The Grueneberg ganglion of the mouse projects axons to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb

Comparative morphology of the rhinarium and upper lip in sigmodontine rodents: Refined nomenclature, intertribal variation in a phylogenetic framework, and functional inferences

Rodents have received substantial attention in the study of olfaction. However, the rhinarium, the naked part of the nose, which plays an important role in chemical, tactile, and thermal perception, has been relatively overlooked. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the rhinarium morphology and spatially associated structures (i.e., upper lip, and philtrum) in sigmodontines, a diverse group within the Cricetidae rodents. The research covers 483 specimens representing 145 species, accounting for 74% of genera in the clade, including all 13 recognized tribes, three incertae sedis genera, and the murid representatives Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus. The inconsistent use of terminology in describing rhinarium traits across the literature poses a challenge for comparative analyzes. To address this issue, a standardized terminology was proposed to characterize the rhinarium. A paired complex protuberance typically with epidermal ridges (i.e., rhinoglyphics), termed here the tubercle of Hill, was identified as a distinctive feature in muroid rhinaria. Comparative assessments among tribes revealed unique sets of features defining each major clade, encompassing variations in hairiness, dorsum nasi complexity, size and positioning of the tubercle of Hill, and other key attributes. Two primary rhinarium configurations were discerned: one shared by Oryzomyalia and Sigmodontini and another specific to Ichthyomyini. The former groups display a ventrally positioned rhinarium prominently featuring the tubercle of Hill and sculptured areola circularis. In contrast, Ichthyomyini exhibit a frontally directed rhinarium characterized by an enlarged dorsum nasi fused to the tubercle of Hill, resulting in a distinctive "cherry" appearance. Convergent rhinarium structures observed in fossorial species, characterized by well-developed plica alaris and hair fringes, are presumed to mitigate potential damage during digging. Conversely, semiaquatic carnivorous sigmodontines showcase an integrated apical structure in their rhinarium, facilitating enhanced somatosensory capabilities crucial for predation activities during diving expeditions.

Histology Atlas of the Developing Mouse Respiratory System From Prenatal Day 9.0 Through Postnatal Day 30

Respiratory diseases are one of the leading causes of death and disability around the world. Mice are commonly used as models of human respiratory disease. Phenotypic analysis of mice with spontaneous, congenital, inherited, or treatment-related respiratory tract abnormalities requires investigators to discriminate normal anatomic features of the respiratory system from those that have been altered by disease. Many publications describe individual aspects of normal respiratory tract development, primarily focusing on morphogenesis of the trachea and lung. However, a single reference providing detailed low- and high-magnification, high-resolution images of routine hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained sections depicting all major structures of the entire developing murine respiratory system does not exist. The purpose of this atlas is to correct this deficiency by establishing one concise reference of high-resolution color photomicrographs from whole-slide scans of H&E-stained tissue sections. The atlas has detailed descriptions and well-annotated images of the developing mouse upper and lower respiratory tracts emphasizing embryonic days (E) 9.0 to 18.5 and major early postnatal events. The selected images illustrate the main structures and events at key developmental stages and thus should help investigators both confirm the chronological age of mouse embryos and distinguish normal morphology as well as structural (cellular and organ) abnormalities.

Intranasal nanoparticulate delivery systems for neurodegenerative disorders: a review

Neurodegenerative diseases are a significant cause of mortality worldwide, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a significant challenge for drug delivery. An intranasal route is a prominent approach among the various methods to bypass the BBB. There are different pathways involved in intranasal drug delivery. The drawbacks of this method include mucociliary clearance, enzymatic degradation and poor drug permeation. Novel nanoformulations and intranasal drug-delivery devices offer promising solutions to overcome these challenges. Nanoformulations include polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, microspheres, liposomes and noisomes. Additionally, intranasal devices could be utilized to enhance drug-delivery efficacy. Therefore, intranasal drug-delivery systems show potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases through trigeminal or olfactory pathways, which can significantly improve patient outcomes.

The olfactory limbus of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). New insights regarding a noncanonical olfactory bulb pathway

Introduction: The olfactory system in most mammals is divided into several subsystems based on the anatomical locations of the neuroreceptor cells involved and the receptor families that are expressed. In addition to the main olfactory system and the vomeronasal system, a range of olfactory subsystems converge onto the transition zone located between the main olfactory bulb (MOB) and the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), which has been termed the olfactory limbus (OL). The OL contains specialized glomeruli that receive noncanonical sensory afferences and which interact with the MOB and AOB. Little is known regarding the olfactory subsystems of mammals other than laboratory rodents. Methods: We have focused on characterizing the OL in the red fox by performing general and specific histological stainings on serial sections, using both single and double immunohistochemical and lectin-histochemical labeling techniques. Results: As a result, we have been able to determine that the OL of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) displays an uncommonly high degree of development and complexity. Discussion: This makes this species a novel mammalian model, the study of which could improve our understanding of the noncanonical pathways involved in the processing of chemosensory cues.

Sex steroid hormone synthesis, metabolism, and the effects on the mammalian olfactory system

Sex steroid hormones influence olfactory-mediated social behaviors, and it is generally hypothesized that these effects result from circulating hormones and/or neurosteroids synthesized in the brain. However, it is unclear whether sex steroid hormones are synthesized in the olfactory epithelium or the olfactory bulb, and if they can modulate the activity of the olfactory sensory neurons. Here, we review important discoveries related to the metabolism of sex steroids in the mouse olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb, along with potential areas of future research. We summarize current knowledge regarding the expression, neuroanatomical distribution, and biological activity of the steroidogenic enzymes, sex steroid receptors, and proteins that are important to the metabolism of these hormones and reflect on their potential to influence early olfactory processing. We also review evidence related to the effects of sex steroid hormones on the development and activity of olfactory sensory neurons. By better understanding how these hormones are metabolized and how they act both at the periphery and olfactory bulb level, we can better appreciate the complexity of the olfactory system and discover potential similarities and differences in early olfactory processing between sexes.

