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Wang X, Zhang J, Liu M, Guo Y, Guo P, Yang X, Shang B, Li M, Tian J, Zhang T, Wang X, Jin R, Zhou J, Gao GF, Liu J. Nonconserved epitopes dominate reverse preexisting T cell immunity in COVID-19 convalescents. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:160. [PMID: 38866784 PMCID: PMC11169541 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01876-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The herd immunity against SARS-CoV-2 is continuously consolidated across the world during the ongoing pandemic. However, the potential function of the nonconserved epitopes in the reverse preexisting cross-reactivity induced by SARS-CoV-2 to other human coronaviruses is not well explored. In our research, we assessed T cell responses to both conserved and nonconserved peptides shared by SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, identifying cross-reactive CD8+ T cell epitopes using enzyme-linked immunospot and intracellular cytokine staining assays. Then, in vitro refolding and circular dichroism were performed to evaluate the thermal stability of the HLA/peptide complexes. Lastly, single-cell T cell receptor reservoir was analyzed based on tetramer staining. Here, we discovered that cross-reactive T cells targeting SARS-CoV were present in individuals who had recovered from COVID-19, and identified SARS-CoV-2 CD8+ T cell epitopes spanning the major structural antigens. T cell responses induced by the nonconserved peptides between SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV were higher and played a dominant role in the cross-reactivity in COVID-19 convalescents. Cross-T cell reactivity was also observed within the identified series of CD8+ T cell epitopes. For representative immunodominant peptide pairs, although the HLA binding capacities for peptides from SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV were similar, the TCR repertoires recognizing these peptides were distinct. Our results could provide beneficial information for the development of peptide-based universal vaccines against coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, China
- Beijing Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing, 100015, China
- National Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, P.R. China
| | - Maoshun Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Yuanyuan Guo
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Peipei Guo
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Xiaonan Yang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Bingli Shang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Min Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Jinmin Tian
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
- School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Regenerative Medicine and Medical BioResource Development and Application Co-constructed by the Province and Ministry, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Xi Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, China
- Beijing Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing, 100015, China
- National Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, P.R. China
| | - Ronghua Jin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, China
- Beijing Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing, 100015, China
- National Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100015, P.R. China
| | - Jikun Zhou
- Shijiazhuang Fifth Hospital, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China.
| | - George F Gao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China.
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100101, China.
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Jun Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Research Unit of Adaptive Evolution and Control of Emerging Viruses, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, 102206, China.
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China.
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2
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Salazar S, Luong KTY, Koyuncu OO. Cell Intrinsic Determinants of Alpha Herpesvirus Latency and Pathogenesis in the Nervous System. Viruses 2023; 15:2284. [PMID: 38140525 PMCID: PMC10747186 DOI: 10.3390/v15122284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Alpha herpesvirus infections (α-HVs) are widespread, affecting more than 70% of the adult human population. Typically, the infections start in the mucosal epithelia, from which the viral particles invade the axons of the peripheral nervous system. In the nuclei of the peripheral ganglia, α-HVs establish a lifelong latency and eventually undergo multiple reactivation cycles. Upon reactivation, viral progeny can move into the nerves, back out toward the periphery where they entered the organism, or they can move toward the central nervous system (CNS). This latency-reactivation cycle is remarkably well controlled by the intricate actions of the intrinsic and innate immune responses of the host, and finely counteracted by the viral proteins in an effort to co-exist in the population. If this yin-yang- or Nash-equilibrium-like balance state is broken due to immune suppression or genetic mutations in the host response factors particularly in the CNS, or the presence of other pathogenic stimuli, α-HV reactivations might lead to life-threatening pathologies. In this review, we will summarize the molecular virus-host interactions starting from mucosal epithelia infections leading to the establishment of latency in the PNS and to possible CNS invasion by α-HVs, highlighting the pathologies associated with uncontrolled virus replication in the NS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Orkide O. Koyuncu
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine and Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; (S.S.); (K.T.Y.L.)
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3
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Waisner H, Lasnier S, Suma SM, Kalamvoki M. Effects on exocytosis by two HSV-1 mutants unable to block autophagy. J Virol 2023; 97:e0075723. [PMID: 37712703 PMCID: PMC10617559 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00757-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Pathogens often hijack extracellular vesicle (EV) biogenesis pathways for assembly, egress, and cell-to-cell spread. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection stimulated EV biogenesis through a CD63 tetraspanin biogenesis pathway and these EVs activated antiviral responses in recipient cells restricting the infection. HSV-1 inhibits autophagy to evade the host, and increased CD63 exocytosis could be a coping mechanism, as CD63 is involved in both cargo delivery to lysosomes during autophagy and exocytosis. We analyzed exocytosis after infection with two HSV-1 mutants, a ΔICP34.5 and a ΔICP0, that could not inhibit autophagy. Unlike HSV-1(F), neither of these viruses stimulated increased EV biogenesis through the CD63 pathway. ΔICP34.5 stimulated production of microvesicles and apoptotic bodies that were CD63-negative, while ΔICP0 displayed an overall reduced production of EVs. These EVs activated innate immunity gene expression in recipient cells. Given the potential use of these mutants for therapeutic purposes, the immunomodulatory properties of EVs associated with them may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope Waisner
- Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Sarah Lasnier
- Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Sreenath Muraleedharan Suma
- Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Maria Kalamvoki
- Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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4
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Marino-Merlo F, Klett A, Papaianni E, Drago SFA, Macchi B, Rincón MG, Andreola F, Serafino A, Grelli S, Mastino A, Borner C. Caspase-8 is required for HSV-1-induced apoptosis and promotes effective viral particle release via autophagy inhibition. Cell Death Differ 2022; 30:885-896. [PMID: 36418547 PMCID: PMC10070401 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-022-01084-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractRegulated cell death (RCD) plays an important role in the progression of viral replication and particle release in cells infected by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1). However, the kind of RCD (apoptosis, necroptosis, others) and the resulting cytopathic effect of HSV-1 depends on the cell type and the species. In this study, we further investigated the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis induced by HSV-1. Although a role of caspase-8 has previously been suggested, we now clearly show that caspase-8 is required for HSV-1-induced apoptosis in a FADD-/death receptor-independent manner in both mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEF) and human monocytes (U937). While wild-type (wt) MEFs and U937 cells exhibited increased caspase-8 and caspase-3 activation and apoptosis after HSV-1 infection, respective caspase-8-deficient (caspase-8−/−) cells were largely impeded in any of these effects. Unexpectedly, caspase-8−/− MEF and U937 cells also showed less virus particle release associated with increased autophagy as evidenced by higher Beclin-1 and lower p62/SQSTM1 levels and increased LC3-I to LC3-II conversion. Confocal and electron microscopy revealed that HSV-1 stimulated a strong perinuclear multivesicular body response, resembling increased autophagy in caspase-8−/− cells, entrapping virions in cellular endosomes. Pharmacological inhibition of autophagy by wortmannin restored the ability of caspase-8−/− cells to release viral particles in similar amounts as in wt cells. Altogether our results support a non-canonical role of caspase-8 in both HSV-1-induced apoptosis and viral particle release through autophagic regulation.
