm

Cryptococcal infection constitutes around 3% of opportunistic infections in solid organ transplant recipients. Most common organ affected in renal transplant recipients (RTRs) is central nervous system and usually presents with chronic meningoencephalitis (CME). Ischaemic stroke as a consequence of cryptococcal meningoencephalitisis rare and possibly due to the involvement of intracranial vessel by exudates causing vasculitis-related thrombosis. In this context, we describe an unusual case of asymptomatic cryptococcaemia in an RTR, progressing on to acute ischaemic stroke secondary to acute CME with near complete neurological recovery following timely diagnosis, early and appropriate antifungal treatment. The index case attempts to re-emphasise the significance of mandatory screening required to exclude the possibility of dissemination of cryptococcaemia in RTRs besides highlighting the requirement of prolonged induction phase with combination therapy, particularly in presence of stroke.

The performance of serum cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen test, histopathology and culture of the lung tissue for diagnosis of pulmonary cryptococcosis in patients without HIV infection

Background

Clinicians may fail to make an early diagnosis of pulmonary cryptococcosis (PC) without HIV infection. Serum cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen (CrAg) test, histopathology and culture of lung tissue play different roles in diagnosis of PC.

Objective

To investigate the performance of serum CrAg test, histopathology and culture of the lung tissue in diagnosis of PC without HIV infection.

Patients/methods

From January 2011 to September 2017, patients with proven PC were recruited from a teaching hospital in southern China. Those patients with HIV infection, PC confirmed by surgery or PC with probable or possible diagnosis were excluded from the study. Latex agglutination test and CrAg lateral flow assay were used for detection of serum CrAg. Lung biopsy and needle aspiration were performed under computed tomography guidance.

Results

Eighty-nine patients with proven PC including 41 male (46.1%) and 48 female (53.9%) were enrolled. Fifty-one (57.3%) patients had underlying disease. Positive CrAg test was found in 83 (93.3%) cases. Among six cases with negative CrAg test, PC was confirmed by histology in two cases and positive culture in four cases. The histopathological results of 77 (86.5%) cases revealed cryptococcal granuloma and 12 cases showed chronic inflammation, which was confirmed by positive culture. Among 65 cases, the diseased tissue of 46 (70.8%) cases presented Cryptococcus neoformans in the culture and one case was diagnosed with lung cancer coexisting with PC.

Conclusion

Our findings showed that serum CrAg test is rapid and sensitive in diagnosing PC, histology is important for confirming PC and culture plays a complementary role. Biopsied lung tissue should be submitted for cultures whenever feasible.

Evaluation of incubation time for Microsporum canis dermatophyte cultures

Objectives The goal of this study was to determine how frequently Microsporum canis was isolated after 1, 2 and 3 weeks of incubation on dermatophyte culture medium either from untreated cats or cats during treatment. Methods This was an observational retrospective study. Toothbrush fungal culture results were examined from two data pools: untreated cats with suspect skin lesions and weekly fungal cultures from cats being treated for dermatophytosis. Results Results from 13,772 fungal cultures were reviewed and 2876 (20.9%) were positive for M canis. Of these, 2800 were confirmed as positive within 14 days of incubation and only 76 (2.6%) required >14 days for confirmation of M canis. In pretreatment specimens, 98.2% (1057/1076) of M canis isolates were recovered within 14 days of incubation in specimens from cats not known to have received prior antifungal treatment. For cats receiving treatment, 96.8% (1743/1800) of M canis isolates were recovered within 14 days of incubation. Of the 57 cultures that required >14 days for finalization, 21 required extra incubation time because cultures were grossly abnormal, 12 had concurrent contaminant growth delaying microscopic confirmation and 24 had no growth in the first 14 days. Of these 24, 19 had 1-2 colony-forming units (cfu)/plate and the remaining five plates had 5 to >10 cfu/plate, all with abnormal morphology. Conclusions and relevance The findings of this study show that it is not necessary to hold pretreatment or post-treatment fungal cultures for 21 days before finalizing cultures for no growth. Growth requiring >14 days had grossly abnormal morphology.

Genus- and species-level identification of dermatophyte fungi by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

This paper demonstrates that surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) can serve as a fast and reliable technique for detection and identification of dermatophyte fungi at both genus and species level. Dermatophyte infections are the most common mycotic diseases worldwide, affecting a quarter of the human population. Currently, there is no optimal method for detection and identification of fungal diseases, as each has certain limitations. Here, for the first time, we have achieved with a high accuracy, differentiation of dermatophytes representing three major genera, i.e. Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Two first principal components (PC), namely PC-1 and PC-2, gave together 97% of total variance. Additionally, species-level identification within the Trichophyton genus has been performed. PC-1 and PC-2, which are the most diagnostically significant, explain 98% of the variance in the data obtained from spectra of: Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton menatgrophytes, Trichophyton interdigitale and Trichophyton tonsurans. This study offers a new diagnostic approach for the identification of dermatophytes. Being fast, reliable and cost-effective, it has the potential to be incorporated in the clinical practice to improve diagnostics of medically important fungi.