Neuropeptide S Attenuates the Alarm Pheromone-Evoked Defensive and Risk Assessment Behaviors Through Activation of Cognate Receptor-Expressing Neurons in the Posterior Medial Amygdala

Neuropeptide S (NPS) acts by activating its cognate receptor (NPSR). High level expression of NPSR in the posterior medial amygdala suggests that NPS-NPSR system should be involved in regulation of social behaviors induced by social pheromones. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of central administration of NPS or with NPSR antagonist on the alarm pheromone (AP)-evoked defensive and risk assessment behaviors in mice. Furthermore, H129-H8, a novel high-brightness anterograde multiple trans-synaptic virus, c-Fos and NPSR immunostaining were employed to reveal the involved neurocircuits and targets of NPS action. The mice exposed to AP displayed an enhancement in defensive and risk assessment behaviors. NPS (0.1–1 nmol) intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection significantly attenuated the AP-evoked defensive and risk assessment behaviors. NPSR antagonist [D-Val⁵]NPS at the dose of 40 nmol completely blocked the effect of 0.5 nmol of NPS which showed the best effective among dose range. The H129-H8-labeled neurons were observed in the bilateral posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) and posteroventral medial amygdala (MePV) 72 h after the virus injection into the unilateral olfactory bulb (OB), suggesting that the MePD and MePV receive olfactory information inputs from the OB. The percentage of H129-H8-labeled neurons that also express NPSR were 90.27 ± 3.56% and 91.67 ± 2.46% in the MePD and MePV, respectively. NPS (0.5 nmol, i.c.v.) remarkably increased the number of Fos immunoreactive (-ir) neurons in the MePD and MePV, and the majority of NPS-induced Fos-ir neurons also expressed NPSR. The behavior characteristic of NPS or with [D-Val⁵]NPS can be better replicated in MePD/MePV local injection within lower dose. The present findings demonstrated that NPS, via selective activation of the neurons bearing NPSR in the posterior medial amygdala, attenuates the AP-evoked defensive and risk assessment behaviors in mice.

Principles of odor coding in vertebrates and artificial chemosensory systems

The biological olfactory system is the sensory system responsible for the detection of the chemical composition of the environment. Several attempts to mimic biological olfactory systems have led to various artificial olfactory systems using different technical approaches. Here we provide a parallel description of biological olfactory systems and their technical counterparts. We start with a presentation of the input to the systems, the stimuli, and treat the interface between the external world and the environment where receptor neurons or artificial chemosensors reside. We then delineate the functions of receptor neurons and chemosensors as well as their overall I-O relationships. Up to this point, our account of the systems goes along similar lines. The next processing steps differ considerably: while in biology the processing step following the receptor neurons is the "integration" and "processing" of receptor neuron outputs in the olfactory bulb, this step has various realizations in electronic noses. For a long period of time, the signal processing stages beyond the olfactory bulb, i.e., the higher olfactory centers were little studied. Only recently there has been a marked growth of studies tackling the information processing in these centers. In electronic noses, a third stage of processing has virtually never been considered. In this review, we provide an up-to-date overview of the current knowledge of both fields and, for the first time, attempt to tie them together. We hope it will be a breeding ground for better information, communication, and data exchange between very related but so far little connected fields.

Renewal and Differentiation of GCD Necklace Olfactory Sensory Neurons

Both canonical olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and sensory neurons belonging to the guanylate cyclase D (GCD) "necklace" subsystem are housed in the main olfactory epithelium, which is continuously bombarded by toxins, pathogens, and debris from the outside world. Canonical OSNs address this challenge, in part, by undergoing renewal through neurogenesis; however, it is not clear whether GCD OSNs also continuously regenerate and, if so, whether newborn GCD precursors follow a similar developmental trajectory to that taken by canonical OSNs. Here, we demonstrate that GCD OSNs are born throughout adulthood and can persist in the epithelium for several months. Phosphodiesterase 2A is upregulated early in the differentiation process, followed by the sequential downregulation of β-tubulin and the upregulation of CART protein. The GCD and MS4A receptors that confer sensory responses upon GCD neurons are initially expressed midway through this process but become most highly expressed once CART levels are maximal late in GCD OSN development. GCD OSN maturation is accompanied by a horizontal migration of neurons toward the central, curved portions of the cul-de-sac regions where necklace cells are concentrated. These findings demonstrate that-like their canonical counterparts-GCD OSNs undergo continuous renewal and define a GCD-specific developmental trajectory linking neurogenesis, maturation, and migration.

Unique nasal septal island in dromedary camels may play a role in pain perception: microscopic studies

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The septal island in dromedaries is a distinctive anatomical structure.

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It has a curiously rostral location and innervated by the trigeminal nerve.

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It has an unusual ultrastructure and may be specialized for nociception.

The septal organs are islands or patches of sensory epithelium, located in the ventral parts of the nasal septum and innervated by the olfactory nerve. The septal island in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) was unusually located in the rostro-dorsal part of the nasal septum, where the ethmoidal branch of the trigeminal nerve provides innervation to the island mucosa. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to reveal the microscopic and ultrastructure of this island and to explain the probable functions. Twelve septal islands from 12 healthy male camels were used. Unlike the olfactory epithelium, which has a pseudostratified structure, the island neuroepithelium had a true neural lamination. Furthermore, in electron micrographs, the receptor, bipolar, and basal cells were connected with an orderly, organized network of cell–cell communication, which had some spine synapses. This network substituted the absence of supporting cells, maintained the shape of the tissue, and held the cells together. Moreover, the receptor cells were not similar to any of the different types of olfactory sensory neurons. Instead, they possessed the apical domain that might be specialized for the detection of chemical stimuli. Interestingly, a resident population of immune cells, namely mast cells and macrophages, was observed. The probable functions were discussed based on the cellular context and architecture. The nasal septal island in dromedaries may have a role in pain perception. The receptor cells most probably work as nociceptive cells that interact with the resident immune cells to coordinate pain signaling with immune response.

The Grueneberg ganglion: signal transduction and coding in an olfactory and thermosensory organ involved in the detection of alarm pheromones and predator-secreted kairomones

In numerous mammalian species, the nose harbors several compartments populated by chemosensory cells. Among them, the Grueneberg ganglion (GG) located in the anterior nasal region comprises sensory neurons activated by given substances. In rodents, in which the GG has been best studied, these chemical cues mainly include heterocyclic compounds released by predators or by conspecifics. Since some of these substances evoke fear- or stress-associated responses, the GG is considered as a detector for alerting semiochemicals. In fact, certain behavioral and physiological reactions to alarm pheromones and predator-secreted kairomones are attenuated in the absence of a functional GG. Intriguingly, GG neurons are also stimulated by cool temperatures. Moreover, ambient temperatures modulate olfactory responsiveness in the GG, indicating that cross-talks exist between the transduction pathways mediating chemo- and thermosensory signaling in this organ. In this context, exploring the relevant molecular cascades has demonstrated that some chemosensory transduction elements are also crucial for thermosensory signaling in the GG. Finally, for further processing of sensory information, axons of GG neurons project to the olfactory bulb of the brain where they innervate distinct glomerular structures belonging to the enigmatic necklace glomeruli. In this review, the stimuli activating GG neurons as well as the underlying transduction pathways are summarized. Because these stimuli do not exclusively activate GG neurons but also other sensory cells, the biological relevance of the GG is discussed, with a special focus on the role of the GG in detecting alarm signals.