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5
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Alefishat E, Jelinek HF, Mousa M, Tay GK, Alsafar HS. Immune response to SARS-CoV-2 Variants: A focus on severity, susceptibility, and preexisting immunity. J Infect Public Health 2022; 15:277-288. [PMID: 35074728 PMCID: PMC8757655 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneous phenotypes among patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has drawn worldwide attention, especially those with severe symptoms without comorbid conditions. Immune responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative virus of COVID-19, occur mainly by the innate immune response via the interferon (IFN)-mediated pathways, and the adaptive immunity via the T lymphocyte and the antibody mediated pathways. The ability of the original Wuhan SARS-CoV-2 strain, and possibly more so with new emerging variants, to antagonize IFN-mediated antiviral responses can be behind the higher early viral load, higher transmissibility, and milder symptoms compared to SARS-CoV and are part of the continued clinical evolution of COVID-19. Since it first emerged, several variants of SARS-CoV-2 have been circulating worldwide. Variants that have the potential to elude natural or vaccine-mediated immunity are variants of concern. This review focuses on the main host factors that may explain the immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 and its variants in the context of susceptibility, severity, and preexisting immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman Alefishat
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biopharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Herbert F Jelinek
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Center of Heath Engineering Innovation, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mira Mousa
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproduction Health, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Guan K Tay
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Discipline of Psychiatry, Medical School, the University of Western Australia, Perth WA, Australia; School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Habiba S Alsafar
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Emirates Bio-Research Center, Ministry of Interior, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
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6
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Brinck Andersen NS, Jørgensen SE, Skipper KA, Larsen SM, Heinz J, Thomsen MM, Farahani E, Cai Y, Hait AS, Kay L, Giehm Mikkelsen J, Høgsbjerg Schleimann M, Thomsen MK, Paludan SR, Mogensen TH. Essential role of autophagy in restricting poliovirus infection revealed by identification of an ATG7 defect in a poliomyelitis patient. Autophagy 2021; 17:2449-2464. [PMID: 33016799 PMCID: PMC8496727 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1831800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Paralytic poliomyelitis is a rare disease manifestation following poliovirus (PV) infection. The disease determinants remain largely unknown. We used whole exome sequencing to uncover possible contributions of host genetics to the development of disease outcome in humans with poliomyelitis. We identified a patient with a variant in ATG7, an important regulatory gene in the macroautophagy/autophagy pathway. PV infection did not induce a prominent type I interferon response, but rather activated autophagy in neuronal-like cells, and this was essential for viral control. Importantly, virus-induced autophagy was impaired in patient fibroblasts and associated with increased viral burden and enhanced cell death following infection. Lack of ATG7 prevented control of infection in neuronal-like cells, and reconstitution of patient cells with wild-type ATG7 reestablished autophagy-mediated control of infection. Collectively, these data suggest that ATG7 defect contributes to host susceptibility to PV infection and propose autophagy as an unappreciated antiviral effector in viral infection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanna-Sophie Brinck Andersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Sofie Eg Jørgensen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | | | - Simon Müller Larsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Johanna Heinz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Michelle Mølgaard Thomsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ensieh Farahani
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Yujia Cai
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Alon Schneider Hait
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Lise Kay
- Department of poliomyelitis survivors, Specialhospitalet, Værløse, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | | - Trine H. Mogensen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus N, Denmark
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7
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Zhang SY, Harschnitz O, Studer L, Casanova JL. Neuron-intrinsic immunity to viruses in mice and humans. Curr Opin Immunol 2021; 72:309-317. [PMID: 34425410 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Viral encephalitis is a major neglected medical problem. Host defense mechanisms against viral infection of the central nervous system (CNS) have long remained unclear. The few previous studies of CNS-specific immunity to viruses in mice in vivo and humans in vitro have focused on the contributions of circulating leukocytes, resident microglial cells and astrocytes, with neurons long considered passive victims of viral infection requiring protection from extrinsic antiviral mechanisms. The last decade has witnessed the gradual emergence of the notion that neurons also combat viruses through cell-intrinsic mechanisms. Forward genetic approaches in humans have shown that monogenic inborn errors of TLR3, IFN-α/β, or snoRNA31 immunity confer susceptibility to herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection of the forebrain, whereas inborn errors of DBR1 underlie brainstem infections due to various viruses, including HSV-1. The study of human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived CNS-resident cells has unraveled known (i.e. TLR3-dependent IFN-α/β immunity) and new (i.e. snoRNA31-dependent or DBR1-dependent immunity) cell-intrinsic antiviral mechanisms operating in neurons. Reverse genetic approaches in mice have confirmed that some known antiviral mechanisms also operate in mouse neurons (e.g. TLR3 and IFN-α/β immunity). The search for human inborn errors of immunity (IEIs) underlying various forms of viral encephalitis, coupled with mouse models in vivo, and hPSC-based culture models of CNS and peripheral nervous system cells and organoids in vitro, should shed further light on the cell-specific and tissue-specific mechanisms of host defense against viruses in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen-Ying Zhang
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Paris, France; University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France.
| | - Oliver Harschnitz
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA; Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenz Studer
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA; Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Paris, France; University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, NY, USA
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8
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Thomsen MM, Tyrberg T, Skaalum K, Carter-Timofte M, Freytag MR, Norberg P, Helleberg M, Storgaard M, Nielsen H, Bodilsen J, Grahn A, Mogensen T. Genetic variants and immune responses in a cohort of patients with varicella zoster virus encephalitis. J Infect Dis 2021; 224:2122-2132. [PMID: 33974706 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiab254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV) may involve different central nervous system (CNS) manifestations, including meningitis, encephalitis, and vasculitis. In cases where otherwise healthy individuals are affected, an inborn error of immunity may underlie increased susceptibility or severity of infection. METHODS We collected a cohort of 17 adults who experienced VZV encephalitis and performed whole exome sequencing. Patient PBMCs were infected with VZV and innate antiviral interferon and cytokine responses as well as viral replication was evaluated. Data were analyzed by Mann Whitney U test. RESULTS We identified a total of 21 different potentially disease-causing variants in a total of 13 of the 17 patients included. These gene variants were within two major functional clusters: i) innate viral sensors and immune pathways and ii) autophagy pathways. Antiviral interferon (IFN) and cytokine responses were abnormal in the majority of patients, whereas viral replication was increased in only 2/17. CONCLUSION This study identifies a list of variants of pathogenic potential, which may serve as a platform for generating hypotheses for future studies addressing genetic and immunological factors associated with susceptibility to VZV encephalitis. Collectively, these data suggest that disturbances in innate sensing and autophagy pathways may predispose to VZV encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Thomsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Tobias Tyrberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kristoffer Skaalum
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Mette R Freytag
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Peter Norberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marie Helleberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Merete Storgaard
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Henrik Nielsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aalborg University Hospital, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Denmark
| | - Jacob Bodilsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aalborg University Hospital, Denmark
| | - Anna Grahn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Trine Mogensen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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9
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A preliminary investigation on the mechanism of action of 4-(8-(2-ethylimidazole)octyloxy)-arctigenin against IHNV. Virus Res 2021; 294:198287. [PMID: 33418024 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Arctigenin derivatives form an elite class of naturally occurring compounds that possess promising antiviral therapeutic perspectives. In a previous study, we design and synthesize a arctigenin derivative, 4-(8-(2-ethylimidazole)octyloxy)-arctigenin (EOA), to evaluate its antiviral activity on infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). In this study, we find that the half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of EOA on IHNV nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), nonvirion protein (NV) and polymerase (L) mRNA expression is 0.92, 0.80, 0.98, 0.89 and 0.87 μM, respectively. Mechanistically, our results show that EOA do not damage the viral particles directly, indicating EOA does not possess antiviral activity by destroying virions. Viral binding assays reveal that EOA do not interfere with IHNV adsorption. Because rapamycin has been shown to exhibit anti-IHNV activity by inducing autophagy of epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells, we further investigate the relationship between EOA and autophagy in EPC cells. Autophagy fluorescence detection shows that EPC cells have a strong autophagy body after being treated with derivative EOA. The electron microscopy results show that EOA could induce typical autophagosomes which are representative structures of autophagy activation. Moreover, the punctate accumulation of green fluorescence-tagged microtubule-associate protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) and the protein conversion from LC3-I to LC3-II are respectively confirmed by confocal fluorescence microscopy and western blotting. Overall, these findings demonstrate that EOA plays an anti-IHNV role via inducing autophagy in EPC cells.