Characterization of Clinically Relevant Fungi via SERS Fingerprinting Assisted by Novel Chemometric Models

Nonculture-based tests are gaining popularity and upsurge in the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections (IFI) fostered by their main asset, the reduced analysis time, which enables a more rapid diagnosis. In this project, three different clinical isolates of relevant filamentous fungal species were discriminated by using a rapid (less than 5 min) and sensitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based detection method, assisted by chemometrics. The holistic evaluation of the SERS spectra was performed by employing appropriate chemometric tools-classical and fuzzy principal component analysis (FPCA) in combination with linear discriminant analysis (LDA) applied to the first relevant principal components. The efficiency of the proposed robust algorithm is illustrated on the data set including three fungal isolates (Aspergillus fumigatus sensu stricto, cryptic A. fumigatus complex species, and Rhizomucor pusillus) that were isolated from patient materials. The accurate and reliable discrimination between species of common fungal pathogen strains suggest that the developed method has the potential as an alternative, spectroscopic-based routine analysis tool in IFI diagnosis.

The diagnostic performance of the beta-glucan assay in the detection of intra-amniotic infection with Candida species

INTRODUCTION

A bioassay based on the detection of beta-glucan, a constituent of the cell wall of fungi, has been successfully used to diagnose fungal infections in a variety of biological fluids but not yet in the amniotic fluid.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the diagnostic performance of a beta-glucan bioassay in the detection of Candida species in the amniotic fluid of women who either did or did not have an intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD) in place during an episode of spontaneous preterm parturition.

METHODS

The study population comprised women who had a singleton pregnancy without congenital or chromosomal abnormalities, who experienced preterm labor or preterm prelabor rupture of the fetal membranes, and who underwent a transabdominal amniocentesis for clinical indications. Samples of amniotic fluid were cultured for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, genital mycoplasmas, and Candida species, and assayed for beta-glucan, using the (1→3)-beta-d-glucan-specific Limulus amebocyte lysate test (beta-glucan assay) in all cases. Amniotic fluid interleukin (IL)-6 assay results were also available for all cases. The beta-glucan assay takes about 1 hour to run: a concentration >80 pg/mL was considered positive for fungi. Sterile intra-amniotic inflammation of the amniotic cavity was defined by the presence of an amniotic fluid IL-6 concentration ≥2.6 ng/mL and a negative amniotic fluid culture.

RESULTS

(1) One hundred ninety-seven (197) women met the study criteria, of whom 58 (29.4%) had an IUD in place; (2) 20 (10.2%) women had a culture of proven intra-amniotic Candida species-related infection, 19 of whom had a positive beta-glucan assay [sensitivity, 95% (19/20; 95% confidence interval (CI): 75.1-99.9%)]; and (3) the specificity of the beta-glucan assay was 75.1% [133/177; 95% CI: 68.1-99.9%]. It was affected by the presence of nonfungal intra-amniotic infections and an IUD, but not by the presence of sterile intra-amniotic inflammation, and there was a significant interaction between the presence of an IUD and nonfungal intra-amniotic infections (estimated for the interaction effect = 2.1923, p value =.026). The assay's specificity was reduced when nonfungal intra-amniotic infections were diagnosed but only in women who did not have an IUD. Among women without an IUD, the assay's specificity was 91.4% (117/128); it was 93% (106/114) for those without intra-amniotic infection, and 78.6% (11/14) for those with a nonfungal intra-amniotic infection; the difference was not significant (p = .09). Among women with an IUD, the assay's specificity was 32.7% (16/49); 42.9% (9/21) for those with a nonfungal intra-amniotic infection; and 25% (7/28) for those without intra-amniotic infection; and the difference was significant (p = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

The beta-glucan assay is a sensitive, rapid, point-of-care test used to diagnose intra-amniotic Candida species-related infection, and it has a high specificity in pregnant women who did not have an IUD in place.

A rare case of Candida parapsilosis osteomyelitis: a literature review and proposed treatment algorithm

Background

Candida parapsilosis is a rare opportunistic pathogen that can be found in immunosuppressed patients. There are seldom-reported cases of fungal osteomyelitis surrounding orthopedic implants.

Case presentation

This is a case of chronic Candida parapsilosis osteomyelitis in an immunocompromised patient with a prior open reduction and internal fixation for a closed bimalleolar ankle fracture that went on to neglected wound complications. The patient underwent series of treatments including removal of hardware, serial irrigation and debridements, negative pressure wound therapy, and intravenous antifungal therapy. Our case illustrates the possibility of this rare pathogen involved in orthopedic surgery particularly in immunocompromised hosts.