Olfactory subsystems associated with the necklace glomeruli in rodents

The necklace glomeruli are a loosely defined group of glomeruli encircling the caudal main olfactory bulb in rodents. Initially defined by the expression of various immunohistochemical markers, they are now better understood in the context of the specialized chemosensory neurons of the main olfactory epithelium and Grueneberg ganglion that innervate them. It has become clear that the necklace region of the rodent main olfactory bulb is composed of multiple distinct groups of glomeruli, defined at least in part by their afferent inputs. In this review, we will explore the necklace glomeruli and the chemosensory neurons that innervate them.

Diving into the streams and waves of constitutive and regenerative olfactory neurogenesis: insights from zebrafish

The olfactory system is renowned for its functional and structural plasticity, with both peripheral and central structures displaying persistent neurogenesis throughout life and exhibiting remarkable capacity for regenerative neurogenesis after damage. In general, fish are known for their extensive neurogenic ability, and the zebrafish in particular presents an attractive model to study plasticity and adult neurogenesis in the olfactory system because of its conserved structure, relative simplicity, rapid cell turnover, and preponderance of neurogenic niches. In this review, we present an overview of the anatomy of zebrafish olfactory structures, with a focus on the neurogenic niches in the olfactory epithelium, olfactory bulb, and ventral telencephalon. Constitutive and regenerative neurogenesis in both the peripheral olfactory organ and central olfactory bulb of zebrafish is reviewed in detail, and a summary of current knowledge about the cellular origin and molecular signals involved in regulating these processes is presented. While some features of physiologic and injury-induced neurogenic responses are similar, there are differences that indicate that regeneration is not simply a reiteration of the constitutive proliferation process. We provide comparisons to mammalian neurogenesis that reveal similarities and differences between species. Finally, we present a number of open questions that remain to be answered.

The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application

Essential oils have been used in multiple ways, i.e., inhaling, topically applying on the skin, and drinking. Thus, there are three major routes of intake or application involved: the olfactory system, the skin, and the gastro-intestinal system. Understanding these routes is important for clarifying the mechanisms of action of essential oils. Here we summarize the three systems involved, and the effects of essential oils and their constituents at the cellular and systems level. Many factors affect the rate of uptake of each chemical constituent included in essential oils. It is important to determine how much of each constituent is included in an essential oil and to use single chemical compounds to precisely test their effects. Studies have shown synergistic influences of the constituents, which affect the mechanisms of action of the essential oil constituents. For the skin and digestive system, the chemical components of essential oils can directly activate gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors and transient receptor potential channels (TRP) channels, whereas in the olfactory system, chemical components activate olfactory receptors. Here, GABA receptors and TRP channels could play a role, mostly when the signals are transferred to the olfactory bulb and the brain.

Identification and Field Testing of Volatile Components in the Sex Attractant Pheromone Blend of Female House Mice

Recently, it was reported (i) that the sex pheromone blend of male house mice, Mus musculus, comprises not only volatile components (3,4-dehydro-exo-brevicomin; 2-sec-butyl-4,5-dihydrothiazole) but also a component of low volatility (the sex steroid testosterone), and (ii) that the sex steroids progesterone and estradiol are sex pheromone components of female house mice. Here we tested the hypothesis that the sex attractant pheromone blend of female mice, analogous to that of male mice, also comprises volatile pheromone components. Analyzing by GC-MS the head space volatiles of bedding soiled with urine and feces of laboratory-kept females and males revealed three candidate pheromone components (CPCs) that were adult female-specific: butyric acid, 2-methyl butyric acid and 4-heptanone. In a two-choice laboratory experiment, adult males spent significantly more time in the treatment chamber baited with both the synthetic steroids (progesterone, estradiol) and the synthetic CPCs than in the paired control chamber baited only with the synthetic steroids. In field experiments, trap boxes baited with both the CPCs and the steroids captured 6.7-times more adult males and 4.7-times more juvenile males than trap boxes baited with the steroids alone. Conversely, trap boxes baited with both the CPCs and the steroids captured 4.3-times more adult males and 2.7-fold fewer adult females than trap boxes baited with the CPCs alone. In combination, these data support the conclusion that butyric acid, 2-methyl butyric acid and 4-heptanone are part of the sex attractant pheromone of female house mice. With progesterone and estradiol being pheromone components of both female brown rats, Rattus norvegicus, and female house mice, these three volatile components could impart specificity to the sexual communication system of house mice, brown rats and possibly other rodent species.

The Grueneberg olfactory organ neuroepithelium recovers after injury

The Grueneberg organ (also termed Grueneberg ganglion) is an olfactory subsystem at the rostral nasal septum of rodents, and has been suggested to exist also in humans. Grueneberg organ neurons respond to coldness and alarm pheromones, but the anatomical arrangement and regenerative capacity are not fully characterised. We examined the relationship between the glia and the neurons using crosses of two transgenic mouse lines, S100ß-DsRed and OMP-ZsGreen, to visualise olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and Grueneberg olfactory neurons, respectively. Within the epithelium, Grueneberg organ OECs were in direct contact with Grueneberg organ neuron cell bodies. Individual axons from the neurons initially grew over the surface of the OECs before forming larger fascicles consisting of numerous axons and OECs. Considering the location of the Grueneberg organ so close to the external environment, it may be that the Grueneberg neurons are likely to be subject to damage suggesting that as in other olfactory regions there is a capacity for recovery after injury. Here, we used a well characterised model of olfactory nervous system injury, unilateral bulbectomy, to determine whether Grueneberg organ neurons degenerate after injury. We found that Grueneberg organ neurons degenerated in response to the axotomy, yet by 11 days post injury neurons and/or axons were detected again within the epithelium. Our results demonstrate that while Grueneberg organ neurons and glia have a distinct relationship in the epithelium, they have largely similar characteristics to that of the main olfactory neurons and glia.

Alarm pheromone and kairomone detection via bitter taste receptors in the mouse Grueneberg ganglion

BACKGROUND

The mouse Grueneberg ganglion (GG) is an olfactory subsystem specialized in the detection of volatile heterocyclic compounds signalling danger. The signalling pathways transducing the danger signals are only beginning to be characterized.

RESULTS

Screening chemical libraries for compounds structurally resembling the already-identified GG ligands, we found a new category of chemicals previously identified as bitter tastants that initiated fear-related behaviours in mice depending on their volatility and evoked neuronal responses in mouse GG neurons. Screening for the expression of signalling receptors of these compounds in the mouse GG yielded transcripts of the taste receptors Tas2r115, Tas2r131, Tas2r143 and their associated G protein α-gustducin (Gnat3). We were further able to confirm their expression at the protein level. Challenging these three G protein-coupled receptors in a heterologous system with the known GG ligands, we identified TAS2R143 as a chemical danger receptor transducing both alarm pheromone and predator-derived kairomone signals.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that similar molecular elements might be used by the GG and by the taste system to detect chemical danger signals present in the environment.