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10
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Zimmermann C, Krämer N, Krauter S, Strand D, Sehn E, Wolfrum U, Freiwald A, Butter F, Plachter B. Autophagy interferes with human cytomegalovirus genome replication, morphogenesis, and progeny release. Autophagy 2020; 17:779-795. [PMID: 32079454 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1732686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections are often accompanied by the induction of autophagy as an intrinsic cellular defense mechanism. Herpesviruses have developed strategies to evade autophagic degradation and to manipulate autophagy of the host cells to their benefit. Here we addressed the role of macroautophagy/autophagy in human cytomegalovirus replication and for particle morphogenesis. We found that proteins of the autophagy machinery localize to cytoplasmic viral assembly compartments and enveloped virions in the cytoplasm. Surprisingly, the autophagy receptor SQSTM1/p62 was also found to colocalize with HCMV capsids in the nucleus of infected cells. This finding indicates that the autophagy machinery interacts with HCMV already at the early nuclear stages of particle morphogenesis. The membrane-bound form of LC3 and several autophagy receptors were packaged into extracellular HCMV virions. This suggested that autophagic membranes were included during secondary envelopment of HCMV virions. To further address the importance of autophagy in HCMV infection, we generated an HCMV mutant that expressed a dominant-negative version of the protease ATG4B (BAD-ATG4BC74A). The proteolytic activity of ATG4B is required for LC3 cleavage, priming it for membrane conjugation. Surprisingly, both genome replication and virus release were enhanced in cells infected with BAD-ATG4BC74A, compared to control strains. These results show that autophagy operates as an antiviral process during HCMV infection but is dispensable for secondary HCMV particle envelopment.Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy-related; BAC: bacterial artificial chromosome; BECN1: beclin 1; CPE: cytopathic effect; cVACs: cytoplasmic viral assembly compartments; d.p.i.: days post-infection; DB: dense body; EBV: Epstein-Barr virus; galK: galactokinase; HCMV: human cytomegalovirus; HFF: human foreskin fibroblasts; IE: immediate-early; IRS: internal repeat short; LC3: MAP1LC3A/B; m.o.i.; multiplicity of infection; MCP: major capsid protein; Pp: phosphoprotein; sCP/UL48a: smallest capsid protein; TRS: terminal repeat short; UL: unique long; US: unique short.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Zimmermann
- Institute for Virology , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Nadine Krämer
- Institute for Virology , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Steffi Krauter
- Institute for Virology , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Dennis Strand
- I. Medical Clinic, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Sehn
- Institute of Molecular Physiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Uwe Wolfrum
- Institute of Molecular Physiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Anja Freiwald
- Institute for Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Falk Butter
- Institute for Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Bodo Plachter
- Institute for Virology , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany.,Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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11
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Kobayashi S, Yoshii K, Phongphaew W, Muto M, Hirano M, Orba Y, Sawa H, Kariwa H. West Nile virus capsid protein inhibits autophagy by AMP-activated protein kinase degradation in neurological disease development. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008238. [PMID: 31971978 PMCID: PMC6977728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) belongs to the Flaviviridae family and has emerged as a significant cause of viral encephalitis in birds and animals including humans. WNV replication directly induces neuronal injury, followed by neuronal cell death. We previously showed that accumulation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates was involved in neuronal cell death in the WNV-infected mouse brain. In this study, we attempted to elucidate the mechanisms of the accumulation of protein aggregates in the WNV-infected cells. To identify the viral factor inducing the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins, intracellular accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins was examined in the cells expressing the viral protein. Expression of capsid (C) protein induced the accumulation, while mutations at residues L51 and A52 in C protein abrogated the accumulation. Wild-type (WT) or mutant WNV in which mutations were introduced into the residues was inoculated into human neuroblastoma cells. The expression levels of LC3-II, an autophagy-related protein, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an autophagy inducer, were reduced in the cells infected with WT WNV, while the reduction was not observed in the cells infected with WNV with the mutations in C protein. Similarly, ubiquitination and degradation of AMPK were only observed in the cells infected with WT WNV. In the cells expressing C protein, AMPK was co-precipitated with C protein and mutations in L51 and A52 reduced the interaction. Although the viral replication was not affected, the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in brain and neurological symptoms were attenuated in the mouse inoculated with WNV with the mutations in C protein as compared with that with WT WNV. Taken together, ubiquitination and degradation of AMPK by C protein resulted in the inhibition of autophagy and the accumulation of protein aggregates, which contributes to the development of neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Kentaro Yoshii
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Wallaya Phongphaew
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Memi Muto
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Minato Hirano
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yasuko Orba
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Sawa
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hiroaki Kariwa
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
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12
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The ICP0 Protein of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) Downregulates Major Autophagy Adaptor Proteins Sequestosome 1 and Optineurin during the Early Stages of HSV-1 Infection. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01258-19. [PMID: 31375597 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01258-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infects mucosal epithelial cells and establishes lifelong infections in sensory neurons. Following reactivation, the virus is transferred anterograde to the initial site of infection or to sites innervated by infected neurons, causing vesicular lesions. Upon immunosuppression, frequent HSV-1 reactivation can cause severe diseases, such as blindness and encephalitis. Autophagy is a process whereby cell components are recycled, but it also serves as a defense mechanism against pathogens. HSV-1 is known to combat autophagy through the functions of the γ134.5 protein, which prevents formation of the autophagophore by binding to Beclin 1, a key factor involved in the elongation of the isolation membrane, and by redirecting the protein phosphatase 1α (PP1α) to dephosphorylate the translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) to prevent host translational shutoff. Other viral proteins that counteract innate immunity negatively impact autophagy. Here, we present a novel strategy of HSV-1 to evade the host through the downregulation of the autophagy adaptor protein sequestosome (p62/SQSTM1) and of the mitophagy adaptor optineurin (OPTN). This down-modulation occurs during the early steps of the infection. We also found that infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) of the virus mediates the down-modulation of the two autophagy adaptors in a mechanism independent of its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. Cells depleted of either p62 or OPTN were able to mount greater antiviral responses, whereas cells expressing exogenous p62 displayed decreased virus yields. We conclude that downregulation of p62/SQSTM1 and OPTN is a viral strategy to counteract the host.IMPORTANCE Autophagy is a homeostatic mechanism of cells to recycle components, as well as a defense mechanism to get rid of pathogens. Strategies that HSV-1 has developed to counteract autophagy have been described and involve inhibition of autophagosome formation or indirect mechanisms. Here, we present a novel mechanism that involves downregulation of two major autophagy adaptor proteins, sequestosome 1 (p62/SQSTM1) and optineurin (OPTN). These findings generate the question of why the virus targets two major autophagy adaptors if it has mechanisms to block autophagosome formation. P62/SQSTM1 and OPTN proteins have pleiotropic functions, including regulation of innate immunity, inflammation, protein sorting, and chromatin remodeling. The decrease in virus yields in the presence of exogenous p62/SQSTM1 suggests that these adaptors have an antiviral function. Thus, HSV-1 may have developed multiple strategies to incapacitate autophagy to ensure replication. Alternatively, the virus may target another antiviral function of these proteins.