Conclusion

Fungal and atypical pathogens should always be considered in such patients or if another diagnosis is not clear. Protracted time to culture specimens should be considered for at least four weeks in such situations. This article outlines a review of the literature and treatment algorithm to guide physicians when managing patients with this rare infection.

New opportunities for managing acute and chronic lung infections

Lung diseases caused by microbial infections affect hundreds of millions of children and adults throughout the world. In Western populations, the treatment of lung infections is a primary driver of antibiotic resistance. Traditional therapeutic strategies have been based on the premise that the healthy lung is sterile and that infections grow in a pristine environment. As a consequence, rapid advances in our understanding of the composition of the microbiota of the skin and bowel have not yet been matched by studies of the respiratory tree. The recognition that the lungs are as populated with microorganisms as other mucosal surfaces provides the opportunity to reconsider the mechanisms and management of lung infections. Molecular analyses of the lung microbiota are revealing profound adverse responses to widespread antibiotic use, urbanization and globalization. This Opinion article proposes how technologies and concepts flowing from the Human Microbiome Project can transform the diagnosis and treatment of common lung diseases.

Seed and Root Endophytic Fungi in a Range Expanding and a Related Plant Species

Climate change is accelerating the spread of plants and their associated species to new ranges. The differences in range shift capacity of the various types of species may disrupt long-term co-evolved relationships especially those belowground, however, this may be less so for seed-borne endophytic microbes. We collected seeds and soil of the range-expanding Centaurea stoebe and the congeneric Centaurea jacea from three populations growing in Slovenia (native range of both Centaurea species) and the Netherlands (expanded range of C. stoebe, native range of C. jacea). We isolated and identified endophytic fungi directly from seeds, as well as from roots of the plants grown in Slovenian, Dutch or sterilized soil to compare fungal endophyte composition. Furthermore, we investigated whether C. stoebe hosts a reduced community composition of endophytes in the expanded range due to release from plant-species specific fungi while endophyte communities in C. jacea in both ranges are similar. We cultivated 46 unique and phylogenetically diverse endophytes. A majority of the seed endophytes resembled potential pathogens, while most root endophytes were not likely to be pathogenic. Only one endophyte was found in both roots and seeds, but was isolated from different plant species. Unexpectedly, seed endophyte diversity of southern C. stoebe populations was lower than of populations from the north, while the seed endophyte community composition of northern C. stoebe populations was significantly different southern C. stoebe as well as northern and southern C. jacea populations. Root endophyte diversity was considerably lower in C. stoebe than in C. jacea independent of plant and soil origin, but this difference disappeared when plants were grown in sterile soils. We conclude that the community composition of fungal endophytes not only differs between related plant species but also between populations of plants that expand their range compared to their native habitat. Our results suggest that fungal endophytes of two Centaurea species are not able to systemically infect plants. We highlight that endophytes remain poorly studied and further work should investigate the functional importance of endophytes.

Factors associated with early mycological clearance in HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis

INTRODUCTION

The first-line combination therapy for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis (CM), a condition of high mortality particularly in the first two weeks of treatment, consists of amphotericin B plus flucytosine (5-FC). Given that 5-FC remains unavailable in many countries, the knowledge of factors influencing mycological clearance in patients treated with second-line therapy could contribute to effective management.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the factors associated with the clearance of Cryptococcus sp. from the cerebrospinal fluid by the second week of effective antifungal therapy (early mycological clearance) in HIV-associated CM.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study based on secondary data corresponding to HIV-associated CM cases hospitalized at a tertiary health care center in Lima, Peru where 5-FC remains unavailable. Risk factors associated with early mycological clearance were analyzed by generalized linear regression models.

RESULTS

From January 2000 to December 2013, 234 individuals were discharged with a diagnosis of HIV-associated CM; in 215 we retrieved the required data. The inpatient mortality was 20% (43/215), 15 of them in the first two weeks of treatment. In the final model (157 cases), adjusted for age, previous episode of CM, ART use, type of antifungal treatment, raised intracranial pressure, frequency of therapeutic lumbar punctures, baseline fungal burden and treatment period, the factors associated with early mycological clearance were: Amphotericin B deoxycholate plus fluconazole as combination therapy (RR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.14-2.14); severe baseline intracranial pressure (≥35 cm H2O) (RR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.33-0.99); and baseline fungal burden over 4.5 log10 CFU/mL (RR, 0.61 95% CI: 0.39-0.95).

CONCLUSIONS

In a setting without access to first-line therapy for CM, the combination therapy with amphotericin B deoxycholate plus fluconazole was positively associated with early mycological clearance, while high fungal burden and severe baseline intracranial pressure were negatively associated, and thus related to failure.