Fundamental principles of the olfactory code

Sensory coding represents a basic principle of all phyla in nature: species attempt to perceive their natural surroundings and to make sense of them. Ultimately, sensory coding is the only way to allow a species to make the kinds of crucial decisions that lead to a behavioral response. In this manner, animals are able to detect numerous parameters, ranging from temperature and humidity to light and sound to volatile or non-volatile chemicals. Most of these environmental cues represent a clearly defined stimulus array that can be described along a single physical parameter, such as wavelength or frequency; odorants, in contrast, cannot. The odor space encompasses an enormous and nearly infinite number of diverse stimuli that cannot be classified according to their positions along a single dimension. Hence, the olfactory system has to encode and translate the vast odor array into an accurate neural map in the brain. In this review, we will outline the relevant steps of the olfactory code and describe its progress along the olfactory pathway, i.e., from the peripheral olfactory organs to the first olfactory center in the brain and then to the higher processing areas where the odor perception takes place, enabling an organism to make odor-guided decisions. We will focus mainly on studies from the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster, but we will also indicate similarities to and differences from the olfactory system of other invertebrate species as well as of the vertebrate world.

Attenuated Chemosensory Responsiveness of the Grueneberg Ganglion in Mouse Pups at Warm Temperatures

Neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion (GG) in the anterior nasal region of mice respond to a small set of odorous compounds, including given dimethylpyrazines present in mouse urine. Consequently, mouse pups living in murine colonies are presumably commonly exposed to such GG-activating substances. Since stimulation of the GG elicits alarm and stress reactions in mice, the question arises whether such a GG activation potentially inducing stress could be reduced when pups might rather feel secure in the presence of their mother. Being together with their warmth-giving dam, mouse pups experience a nest temperature of ∼35 °C. Therefore, we hypothesized that such a warm temperature may attenuate the responses of GG neurons to dimethylpyrazines. Monitoring the expression of the activity marker c-Fos, GG responses to dimethylpyrazines were significantly lower in pups exposed to these substances at 35 °C compared to exposure at 30 °C. By contrast, dimethylpyrazine-induced responses of neurons in the main olfactory epithelium were not diminished at 35 °C in comparison to 30 °C. The attenuated chemosensory responses of GG neurons at 35 °C coincided with a reduced dimethylpyrazine-evoked activation of the glomeruli in the olfactory bulb innervated by GG neurons. The reduction in dimethylpyrazine-evoked GG responses by warm temperatures was positively correlated with exposure time, suggesting that warm temperatures might enhance desensitization processes in GG neurons. In summary, the findings indicate that warm temperatures similar to those in mouse nests in the presence of the dam attenuate GG activation by colony-derived odorants.

One Special Glomerulus in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis Tadpoles Integrates a Broad Range of Amino Acids and Mechanical Stimuli

The olfactory system senses odors, but not exclusively, as shown over the past years. It also registers other modalities such as temperature and pressure. However, it remains unknown how widespread these sensitivities are across species and how strongly their processing is interconnected with the processing of odors. Here, we present data on the β-glomerulus in the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. We show that this glomerulus possesses an unusually broad response pattern to a large number of amino acids. The β-glomerulus uses the classical cAMP-mediated pathway, as suggested by its sensitivity to forskolin. This finding was unexpected because amino acid-sensitive olfactory sensory neurons of Xenopus commonly function in a cAMP-independent manner. Furthermore, we show that the β-glomerulus also reacts to pressure pulses delivered to the olfactory mucosa. These mechanical stimuli induce responses with profiles having typical dose-response and adaptation curves. Finally, whereas the mechanosensitivity in the glomerular layer was observed repeatedly in the β-glomerulus only, mechanosensitive modulation of mitral cells and their postsynaptic neuropils was found on a larger scale. Some mitral cells closely followed the response time course of the β-glomerulus, whereas many others were strongly inhibited by short pressure pulses. In conclusion, our data demonstrate the existence of one glomerulus sensitive to both a large number of amino acids and pressure pulses and show that the processing of pressure pulses is intertwined with odor processing.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

We present a glomerulus in the olfactory bulb (OB) activated by very different stimuli, namely mechanical stimuli to the olfactory mucosa and a large number of amino acids. This unusual sensitivity is conveyed to the second-order neurons in the OB. Pressure sensitivity of olfactory sensory neurons has been shown recently in mice. Along with temperature sensitivity found in the olfactory system of mice and Xenopus laevis tadpoles, a discussion arose about the influence of these modalities on odor coding. Our results suggest that mechanosensitivity may be a general feature in olfactory systems. The pressure and broad amino acid sensitivity is not only focused to one glomerulus, but is also integrated in the odor processing of the OB's network.

In-depth Physiological Analysis of Defined Cell Populations in Acute Tissue Slices of the Mouse Vomeronasal Organ

In most mammals, the vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a chemosensory structure that detects both hetero- and conspecific social cues. Vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) express a specific type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) from at least three different chemoreceptor gene families allowing sensitive and specific detection of chemosensory cues. These families comprise the V1r and V2r gene families as well as the formyl peptide receptor (FPR)-related sequence (Fpr-rs) family of putative chemoreceptor genes. In order to understand the physiology of vomeronasal receptor-ligand interactions and downstream signaling, it is essential to identify the biophysical properties inherent to each specific class of VSNs. The physiological approach described here allows identification and in-depth analysis of a defined population of sensory neurons using a transgenic mouse line (Fpr-rs3-i-Venus). The use of this protocol, however, is not restricted to this specific line and thus can easily be extended to other genetically modified lines or wild type animals.

Grueneberg Glomeruli in the Olfactory Bulb are Activated by Odorants and Cool Temperature

Neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion respond to cool temperatures as well as to distinct odorants and extend axonal processes to the olfactory bulb of the brain. Analyses of transgenic mice, in which Grueneberg ganglion neurons and their axons are labeled, revealed that these axons innervated nine distinct glomeruli distributed in a characteristic topographical pattern in dorsal, lateral, ventral, and medial regions of rather posterior areas in the bulb. To assess activation of these glomeruli (hereinafter designated as Grueneberg glomeruli) upon stimulation of Grueneberg ganglion neurons, mice were exposed to the odorant 2,3-dimethylpyrazine (2,3-DMP) and the expression of the activity-dependent marker c-Fos in juxtaglomerular cells of the relevant glomeruli was monitored. It was found that all of these glomeruli were activated, irrespective of their localization in the bulb. To verify that the activation of juxtaglomerular cells in Grueneberg glomeruli was indeed based on stimulation of Grueneberg ganglion neurons, the 2,3-DMP-induced responses in these glomeruli were investigated in mice lacking the cyclic nucleotide-gated channel CNGA3 which is critical for chemo- and thermosensory signal transduction in Grueneberg ganglion neurons. This approach revealed that elimination of CNGA3 led to a reduction of the odorant-induced activity in Grueneberg glomeruli, indicating that the activation of these glomeruli is based on a preceding stimulation of the Grueneberg ganglion. Analyzing whether Grueneberg glomeruli in the bulb might also process thermosensory information, it was found that upon exposure to coolness, Grueneberg glomeruli were activated. Investigating mice lacking CNGA3, the activation of these glomeruli by cool temperatures was attenuated.