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Wang J, Chen X, Osland J, Gerber SJ, Luan C, Delfino K, Goodwin L, Yuan R. Deletion of Nrip1 Extends Female Mice Longevity, Increases Autophagy, and Delays Cell Senescence. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2019; 73:882-892. [PMID: 29346516 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glx257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Using age of female sexual maturation as a biomarker, we previously identified nuclear receptor interacting protein 1 (Nrip1) as a candidate gene that may regulate aging and longevity. In the current report, we found that the deletion of Nrip1 can significantly extend longevity of female mice (log-rank test, p = .0004). We also found that Nrip1 expression is altered differently in various tissues during aging and under diet restriction. Remarkably, Nrip1 expression is elevated with aging in visceral white adipose tissue (WAT), but significantly reduced after 4 months of diet restriction. However, in gastrocnemius muscle, Nrip1 expression is significantly upregulated after the diet restriction. In mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we found that the deletion of Nrip1 can suppress fibroblast proliferation, enhance autophagy under normal culture or amino acid starvation conditions, as well as delay oxidative and replicative senescence. Importantly, in WAT of old animals, the deletion of the Nrip could significantly upregulate autophagy and reduce the number of senescent cells. These results suggest that deleting Nrip1 can extend female longevity, but tissue-specific deletion may have varying effects on health span. The deletion of Nrip1 in WAT may delay senescence in WAT and extend health span.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyu Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, P. R. China.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
| | - Xundi Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield.,Department of Molecular Biology, Microbiology and Biochemistry, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
| | - Jared Osland
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
| | - Skyler J Gerber
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield.,Department of Molecular Biology, Microbiology and Biochemistry, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
| | - Chao Luan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield.,Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Institute of Dermatology Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Kristin Delfino
- Department of Surgery, Center for Clinical Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
| | | | - Rong Yuan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield
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14
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Ma W, He H, Wang H. Oncolytic herpes simplex virus and immunotherapy. BMC Immunol 2018; 19:40. [PMID: 30563466 PMCID: PMC6299639 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-018-0281-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oncolytic viruses have been proposed to be employed as a potential treatment of cancer. Well targeted, they will serve the purpose of cracking tumor cells without causing damage to normal cells. In this category of oncolytic viral drugs human pathogens herpes simplex virus (HSV) is especially suitable for the cause. Although most viral infection causes antiviral reaction in the host, HSV has multiple mechanisms to evade those responses. Powerful anti-tumor effect can thus be achieved via genetic manipulation of the HSV genes involved in this evading mechanism, namely deletions or mutations that adapt its function towards a tumor microenvironment. Currently, oncolytic HSV (oHSV) is widely use in clinical; moreover, there's hope that its curative effect will be further enhanced through the combination of oHSV with both traditional and emerging therapeutics. RESULTS In this review, we provide a summary of the HSV host antiviral response evasion mechanism, HSV expresses immune evasion genes such as ICP34.5, ICP0, Us3, which are involved in inducing and activating host responses, so that the virus can evade the immune system and establish effective long-term latent infection; we outlined details of the oHSV strains generated by removing genes critical to viral replication such as ICP34.5, ICP0, and inserting therapeutic genes such as LacZ, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF); security and limitation of some oHSV such G207, 1716, OncoVEX, NV1020, HF10, G47 in clinical application; and the achievements of oHSV combined with immunotherapy and chemotherapy. CONCLUSION We reviewed the immunotherapy mechanism of the oHSV and provided a series of cases. We also pointed out that an in-depth study of the application of oHSV in cancer treatment will potentially benefits cancer patients more.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqing Ma
- Ruminant Diseases Research Center, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Hongbin He
- Ruminant Diseases Research Center, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China.
| | - Hongmei Wang
- Ruminant Diseases Research Center, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China.
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15
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Chen WC, Liu L, Shen YF, Hu Y, Ling F, Wang GX, Zhu B. A new coumarin derivative plays a role in rhabdoviral clearance by interfering glycoprotein function during the early stage of viral infection. Cell Signal 2018; 51:199-210. [PMID: 30102977 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Coumarin forms an elite class of naturally occurring compounds that possess promising antiviral therapeutic perspectives. In this study, a coumarin derivative 7-[6-(2-methylimidazole) hexyloxy] coumarin (D5) was designed and synthesized to evaluate antiviral activity on a rhabdovirus, spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV). Our results demonstrated that D5 had a robust antiviral activity with >90% inhibitory rate of SVCV expression in the host cells. And D5 significantly reduced viral-induced apoptosis and recovered virus-activated caspase-3/8/9 activities. Further data determined that SVCV could alter the cytoskeletal structure of EPC cells, characterized by a circumferential ring of microtubules and a disrupted microfilament organization, whereas cytoskeleton structure in D5-treated cells kept the normal morphology. Mechanistically speaking, D5 could interfere with SVCV replication inside or outside of cells through two different approaches. Before the process of virus entry into EPC cells, D5 had an impact on SVCV glycoprotein structure so as to disrupt viral binding to the cell surface or translocation to the cytosol. Another strategy for D5 to against SVCV was that D5 significantly suppressed SVCV-activated autophagy, which was beneficial for the host cells to restrict SVCV viral replication, accompanied by a higher phosphorylation of Akt-mTOR. In summary, our results revealed that D5 was effective in weakening SVCV infection and regulating SVCV-induced undesirable conditions, and this compound provided new therapeutic implications for the treatment of rhabdoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Chao Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Lei Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biotechnology of Ministry of Education, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Yu-Feng Shen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yang Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Fei Ling
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Gao-Xue Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
| | - Bin Zhu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
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16
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Graybill C, Morgan MJ, Levin MJ, Lee KS. Varicella-zoster virus inhibits autophagosome-lysosome fusion and the degradation stage of mTOR-mediated autophagic flux. Virology 2018; 522:220-227. [PMID: 30053655 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Macroautophagy (herein referred to as autophagy) is a lysosomal degradation mechanism that is important for maintaining homeostasis and for coping with cellular stress such as nutrient deprivation. Previously, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) was reported to modulate the autophagy pathway in the host. However, how VZV affects the autophagy pathway is still unclear. In this study, we examined how wild-type rOka and attenuated vOka strains of cell-associated VZV affect autophagy in MRC-5 fibroblasts by using ratiometric flow cytometry and immunoblotting methods. While VZV does not prevent autophagosome formation, we demonstrate that, particularly when autophagy is upregulated, VZV inhibits late-stage autophagic flux, likely at the point where autophagosomes and lysosomes fuse or where vesicle contents are degraded. Importantly, inhibition of autophagy yields higher VZV titers. These results substantially contribute to the current view of the interaction between VZV and autophagy, and to a better understanding of VZV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiharu Graybill
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.