Panfungal Polymerase Chain Reaction for Identification of Fungal Pathogens in Formalin-Fixed Animal Tissues

Identification of fungal organisms often poses a problem for pathologists because the histomorphology of some fungal organisms is not specific, fresh tissues may not be available, and isolation and identification in culture may take a long time. The purpose of this study was to validate the use of panfungal polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify fungal organisms from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded curls were tested from 128 blocks containing canine, feline, equine, and bovine tissues with cutaneous, nasal, pulmonary, and systemic fungal infections, identified by the presence of fungi in histologic sections. Quantitative scoring of histologic sections identified rare (11.9%), occasional (17.5%), moderate (17.5%), or abundant (53.1%) fungal organisms. DNA was isolated from FFPE tissues and PCR was performed targeting the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) region, a segment of noncoding DNA found in all eukaryotes. Polymerase chain reaction products were sequenced and identified at ≥97% identity match using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool and the NCBI database of ITS sequences. Of the 128 blocks, 117 (91.4%) yielded PCR products and high-quality sequences were derived from 89 (69.5%). Sequence and histologic identifications matched in 79 blocks (61.7%). This assay was capable of providing genus- and species-level identification when histopathology could not and, thus, is a beneficial complementary tool for diagnosis of fungal diseases.

Sensitive and rapid RT-qPCR quantification of pathogenic Candida species in human blood

For accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment of candidiasis, we developed a highly sensitive quantitative RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) system for five Candida species that have been reported to be the major causes of bloodstream fungal infection (Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida krusei), together with a system for all pathogenic Candida species. Cells of each fungal species spiked into human peripheral blood (PB) were specifically detected at a lower detection limit of 10(0) cell/1 mL PB by this system using the newly developed specific primer sets targeting 18S or 26S rRNA of the five Candida species, together with the existing group primer set. The total count of the five Candida spp. as the sum of those obtained by using the five species primer sets was equivalent to the count obtained by using the group primer set, indicating that the group set covered the major five Candida spp. in human blood with the same degree of accuracy as the species primer sets. The RT-qPCR counts of the Candida species were in good agreement with CFU counts obtained by their culture on CHROMagar™, with a lower detection limit of 10(0)cell/mL of PB. Candida rRNA molecules were stably stored for at least 7 days at 4°C by keeping the blood specimens in an RNA stabilizing reagent. These results strongly suggest that this sensitive system is useful for accurate and rapid diagnosis of Candida bloodstream infections.

Evaluation of blood culture media for the detection of fungi

The aim of this study was to compare the utility of BACTEC™ Mycosis-IC/F (Mycosis), BACTEC™ Plus Aerobic/F (Aerobic), and BACTEC™ Plus Anaerobic/F (Anaerobic) media in the detection of fungi from simulated (obtained by the inoculation of tested media first with sterile sheep's blood and subsequently with one of 60 clinical yeast isolates) and clinical blood samples, taken during routine diagnostic examination in two hospitals. All tested strains grew on Mycosis as well as Aerobic bottles, and the time to detection obtained for Mycosis was significantly shorter (p < 0.05). The largest differences in the time to positivity was found for Candida glabrata and Cryptococcus neoformans, when Mycosis preceded Aerobic in 20-48 h (mean 35.5 h) and 0.7-64 h (mean 24 h), respectively. On the contrary, C. krusei were detected earlier in Aerobic media. In clinical samples, the detection of C. glabrata was also significantly faster in Mycosis than in Aerobic (29.22 ± 11.48 h compared to 86 ± 40 h). The media complement each other and, in 45% of clinical examination sets, a single positive medium was noted (25% in Mycosis and 19% in Aerobic). The study proved that both Aerobic and Mycosis media serve as the correct condition for the culture of fungi and that they varied significantly in the detection time of clinically important species. This result could suggest that the simultaneous use of Aerobic as well as Mycosis media may improve the time of diagnosis in many patients, especially those infected with C. glabrata or C. neoformans.

[Invasive fungal disease: conventional or molecular mycological diagnosis?]

Diagnosis of invasive mycoses is a difficult challenge due to the limitations and low sensitivity of traditional microbiology methods which lead to diagnostic and therapeutic delays. The aim of this review is to summarise the state of the art of the molecular diagnosis of invasive fungal disease and to clarify its current role in the clinical practice. Conventional microbiological methods could be complemented with molecular methods in the rapid and definitive identification of fungal isolates. Biomarkers (β-glucan, galactomannan) are very useful in immunocompromised patients and have been included as probable invasive mycoses by the EORTC/MSG. Nucleic acid detection is currently used as a complementary tool for diagnosis. However, PCR can be very useful in mould invasive mycoses. Finally, the combined detection using biomarkers can improve the diagnosis. However, their applicability in the microbiology laboratory is not so easy and further studies are required for the appropriate evaluation of its clinical usefulness.