Integrating temperature with odor processing in the olfactory bulb

Temperature perception has long been classified as a somesthetic function solely. However, in recent years several studies brought evidence that temperature perception also takes place in the olfactory system of rodents. Temperature has been described as an effective stimulus for sensory neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion located at the entrance of the nose. Here, we investigate whether a neuronal trace of temperature stimulation can be observed in the glomeruli and mitral cells of the olfactory bulb, using calcium imaging and fast line-scanning microscopy. We show in the Xenopus tadpole system that the γ-glomerulus, which receives input from olfactory neurons, is highly sensitive to temperature drops at the olfactory epithelium. We observed that thermo-induced activity in the γ-glomerulus is conveyed to the mitral cells innervating this specific neuropil. Surprisingly, a substantial number of thermosensitive mitral cells were also chemosensitive. Moreover, we report another unique feature of the γ-glomerulus: it receives ipsilateral and contralateral afferents. The latter fibers pass through the contralateral bulb, cross the anterior commissure, and then run to the ipsilateral olfactory bulb, where they target the γ-glomerulus. Temperature drops at the contralateral olfactory epithelium also induced responses in the γ-glomerulus and in mitral cells. Temperature thus appears to be a relevant physiological input to the Xenopus olfactory system. Each olfactory bulb integrates and codes temperature signals originating from receptor neurons of the ipsilateral and contralateral nasal cavities. Finally, temperature and chemical information is processed in shared cellular networks.

Identification of pyridine analogs as new predator-derived kairomones

In the wild, animals have developed survival strategies relying on their senses. The individual ability to identify threatening situations is crucial and leads to increase in the overall fitness of the species. Rodents, for example have developed in their nasal cavities specialized olfactory neurons implicated in the detection of volatile cues encoding for impending danger such as predator scents or alarm pheromones. In particular, the neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion (GG), an olfactory subsystem, are implicated in the detection of danger cues sharing a similar chemical signature, a heterocyclic sulfur- or nitrogen-containing motif. Here we used a “from the wild to the lab” approach to identify new molecules that are involuntarily emitted by predators and that initiate fear-related responses in the recipient animal, the putative prey. We collected urines from carnivores as sources of predator scents and first verified their impact on the blood pressure of the mice. With this approach, the urine of the mountain lion emerged as the most potent source of chemical stress. We then identified in this biological fluid, new volatile cues with characteristic GG-related fingerprints, in particular the methylated pyridine structures, 2,4-lutidine and its analogs. We finally verified their encoded danger quality and demonstrated their ability to mimic the effects of the predator urine on GG neurons, on mice blood pressure and in behavioral experiments. In summary, we were able to identify here, with the use of an integrative approach, new relevant molecules, the pyridine analogs, implicated in interspecies danger communication.

Olfactory marker protein expression is an indicator of olfactory receptor-associated events in non-olfactory tissues

Olfactory receptor (OR)-associated events are mediated by well-conserved components in the olfactory epithelium, including olfactory G-protein (G_olf), adenylate cyclase III (ACIII), and olfactory marker protein (OMP). The expression of ORs has recently been observed in non-olfactory tissues where they are involved in monitoring extracellular chemical cues. The large number of OR genes and their sequence similarities illustrate the need to find an effective and simple way to detect non-olfactory OR-associated events. In addition, expression profiles and physiological functions of ORs in non-olfactory tissues are largely unknown. To overcome limitations associated with using OR as a target protein, this study used OMP with G_olf and ACIII as targets to screen for potential OR-mediated sensing systems in non-olfactory tissues. Here, we show using western blotting, real-time PCR, and single as well as double immunoassays that ORs and OR-associated proteins are co-expressed in diverse tissues. The results of immunohistochemical analyses showed OMP (+) cells in mouse heart and in the following cells using the corresponding marker proteins c-kit, keratin 14, calcitonin, and GFAP in mouse tissues: interstitial cells of Cajal of the bladder, medullary thymic epithelial cells of the thymus, parafollicular cells of the thyroid, and Leydig cells of the testis. The expression of ORs in OMP (+) tissues was analyzed using a refined microarray analysis and validated with RT-PCR and real-time PCR. Three ORs (olfr544, olfr558, and olfr1386) were expressed in the OMP (+) cells of the bladder and thyroid as shown using a co-immunostaining method. Together, these results suggest that OMP is involved in the OR-mediated signal transduction cascade with olfactory canonical signaling components between the nervous and endocrine systems. The results further demonstrate that OMP immunohistochemical analysis is a useful tool for identifying expression of ORs, suggesting OMP expression is an indicator of potential OR-mediated chemoreception in non-olfactory systems.

Physiological characterization of formyl peptide receptor expressing cells in the mouse vomeronasal organ

The mouse vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a chemosensory structure that detects both hetero- and conspecific social cues. Based on largely monogenic expression of either type 1 or 2 vomeronasal receptors (V1Rs/V2Rs) or members of the formyl peptide receptor (FPR) family, the vomeronasal sensory epithelium harbors at least three neuronal subpopulations. While various neurophysiological properties of both V1R- and V2R-expressing neurons have been described using genetically engineered mouse models, the basic biophysical characteristics of the more recently identified FPR-expressing vomeronasal neurons have not been studied. Here, we employ a transgenic mouse strain that coexpresses an enhanced variant of yellow fluorescent protein together with FPR-rs3 allowing to identify and analyze FPR-rs3-expressing neurons in acute VNO tissue slices. Single neuron electrophysiological recordings allow comparative characterization of the biophysical properties inherent to a prototypical member of the FPR-expressing subpopulation of VNO neurons. In this study, we provide an in-depth analysis of both passive and active membrane properties, including detailed characterization of several types of voltage-activated conductances and action potential discharge patterns, in fluorescently labeled vs. unmarked vomeronasal neurons. Our results reveal striking similarities in the basic (electro) physiological architecture of both transgene-expressing and non-expressing neurons, confirming the suitability of this genetically engineered mouse model for future studies addressing more specialized issues in vomeronasal FPR neurobiology.