| | - Michael J Morgan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Myron J Levin
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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17
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Liu Y, Gordesky-Gold B, Leney-Greene M, Weinbren NL, Tudor M, Cherry S. Inflammation-Induced, STING-Dependent Autophagy Restricts Zika Virus Infection in the Drosophila Brain. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:57-68.e3. [PMID: 29934091 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The emerging arthropod-borne flavivirus Zika virus (ZIKV) is associated with neurological complications. Innate immunity is essential for the control of virus infection, but the innate immune mechanisms that impact viral infection of neurons remain poorly defined. Using the genetically tractable Drosophila system, we show that ZIKV infection of the adult fly brain leads to NF-kB-dependent inflammatory signaling, which serves to limit infection. ZIKV-dependent NF-kB activation induces the expression of Drosophila stimulator of interferon genes (dSTING) in the brain. dSTING protects against ZIKV by inducing autophagy in the brain. Loss of autophagy leads to increased ZIKV infection of the brain and death of the infected fly, while pharmacological activation of autophagy is protective. These data suggest an essential role for an inflammation-dependent STING pathway in the control of neuronal infection and a conserved role for STING in antimicrobial autophagy, which may represent an ancestral function for this essential innate immune sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Beth Gordesky-Gold
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Michael Leney-Greene
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Nathan L Weinbren
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Matthew Tudor
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sara Cherry
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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18
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Lee KR, Wakeel A, Chakraborty P, Foote CS, Kajiura L, Barrozo JC, Chan AC, Bazarov AV, Spitler R, Kutny PM, Denegre JM, Taft RA, Seemann J, Rice BW, Contag CH, Rutt BK, Bell CB. Cell Labeling with Magneto-Endosymbionts and the Dissection of the Subcellular Location, Fate, and Host Cell Interactions. Mol Imaging Biol 2018; 20:55-64. [PMID: 28631141 PMCID: PMC5736464 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-017-1094-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purposes of this study are to characterize magneto-endosymbiont (ME) labeling of mammalian cells and to discern the subcellular fate of these living contrast agents. MEs are novel magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents that are being used for cell tracking studies. Understanding the fate of MEs in host cells is valuable for designing in vivo cell tracking experiments. PROCEDURES The ME's surface epitopes, contrast-producing paramagnetic magnetosomal iron, and genome were studied using immunocytochemistry (ICC), Fe and MRI contrast measurements, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), respectively. These assays, coupled with other common assays, enabled validation of ME cell labeling and dissection of ME subcellular processing. RESULTS The assays mentioned above provide qualitative and quantitative assessments of cell labeling, the subcellular localization and the fate of MEs. ICC results, with an ME-specific antibody, qualitatively shows homogenous labeling with MEs. The ferrozine assay shows that MEs have an average of 7 fg Fe/ME, ∼30 % of which contributes to MRI contrast and ME-labeled MDA-MB-231 (MDA-231) cells generally have 2.4 pg Fe/cell, implying ∼350 MEs/cell. Adjusting the concentration of Fe in the ME growth media reduces the concentration of non-MRI contrast-producing Fe. Results from the qPCR assay, which quantifies ME genomes in labeled cells, shows that processing of MEs begins within 24 h in MDA-231 cells. ICC results suggest this intracellular digestion of MEs occurs by the lysosomal degradation pathway. MEs coated with listeriolysin O (LLO) are able to escape the primary phagosome, but subsequently co-localize with LC3, an autophagy-associated molecule, and are processed for digestion. In embryos, where autophagy is transiently suppressed, MEs show an increased capacity for survival and even replication. Finally, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of ME-labeled MDA-231 cells confirms that the magnetosomes (the MRI contrast-producing particles) remain intact and enable in vivo cell tracking. CONCLUSIONS MEs are used to label mammalian cells for the purpose of cell tracking in vivo, with MRI. Various assays described herein (ICC, ferrozine, and qPCR) allow qualitative and quantitative assessments of labeling efficiency and provide a detailed understanding of subcellular processing of MEs. In some cell types, MEs are digested, but the MRI-producing particles remain. Coating with LLO allows MEs to escape the primary phagosome, enhances retention slightly, and confirms that MEs are ultimately processed by autophagy. Numerous intracellular bacteria and all endosymbiotically derived organelles have evolved molecular mechanisms to avoid intracellular clearance, and identification of the specific processes involved in ME clearance provides a framework on which to develop MEs with enhanced retention in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ryan Spitler
- Pediatrics-Neonatology and Molecular Imaging Program (MIPS), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Peter M Kutny
- Microinjection Service, Genetic Engineering Technologies, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | | | - Rob A Taft
- Division of Reproductive Technologies, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | - Joachim Seemann
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | - Christopher H Contag
- Pediatrics-Neonatology and Molecular Imaging Program (MIPS), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Brian K Rutt
- Radiology Department and Molecular Imaging Program (MIPS), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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19
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Shen YF, Liu L, Chen WC, Hu Y, Zhu B, Wang GX. Evaluation on the antiviral activity of arctigenin against spring viraemia of carp virus. AQUACULTURE (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2018; 483:252-262. [PMID: 32287458 PMCID: PMC7126542 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV) causes high morality in several economically important cyprinid fishes, but there is no approved therapy up to now. To address the urgent need for therapeutics to combat SVCV infection, we investigated the anti-SVCV activities of 12 natural compounds and 7 common antiviral agents using epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells in this study. From the 19 compounds, we identified arctigenin (ARG) has the highest inhibition on SVCV replication, with maximum inhibitory percentage on SVCV > 90%. And the 48 h half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of ARG on SVCV glycoprotein and nucleoprotein were 0.29 (0.22-0.39) and 0.35 (0.29-0.41) mg/L respectively. In addition, ARG significantly reduced SVCV-induced apoptosis and recovered SVCV-activated caspase-3/8/9 activity. Further, cellular morphological damage induced by SVCV was blocked by ARG treatment. Mechanistically, ARG did not affect SVCV infectivity. Moreover, ARG could not induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which plays an antiviral role on SVCV. Interestingly, SVCV-induced autophagy which is necessary for virus replication was inhibited by ARG treatment. These results indicated that the inhibition of ARG on SVCV replication was, at least in part, via blocking SVCV-induced autophagy. Taken together, ARG has the potential to work as an agent for protecting economically important fishes against SVCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Feng Shen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Lei Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Wei-Chao Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yang Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Gao-Xue Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Xinong Road 22nd, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
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20
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Lathe R, Darlix JL. Prion Protein PRNP: A New Player in Innate Immunity? The Aβ Connection. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2017; 1:263-275. [PMID: 30480243 PMCID: PMC6159716 DOI: 10.3233/adr-170037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The prion protein PRNP has been centrally implicated in the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), but its normal physiological role remains obscure. We highlight emerging evidence that PRNP displays antimicrobial activity, inhibiting the replication of multiple viruses, and also interacts directly with Alzheimer's disease (AD) amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide whose own antimicrobial role is now increasingly secure. PRNP and Aβ share share membrane-penetrating, nucleic acid binding, and antiviral properties with classical antimicrobial peptides such as LL-37. We discuss findings that binding of abnormal nucleic acids to PRNP leads to oligomerization of the protein, and suggest that this may be an entrapment and sequestration process that contributes to its antimicrobial activity. Some antimicrobial peptides are known to be exploited by infectious agents, and we cover evidence that PRNP is usurped by herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) that has evolved a virus-encoded 'anti-PRNP'.unction. These findings suggest that PRNP, like LL-37 and Aβ, is likely to be a component of the innate immune system, with implications for the pathoetiology of both AD and TSE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lathe