Morphological and physiological species-dependent characteristics of the rodent Grueneberg ganglion

In the mouse, the Grueneberg ganglion (GG) is an olfactory subsystem implicated both in chemo- and thermo-sensing. It is specifically involved in the recognition of volatile danger cues such as alarm pheromones and structurally-related predator scents. No evidence for these GG sensory functions has been reported yet in other rodent species. In this study, we used a combination of histological and physiological techniques to verify the presence of a GG and investigate its function in the rat, hamster, and gerbil comparing with the mouse. By scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmitted electron microscopy (TEM), we found isolated or groups of large GG cells of different shapes that in spite of their gross anatomical similarities, display important structural differences between species. We performed a comparative and morphological study focusing on the conserved olfactory features of these cells. We found fine ciliary processes, mostly wrapped in ensheating glial cells, in variable number of clusters deeply invaginated in the neuronal soma. Interestingly, the glial wrapping, the amount of microtubules and their distribution in the ciliary processes were different between rodents. Using immunohistochemistry, we were able to detect the expression of known GG proteins, such as the membrane guanylyl cyclase G and the cyclic nucleotide-gated channel A3. Both the expression and the subcellular localization of these signaling proteins were found to be species-dependent. Calcium imaging experiments on acute tissue slice preparations from rodent GG demonstrated that the chemo- and thermo-evoked neuronal responses were different between species. Thus, GG neurons from mice and rats displayed both chemo- and thermo-sensing, while hamsters and gerbils showed profound differences in their sensitivities. We suggest that the integrative comparison between the structural morphologies, the sensory properties, and the ethological contexts supports species-dependent GG features prompted by the environmental pressure.

Anatomy, histochemistry, and immunohistochemistry of the olfactory subsystems in mice

The four regions of the murine nasal cavity featuring olfactory neurons were studied anatomically and by labeling with lectins and relevant antibodies with a view to establishing criteria for the identification of olfactory subsystems that are readily applicable to other mammals. In the main olfactory epithelium and the septal organ the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are embedded in quasi-stratified columnar epithelium; vomeronasal OSNs are embedded in epithelium lining the medial interior wall of the vomeronasal duct and do not make contact with the mucosa of the main nasal cavity; and in Grüneberg's ganglion a small isolated population of OSNs lies adjacent to, but not within, the epithelium. With the exception of Grüneberg's ganglion, all the tissues expressing olfactory marker protein (OMP) (the above four nasal territories, the vomeronasal and main olfactory nerves, and the main and accessory olfactory bulbs) are also labeled by Lycopersicum esculentum agglutinin, while Ulex europaeus agglutinin I labels all and only tissues expressing G_αi2 (the apical sensory neurons of the vomeronasal organ, their axons, and their glomerular destinations in the anterior accessory olfactory bulb). These staining patterns of UEA-I and LEA may facilitate the characterization of olfactory anatomy in other species. A 710-section atlas of the anatomy of the murine nasal cavity has been made available on line.

Olfactory systems and neural circuits that modulate predator odor fear

When prey animals detect the odor of a predator a constellation of fear-related autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral responses rapidly occur to facilitate survival. How olfactory sensory systems process predator odor and channel that information to specific brain circuits is a fundamental issue that is not clearly understood. However, research in the last 15 years has begun to identify some of the essential features of the sensory detection systems and brain structures that underlie predator odor fear. For instance, the main (MOS) and accessory olfactory systems (AOS) detect predator odors and different types of predator odors are sensed by specific receptors located in either the MOS or AOS. However, complex predator chemosignals may be processed by both the MOS and AOS, which complicate our understanding of the specific neural circuits connected directly and indirectly from the MOS and AOS to activate the physiological and behavioral components of unconditioned and conditioned fear. Studies indicate that brain structures including the dorsal periaqueductal gray (DPAG), paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus, and the medial amygdala (MeA) appear to be broadly involved in predator odor induced autonomic activity and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress hormone secretion. The MeA also plays a key role in predator odor unconditioned fear behavior and retrieval of contextual fear memory associated with prior predator odor experiences. Other neural structures including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the ventral hippocampus (VHC) appear prominently involved in predator odor fear behavior. The basolateral amygdala (BLA), medial hypothalamic nuclei, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) are also activated by some but not all predator odors. Future research that characterizes how distinct predator odors are uniquely processed in olfactory systems and neural circuits will provide significant insights into the differences of how diverse predator odors activate fear.

Mouse Grueneberg ganglion neurons share molecular and functional features with C. elegans amphid neurons

The mouse Grueneberg ganglion (GG) is an olfactory subsystem located at the tip of the nose close to the entry of the naris. It comprises neurons that are both sensitive to cold temperature and play an important role in the detection of alarm pheromones (APs). This chemical modality may be essential for species survival. Interestingly, GG neurons display an atypical mammalian olfactory morphology with neurons bearing deeply invaginated cilia mostly covered by ensheathing glial cells. We had previously noticed their morphological resemblance with the chemosensory amphid neurons found in the anterior region of the head of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). We demonstrate here further molecular and functional similarities. Thus, we found an orthologous expression of molecular signaling elements that was furthermore restricted to similar specific subcellular localizations. Calcium imaging also revealed a ligand selectivity for the methylated thiazole odorants that amphid neurons are known to detect. Cellular responses from GG neurons evoked by chemical or temperature stimuli were also partially cGMP-dependent. In addition, we found that, although behaviors depending on temperature sensing in the mouse, such as huddling and thermotaxis did not implicate the GG, the thermosensitivity modulated the chemosensitivity at the level of single GG neurons. Thus, the striking similarities with the chemosensory amphid neurons of C. elegans conferred to the mouse GG neurons unique multimodal sensory properties.

The thermosensitive potassium channel TREK-1 contributes to coolness-evoked responses of Grueneberg ganglion neurons

Neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion (GG) residing in the vestibule of the murine nose are activated by cool ambient temperatures. Activation of thermosensory neurons is usually mediated by thermosensitive ion channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family. However, there is no evidence for the expression of thermo-TRPs in the GG, suggesting that GG neurons utilize distinct mechanisms for their responsiveness to cool temperatures. In search for proteins that render GG neurons responsive to coolness, we have investigated whether TREK/TRAAK channels may play a role; in heterologous expression systems, these potassium channels have been previously found to close upon exposure to coolness, leading to a membrane depolarization. The results of the present study indicate that the thermosensitive potassium channel TREK-1 is expressed in those GG neurons that are responsive to cool temperatures. Studies analyzing TREK-deficient mice revealed that coolness-evoked responses of GG neurons were clearly attenuated in these animals compared with wild-type conspecifics. These data suggest that TREK-1 channels significantly contribute to the responsiveness of GG neurons to cool temperatures, further supporting the concept that TREK channels serve as thermoreceptors in sensory cells. Moreover, the present findings provide the first evidence of how thermosensory GG neurons are activated by given temperature stimuli in the absence of thermo-TRPs.

Formulations for Intranasal Delivery of Pharmacological Agents to Combat Brain Disease: A New Opportunity to Tackle GBM?

Despite recent advances in tumor imaging and chemoradiotherapy, the median overall survival of patients diagnosed with glioblastoma multiforme does not exceed 15 months. Infiltration of glioma cells into the brain parenchyma, and the blood-brain barrier are important hurdles to further increase the efficacy of classic therapeutic tools. Local administration methods of therapeutic agents, such as convection enhanced delivery and intracerebral injections, are often associated with adverse events. The intranasal pathway has been proposed as a non-invasive alternative route to deliver therapeutics to the brain. This route will bypass the blood-brain barrier and limit systemic side effects. Upon presentation at the nasal cavity, pharmacological agents reach the brain via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves. Recently, formulations have been developed to further enhance this nose-to-brain transport, mainly with the use of nanoparticles. In this review, the focus will be on formulations of pharmacological agents, which increase the nasal permeation of hydrophilic agents to the brain, improve delivery at a constant and slow release rate, protect therapeutics from degradation along the pathway, increase mucoadhesion, and facilitate overall nasal transport. A mounting body of evidence is accumulating that the underexplored intranasal delivery route might represent a major breakthrough to combat glioblastoma.

Olfactory receptors in non-chemosensory tissues

Olfactory receptors (ORs) detect volatile chemicals that lead to the initial perception of smell in the brain. The olfactory receptor (OR) is the first protein that recognizes odorants in the olfactory signal pathway and it is present in over 1,000 genes in mice. It is also the largest member of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Most ORs are extensively expressed in the nasal olfactory epithelium where they perform the appropriate physiological functions that fit their location. However, recent whole-genome sequencing shows that ORs have been found outside of the olfactory system, suggesting that ORs may play an important role in the ectopic expression of non-chemosensory tissues. The ectopic expressions of ORs and their physiological functions have attracted more attention recently since MOR23 and testicular hOR17-4 have been found to be involved in skeletal muscle development, regeneration, and human sperm chemotaxis, respectively. When identifying additional expression profiles and functions of ORs in non-olfactory tissues, there are limitations posed by the small number of antibodies available for similar OR genes. This review presents the results of a research series that identifies ectopic expressions and functions of ORs in non-chemosensory tissues to provide insight into future research directions. [BMB Reports 2012; 45(11): 612-622]

The olfactory amygdala in amniotes: an evo-devo approach

In tetrapods, the medial amygdala is a forebrain center that integrates olfactory and/or vomeronasal signals with the endocrine and autonomic systems, playing a key role in different social behaviors. The vomeronasal system has undergone important changes during evolution, which may be behind some interspecies differences in chemosensory-mediated social behavior. These evolutionary changes are associated with variations in vomeronasal-recipient brain structures, including the medial amygdala. Herein, we employed an evolutionary developmental biology approach for trying to understand the function and evolution of the medial amygdala. For that purpose, we reviewed published data on fate mapping in mouse, and the expression of orthologous developmental regulatory genes (Nkx2.1, Lhx6, Shh, Tbr1, Lhx9, Lhx5, Otp, and Pax6) in embryos of mouse, chicken, emydid turtles, and a pipid frog. We also analyzed novel data on Lhx9 and Otp in a lacertid lizard. Based on distinct embryonic origin and genetic profile, at least five neuronal subpopulations exist in the medial amygdala of rodents, expressing either Nkx2.1/Lhx6, Shh, Lhx9, Otp/Lhx5, or Pax6. Each neuronal subpopulation appears involved in different functional pathways. For example, Lhx6 cells are specifically activated by sex pheromones and project to preoptic and hypothalamic centers involved in reproduction. Based on data in nonmammals, at least three of these neuronal subtypes might have been present in the medial amygdala of the amniote common ancestor. During mammalian evolution, the downregulation of Nkx2.1 in the alar hypothalamus may have been a driving force for an increment of the Otp/Lhx5 subpopulation.

Of pheromones and kairomones: what receptors mediate innate emotional responses?

Some chemicals elicit innate emotionally laden behavioral responses. Pheromones mediate sexual attraction, parental care or agonistic confrontation, whereas predators' kairomones elicit defensive behaviors in their preys. This essay explores the hypothesis that the detection of these semiochemicals relies on highly specific olfactory and/or vomeronasal receptors. The V1R, V2R, and formyl-peptide vomeronasal receptors bind their ligands in highly specific and sensitive way, thus being good candidates for pheromone- or kairomone-detectors (e.g., secreted and excreted proteins, peptides and lipophilic volatiles). The olfactory epithelium also expresses specific receptors, for example trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR) and guanylyl cyclase receptors (GC-D and other types), some of which bind kairomones and putative pheromones. However, most of the olfactory neurons express canonical olfactory receptors (ORs) that bind many ligands with different affinity, being not suitable for mediating responses to pheromones and kairomones. In this respect, trimethylthiazoline (TMT) is considered a fox-derived kairomone for mice and rats, but it seems to be detected by canonical ORs. Therefore, we have reassessed the kairomonal nature of TMT by analyzing the behavioral responses of outbred (CD1) and inbred mice (C57BL/J6) to TMT. Our results confirm that both mouse strains avoid TMT, which increases immobility in C57BL/J6, but not CD1 mice. However, mice of both strains sniff at TMT throughout the test and show no trace of TMT-induced contextual conditioning (immobility or avoidance). This suggests that TMT is not a kairomone but, similar to a loud noise, in high concentrations it induces aversion and stress as unspecific responses to a strong olfactory stimulation.

Convergence of FPR-rs3-expressing neurons in the mouse accessory olfactory bulb

In the mouse, most members of the FPR receptor family are expressed by vomeronasal sensory neurons. The neural circuitry corresponding to this class of chemical sensors is unknown. Taking advantage of the presence of FPR-rs3 on both vomeronasal dendrites and axonal fibers, we visualized the distribution of sensory cells expressing this member of the FPR family, and their corresponding axonal projections in the olfactory bulb. We found a rostrocaudal gradient of receptor choice frequency in the vomeronasal sensory neuroepithelium, and observed a convergence of FPR-rs3 axons into multiple, linked and deeply located glomeruli. These were homogenously innervated, and spatially restricted to the basal portion of the rostral accessory olfactory bulb. This organization, reminiscent of the one that characterizes axonal projections of V1R-expressing neurons, supports a role played by these receptors in the perception of semiochemicals.

Mouse alarm pheromone shares structural similarity with predator scents

Sensing the chemical warnings present in the environment is essential for species survival. In mammals, this form of danger communication occurs via the release of natural predator scents that can involuntarily warn the prey or by the production of alarm pheromones by the stressed prey alerting its conspecifics. Although we previously identified the olfactory Grueneberg ganglion as the sensory organ through which mammalian alarm pheromones signal a threatening situation, the chemical nature of these cues remains elusive. We here identify, through chemical analysis in combination with a series of physiological and behavioral tests, the chemical structure of a mouse alarm pheromone. To successfully recognize the volatile cues that signal danger, we based our selection on their activation of the mouse olfactory Grueneberg ganglion and the concomitant display of innate fear reactions. Interestingly, we found that the chemical structure of the identified mouse alarm pheromone has similar features as the sulfur-containing volatiles that are released by predating carnivores. Our findings thus not only reveal a chemical Leitmotiv that underlies signaling of fear, but also point to a double role for the olfactory Grueneberg ganglion in intraspecies as well as interspecies communication of danger.