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia
| | - Jean-Luc Darlix
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité 7213, Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
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21
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Shives KD, Tyler KL, Beckham JD. Molecular mechanisms of neuroinflammation and injury during acute viral encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 308:102-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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22
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Tam JM, Mansour MK, Acharya M, Sokolovska A, Timmons AK, Lacy-Hulbert A, Vyas JM. The Role of Autophagy-Related Proteins in Candida albicans Infections. Pathogens 2016; 5:E34. [PMID: 27043636 PMCID: PMC4931385 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens5020034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy plays an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis by providing nutrients during periods of starvation and removing damaged organelles from the cytoplasm. A marker in the autophagic process is the reversible conjugation of LC3, a membrane scaffolding protein, to double membrane autophagosomes. Recently, a role for LC3 in the elimination of pathogenic bacteria and fungi, including Candida albicans (C. albicans), was demonstrated, but these organisms reside in single membrane phagosomes. This process is distinct from autophagy and is termed LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP). This review will detail the hallmarks of LAP that distinguish it from classical autophagy and review the role of autophagy proteins in host response to C. albicans and other pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny M Tam
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Michael K Mansour
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Mridu Acharya
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
| | - Anna Sokolovska
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Allison K Timmons
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Adam Lacy-Hulbert
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
| | - Jatin M Vyas
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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23
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Abstract
More than 50% of the U.S. population is infected with herpes simplex virus type-I (HSV-1) and global infectious estimates are nearly 90%. HSV-1 is normally seen as a harmless virus but debilitating diseases can arise, including encephalitis and ocular diseases. HSV-1 is unique in that it can undermine host defenses and establish lifelong infection in neurons. Viral reactivation from latency may allow HSV-1 to lay siege to the brain (Herpes encephalitis). Recent advances maintain that HSV-1 proteins act to suppress and/or control the lysosome-dependent degradation pathway of macroautophagy (hereafter autophagy) and consequently, in neurons, may be coupled with the advancement of HSV-1-associated pathogenesis. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that HSV-1 infection may constitute a gradual risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders. The relationship between HSV-1 infection and autophagy manipulation combined with neuropathogenesis may be intimately intertwined demanding further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas O'Connell
- a Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , Keck Medical School, University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Chengyu Liang
- a Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , Keck Medical School, University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
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24
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Dheilly NM, Maure F, Ravallec M, Galinier R, Doyon J, Duval D, Leger L, Volkoff AN, Missé D, Nidelet S, Demolombe V, Brodeur J, Gourbal B, Thomas F, Mitta G. Who is the puppet master? Replication of a parasitic wasp-associated virus correlates with host behaviour manipulation. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142773. [PMID: 25673681 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Many parasites modify their host behaviour to improve their own transmission and survival, but the proximate mechanisms remain poorly understood. An original model consists of the parasitoid Dinocampus coccinellae and its coccinellid host, Coleomegilla maculata; during the behaviour manipulation, the parasitoid is not in contact with its host anymore. We report herein the discovery and characterization of a new RNA virus of the parasitoid (D. coccinellae paralysis virus, DcPV). Using a combination of RT-qPCR and transmission electron microscopy, we demonstrate that DcPV is stored in the oviduct of parasitoid females, replicates in parasitoid larvae and is transmitted to the host during larval development. Next, DcPV replication in the host's nervous tissue induces a severe neuropathy and antiviral immune response that correlate with the paralytic symptoms characterizing the behaviour manipulation. Remarkably, virus clearance correlates with recovery of normal coccinellid behaviour. These results provide evidence that changes in ladybeetle behaviour most likely result from DcPV replication in the cerebral ganglia rather than by manipulation by the parasitoid. This offers stimulating prospects for research on parasitic manipulation by suggesting for the first time that behaviour manipulation could be symbiont-mediated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolwenn M Dheilly
- UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan 66860, France MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS/IRD/UM1/UM2 5290), 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, Montpellier Cedex 5 34394, France
| | - Fanny Maure
- MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS/IRD/UM1/UM2 5290), 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, Montpellier Cedex 5 34394, France Département de Sciences Biologiques, Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, 4101 rue Sherbrooke est, Montréal, Québec, Canada H1X 2B2
| | - Marc Ravallec
- INRA (UMR 1333), 'Insect-Microorganisms Diversity, Genomes and Interactions', Université de Montpellier 2, Place Eugène Bataillon, CC101, Montpellier Cedex 34095, France
| | - Richard Galinier
- UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan 66860, France
| | - Josée Doyon
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, 4101 rue Sherbrooke est, Montréal, Québec, Canada H1X 2B2
| | - David Duval
- UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan 66860, France
| | - Lucas Leger
- MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS/IRD/UM1/UM2 5290), 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, Montpellier Cedex 5 34394, France
| | - Anne-Nathalie Volkoff
- INRA (UMR 1333), 'Insect-Microorganisms Diversity, Genomes and Interactions', Université de Montpellier 2, Place Eugène Bataillon, CC101, Montpellier Cedex 34095, France
| | - Dorothée Missé
- MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS/IRD/UM1/UM2 5290), 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, Montpellier Cedex 5 34394, France
| | - Sabine Nidelet
- Montpellier Genomics and Bioinformatics Facility, MGX-Montpellier GenomiX, Montpellier 34396, France
| | - Vincent Demolombe
- Montpellier Genomics and Bioinformatics Facility, MGX-Montpellier GenomiX, Montpellier 34396, France
| | - Jacques Brodeur
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, 4101 rue Sherbrooke est, Montréal, Québec, Canada H1X 2B2
| | - Benjamin Gourbal
- UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan 66860, France
| | - Frédéric Thomas
- MIVEGEC (UMR CNRS/IRD/UM1/UM2 5290), 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, Montpellier Cedex 5 34394, France
| | - Guillaume Mitta
- UMR 5244, Ecologie et Evolution des Interactions (2EI), CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan 66860, France
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25
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Honnold SP, Mossel EC, Bakken RR, Lind CM, Cohen JW, Eccleston LT, Spurgers KB, Erwin-Cohen R, Glass PJ, Maheshwari RK. Eastern equine encephalitis virus in mice II: pathogenesis is dependent on route of exposure. Virol J 2015; 12:154. [PMID: 26423229 PMCID: PMC4589026 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0385-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is an alphavirus with a case fatality rate estimated to be as high as 75 % in humans and 90 % in horses. Surviving patients often have long-lasting and severe neurological sequelae. At present, there is no licensed vaccine or therapeutic for EEEV infection. This study completes the clinical and pathological analysis of mice infected with a North American strain of EEEV by three different routes: aerosol, intranasal, and subcutaneous. Such an understanding is imperative for use of the mouse model in vaccine and antiviral drug development. METHODS Twelve-week-old female BALB/c mice were infected with EEEV strain FL93-939 by the intranasal, aerosol, or subcutaneous route. Mice were euthanized 6 hpi through 8 dpi and tissues were harvested for histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS Viral antigen was detected in the olfactory bulb as early as 1-2 dpi in aerosol and intranasal infected mice. However, histologic lesions in the brain were evident about 24 hours earlier (3 dpi vs 4 dpi), and were more pronounced following aerosol infection relative to intranasal infection. Following subcutaneous infection, viral antigen was also detected in the olfactory bulb, though not as routinely or as early. Significant histologic lesions were not observed until 6 dpi. CONCLUSION These pathologic studies suggest EEEV enters the brain through the olfactory system when mice are exposed via the intranasal and aerosol routes. In contrast, the histopathologic lesions were delayed in the subcutaneous group and it appears the virus may utilize both the vascular and olfactory routes to enter the brain when mice are exposed to EEEV subcutaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley P Honnold