Odorant-evoked electrical responses in Grueneberg ganglion neurons rely on cGMP-associated signaling proteins

The Grueneberg ganglion (GG) in the anterior nasal region of mice is considered as an olfactory compartment since its neurons were recently observed to be activated by chemical stimuli, in particular by the odorant 2,3-dimethylpyrazine (2,3-DMP). However, it is unclear whether the GG indeed serves an olfactory function since these findings are solely based on the expression of the activity-dependent gene c-Fos. Consequently, it is yet uncertain whether chemical compounds, such as given odorants, elicit electrical responses in GG neurons which are required to convey the chemosensory information to the brain. Therefore, in the present study, electrical recording experiments on tissue sections through the anterior nasal region of mice were conducted which revealed that 2,3-DMP induces electrical signals in the GG. These responses were restricted to sites harboring GG neurons, indicating that 2,3-DMP elicits an electrical signal only in these but not in other cells of the anterior nasal region. 2,3-DMP-sensitive GG neurons express signaling proteins associated with the second messenger substance cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP); most notably the cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel CNGA3 and the transmembrane guanylyl cyclase GC-G. Using mice deficient for CNGA3 or GC-G demonstrated that the 2,3-DMP-evoked electrical signals in the GG of these knockout mice were substantially lower than in the GG of wildtype conspecifics, indicating that cGMP signaling plays a crucial role for odorant-induced electrical responses in the GG.

Expression patterns of anoctamin 1 and anoctamin 2 chloride channels in the mammalian nose

Calcium-activated chloride channels are expressed in chemosensory neurons of the nose and contribute to secretory processes and sensory signal transduction. These channels are thought to be members of the family of anoctamins (alternative name: TMEM16 proteins), which are opened by micromolar concentrations of intracellular Ca(2+). Two family members,ANO 1 (TMEM16A) and ANO 2 (TMEM16B), are expressed in the various sensory and respiratory tissues of the nose.We have examined the tissue specificity and sub-cellular localization of these channels in the nasal respiratory epithelium and in the five chemosensory organs of the nose: the main olfactory epithelium, the septal organ of Masera, the vomeronasal organ, the Grueneberg ganglion and the trigeminal system. We have found that the two channels show mutually exclusive expression patterns. ANO 1 is present in the apical membranes of various secretory epithelia in which it is co-localized with the water channel aquaporin 5. It has also been detected in acinar cells and duct cells of subepithelial glands and in the supporting cells of sensory epithelia. In contrast, ANO 2 expression is restricted to chemosensory neurons in which it has been detected in microvillar and ciliary surface structures. The different expression patterns of ANO 1 and ANO 2 have been observed in the olfactory, vomeronasal and respiratory epithelia. No expression has been detected in the Grueneberg ganglion or trigeminal sensory fibers. On the basis of this differential expression, we derive the main functional features of ANO 1 and ANO 2 chloride channels in the nose and suggest their significance for nasal physiology.

The wiring of Grueneberg ganglion axons is dependent on neuropilin 1

The Grueneberg ganglion is a specialized olfactory sensor. In mice, its activation induces freezing behavior. The topographical map corresponding to the central projections of its sensory axons is poorly defined, as well as the guidance molecules involved in its establishment. We took a transgenic approach to label exclusively Grueneberg sensory neurons and their axonal projections. We observed that a stereotyped convergence map in a series of coalescent neuropil-rich structures is already present at birth. These structures are part of a peculiar and complex neuronal circuit, composed of a chain of glomeruli organized in a necklace pattern that entirely surrounds the trunk of the olfactory bulb. We found that the necklace chain is composed of two different sets of glomeruli: one exclusively innervated by Grueneberg ganglion neurons, the other by axonal inputs from the main olfactory neuroepithelium. Combining the transgenic Grueneberg reporter mouse with a conditional null genetic approach, we then show that the axonal wiring of Grueneberg neurons is dependent on neuropilin 1 expression. Neuropilin 1-deficient Grueneberg axonal projections lose their strict and characteristic avoidance of vomeronasal glomeruli, glomeruli that are innervated by secondary neurons expressing the repulsive guidance cue and main neuropilin 1 ligand Sema3a. Taken together, our observations represent a first step in the understanding of the circuitry and the coding strategy used by the Grueneberg system.

Electrophysiological characterization of Grueneberg ganglion olfactory neurons: spontaneous firing, sodium conductance, and hyperpolarization-activated currents

Mammals rely on their acute olfactory sense for their survival. The most anterior olfactory subsystem in the nose, the Grueneberg ganglion (GG), plays a role in detecting alarm pheromone, cold, and urinary compounds. GG neurons respond homogeneously to these stimuli with increases in intracellular [Ca(2+)] or transcription of immediate-early genes. In this electrophysiological study, we used patch-clamp techniques to characterize the membrane properties of GG neurons. Our results offer evidence of functional heterogeneity in the GG. GG neurons fire spontaneously and independently in several stable patterns, including phasic and repetitive single-spike modes of discharge. Whole cell recordings demonstrated two distinct voltage-gated fast-inactivating Na(+) currents with different steady-state voltage dependencies and different sensitivities to tetrodotoxin. Hodgkin-Huxley simulations showed that these Na(+) currents confer dual mechanisms of action potential generation and contribute to different firing patterns. Additionally, GG neurons exhibited hyperpolarization-activated inward currents that modulated spontaneous firing in vitro. Thus, in GG neurons, the heterogeneity of firing patterns is linked to the unusual repertoire of ionic currents. The membrane properties described here will aid the interpretation of chemosensory function in the GG.

Chemo- and thermosensory responsiveness of Grueneberg ganglion neurons relies on cyclic guanosine monophosphate signaling elements

Neurons of the Grueneberg ganglion (GG) in the anterior nasal region of mouse pups respond to cool temperatures and to a small set of odorants. While the thermosensory reactivity appears to be mediated by elements of a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) cascade, the molecular mechanisms underlying the odor-induced responses are unclear. Since odor-responsive GG cells are endowed with elements of a cGMP pathway, specifically the transmembrane guanylyl cyclase subtype GC-G and the cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel CNGA3, the possibility was explored whether these cGMP signaling elements may also be involved in chemosensory GG responses. Experiments with transgenic mice deficient for GC-G or CNGA3 revealed that GG responsiveness to given odorants was significantly diminished in these knockout animals. These findings suggest that a cGMP cascade may be important for both olfactory and thermosensory signaling in the GG. However, in contrast to the thermosensory reactivity, which did not decline over time, the chemosensory response underwent adaptation upon extended stimulation, suggesting that the two transduction processes only partially overlap.