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
| | - Eric C Mossel
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Russell R Bakken
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Cathleen M Lind
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Jeffrey W Cohen
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Lori T Eccleston
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Kevin B Spurgers
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Rebecca Erwin-Cohen
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Pamela J Glass
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Radha K Maheshwari
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
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26
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Bílý T, Palus M, Eyer L, Elsterová J, Vancová M, Růžek D. Electron Tomography Analysis of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Infection in Human Neurons. Sci Rep 2015; 5:10745. [PMID: 26073783 PMCID: PMC4466586 DOI: 10.1038/srep10745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes serious, potentially fatal neurological infections that affect humans in endemic regions of Europe and Asia. Neurons are the primary target for TBEV infection in the central nervous system. However, knowledge about this viral infection and virus-induced neuronal injury is fragmental. Here, we directly examined the pathology that occurs after TBEV infection in human primary neurons. We exploited the advantages of advanced high-pressure freezing and freeze-substitution techniques to achieve optimal preservation of infected cell architecture. Electron tomographic (ET) reconstructions elucidated high-resolution 3D images of the proliferating endoplasmic reticulum, and individual tubule-like structures of different diameters in the endoplasmic reticulum cisternae of single cells. ET revealed direct connections between the tubule-like structures and viral particles in the endoplasmic reticulum. Furthermore, ET showed connections between cellular microtubules and vacuoles that harbored the TBEV virions in neuronal extensions. This study was the first to characterize the 3D topographical organization of membranous whorls and autophagic vacuoles in TBEV-infected human neurons. The functional importance of autophagy during TBEV replication was studied in human neuroblastoma cells; stimulation of autophagy resulted in significantly increased dose-dependent TBEV production, whereas the inhibition of autophagy showed a profound, dose-dependent decrease of the yield of infectious virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Bílý
- 1] Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [2] Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Palus
- 1] Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [2] Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [3] Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Luděk Eyer
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Elsterová
- 1] Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [2] Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [3] Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Vancová
- 1] Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [2] Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Růžek
- 1] Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [2] Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [3] Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
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27
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Rosato PC, Leib DA. Neurons versus herpes simplex virus: the innate immune interactions that contribute to a host-pathogen standoff. Future Virol 2015; 10:699-714. [PMID: 26213562 PMCID: PMC4508759 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.15.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a prevalent neurotropic virus, which establishes lifelong latent infections in the neurons of sensory ganglia. Despite our long-standing knowledge that HSV predominately infects sensory neurons during its life cycle, little is known about the neuronal antiviral response to HSV infection. Recent studies show that while sensory neurons have impaired intrinsic immunity to HSV infection, paracrine IFN signaling can potentiate a potent antiviral response. Additionally, antiviral autophagy plays an important role in neuronal control of HSV infection. Here we review the literature of antiviral signaling and autophagy in neurons, the mechanisms by which HSV can counteract these responses, and postulate how these two pathways may synergize to mediate neuronal control of HSV infection and yet result in lifelong persistence of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela C Rosato
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - David A Leib
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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28
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Vlahava VM, Eliopoulos AG, Sourvinos G. CD40 ligand exhibits a direct antiviral effect on Herpes Simplex Virus type-1 infection via a PI3K-dependent, autophagy-independent mechanism. Cell Signal 2015; 27:1253-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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29
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Mattila RK, Harila K, Kangas SM, Paavilainen H, Heape AM, Mohr IJ, Hukkanen V. An investigation of herpes simplex virus type 1 latency in a novel mouse dorsal root ganglion model suggests a role for ICP34.5 in reactivation. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:2304-2313. [PMID: 25854552 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
After a primary lytic infection at the epithelia, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) enters the innervating sensory neurons and translocates to the nucleus, where it establishes a quiescent latent infection. Periodically, the virus can reactivate and the progeny viruses spread back to the epithelium. Here, we introduce an embryonic mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) culture system, which can be used to study the mechanisms that control the establishment, maintenance and reactivation from latency. Use of acyclovir is not necessary in our model. We examined different phases of the HSV-1 life cycle in DRG neurons, and showed that WT HSV-1 could establish both lytic and latent form of infection in the cells. After reactivating stimulus, the WT viruses showed all markers of true reactivation. In addition, we showed that deletion of the γ(1)34.5 gene rendered the virus incapable of reactivation, even though the virus was clearly able to replicate and persist in a quiescent form in the DRG neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Mattila
- Research Center for Biomedicine, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - K Harila
- Research Center for Biomedicine, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - S M Kangas
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - H Paavilainen
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Drug Research Doctoral Programme, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - A M Heape
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - I J Mohr
- Department of Microbiology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - V Hukkanen
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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30
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Epstein-barr virus blocks the autophagic flux and appropriates the autophagic machinery to enhance viral replication. J Virol 2014; 88:12715-26. [PMID: 25142602 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02199-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Autophagy is a catabolic pathway that helps cells to survive under stressful conditions. Cells also use autophagy to clear microbiological infections, but microbes have learned how to manipulate the autophagic pathway for their own benefit. The experimental evidence obtained in this study suggests that the autophagic flux is blocked at the final steps during the reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) from latency. This is indicated by the level of the lipidated form of LC3 that does not increase in the presence of bafilomycin and by the lack of colocalization of autophagosomes with lysosomes, which correlates with reduced Rab7 expression. Since the inhibition of the early phases of autophagy impaired EBV replication and viral particles were observed in autophagic vesicles in the cytoplasm of producing cells, we suggest that EBV exploits the autophagic machinery for its transportation in order to enhance viral production. The autophagic block was not mediated by ZEBRA, an immediate-early EBV lytic gene, whose transfection in Ramos, Akata, and 293 cells promoted a complete autophagic flux. The block occurred only when the complete set of EBV lytic genes was expressed. We suggest that the inhibition of the early autophagic steps or finding strategies to overcome the autophagic block, allowing viral degradation into the lysosomes, can be exploited to manipulate EBV replication. IMPORTANCE This study shows, for the first time, that autophagy is blocked at the final degradative steps during EBV replication in several cell types. Through this block, EBV hijacks the autophagic vesicles for its intracellular transportation and enhances viral production. A better understanding of virus-host interactions could help in the design of new therapeutic approaches against EBV-associated malignancies.
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31
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Sharma M, Bhattacharyya S, Nain M, Kaur M, Sood V, Gupta V, Khasa R, Abdin MZ, Vrati S, Kalia M. Japanese encephalitis virus replication is negatively regulated by autophagy and occurs on LC3-I- and EDEM1-containing membranes. Autophagy 2014; 10:1637-51. [PMID: 25046112 DOI: 10.4161/auto.29455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a lysosomal degradative pathway that has diverse physiological functions and plays crucial roles in several viral infections. Here we examine the role of autophagy in the life cycle of JEV, a neurotropic flavivirus. JEV infection leads to induction of autophagy in several cell types. JEV replication was significantly enhanced in neuronal cells where autophagy was rendered dysfunctional by ATG7 depletion, and in Atg5-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), resulting in higher viral titers. Autophagy was functional during early stages of infection however it becomes dysfunctional as infection progressed resulting in accumulation of misfolded proteins. Autophagy-deficient cells were highly susceptible to virus-induced cell death. We also observed JEV replication complexes that are marked by nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) and dsRNA colocalized with endogenous LC3 but not with GFP-LC3. Colocalization of NS1 and LC3 was also observed in Atg5 deficient MEFs, which contain only the nonlipidated form of LC3. Viral replication complexes furthermore show association with a marker of the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, EDEM1 (ER degradation enhancer, mannosidase α-like 1). Our data suggest that virus replication occurs on ERAD-derived EDEM1 and LC3-I-positive structures referred to as EDEMosomes. While silencing of ERAD regulators EDEM1 and SEL1L suppressed JEV replication, LC3 depletion exerted a profound inhibition with significantly reduced RNA levels and virus titers. Our study suggests that while autophagy is primarily antiviral for JEV and might have implications for disease progression and pathogenesis of JEV, nonlipidated LC3 plays an important autophagy independent function in the virus life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Sharma
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India; Department of Biotechnology; Faculty of Science; Jamia Hamdard; New Delhi, India
| | - Sankar Bhattacharyya
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Minu Nain
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India; Department of Biotechnology; Faculty of Science; Jamia Hamdard; New Delhi, India
| | - Manpreet Kaur
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Vikas Sood
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Vishal Gupta
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Renu Khasa
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Malik Z Abdin
- Department of Biotechnology; Faculty of Science; Jamia Hamdard; New Delhi, India
| | - Sudhanshu Vrati
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
| | - Manjula Kalia
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Centre; Translational Health Science and Technology Institute; Gurgaon, Haryana India
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32
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Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Merino-Ramos T, Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA. Stress responses in flavivirus-infected cells: activation of unfolded protein response and autophagy. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:266. [PMID: 24917859 PMCID: PMC4042264 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Flavivirus is a genus of RNA viruses that includes multiple long known human, animal, and zoonotic pathogens such as Dengue virus, yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, or Japanese encephalitis virus, as well as other less known viruses that represent potential threats for human and animal health such as Usutu or Zika viruses. Flavivirus replication is based on endoplasmic reticulum-derived structures. Membrane remodeling and accumulation of viral factors induce endoplasmic reticulum stress that results in activation of a cellular signaling response termed unfolded protein response (UPR), which can be modulated by the viruses for their own benefit. Concomitant with the activation of the UPR, an upregulation of the autophagic pathway in cells infected with different flaviviruses has also been described. This review addresses the current knowledge of the relationship between endoplasmic reticulum stress, UPR, and autophagy in flavivirus-infected cells and the growing evidences for an involvement of these cellular pathways in the replication and pathogenesis of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Belén Blázquez
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Madrid, Spain
| | - Estela Escribano-Romero
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Madrid, Spain
| | - Teresa Merino-Ramos
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan-Carlos Saiz
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A Martín-Acebes
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Madrid, Spain ; Departamento de Virología y Microbiología, Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid, Spain
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Liu Y, Joo KI, Lei Y, Wang P. Visualization of intracellular pathways of engineered baculovirus in mammalian cells. Virus Res 2014; 181:81-91. [PMID: 24457070 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Baculoviruses are a promising gene delivery vector. They have the ability to express large transgenes in mammalian cells without displaying pathogenicity in humans; however, little is known about their transduction mechanisms in target cells. In this study, we use colocalization and live-cell imaging studies to elucidate the internalization and intracellular trafficking pathways of baculoviruses through direct visualization of VP39-GFP-labeled viral particles and various endocytic structures within target cells. Drug inhibition and confocal microscopy results suggested that baculoviruses enter the cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis in a dynamin-dependent manner. Viral particles were shown to traffic through early endosomes, triggering a low-pH-dependent endosomal fusion process of viruses. Suppressed autophagy activity enhanced viral transduction and overexpression of autophagosomes reduced viral transduction, suggesting that autophagy is involved in degradation process of viral particles. Actin filaments were involved in the viral transduction, while microtubules negatively regulated viral transduction by facilitating the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes to form autolysosomes, where degradation of viral particles occurs. These results shed some light on the essential cellular factors limiting viral transduction, which can be used to improve the use of baculoviral vectors in cell and gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yarong Liu
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Kye-Il Joo
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Yuning Lei
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Pin Wang
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
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34
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Yang J, Carra S, Zhu WG, Kampinga HH. The regulation of the autophagic network and its implications for human disease. Int J Biol Sci 2013; 9:1121-33. [PMID: 24339733 PMCID: PMC3858585 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.6666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. More and more proteins and signaling pathways have been discovered that somehow feed into the autophagy regulatory pathways. Regulation of autophagy is complex and condition-specific, and in several diseases, autophagic fluxes are changed. Here, we review the most well-established concepts in this field as well as the reported signaling pathways or components which steer the autophagy machinery. Furthermore, we will highlight how autophagic fluxes are changed in various diseases either as cause for or as response to deal with an altered cellular homeostasis and how modulation of autophagy might be used as potential therapy for such diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- 1. Department of Cell Biology; University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen; Groningen, The Netherlands. ; 2. Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
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Prasad KM, Eack SM, Keshavan MS, Yolken RH, Iyengar S, Nimgaonkar VL. Antiherpes virus-specific treatment and cognition in schizophrenia: a test-of-concept randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Schizophr Bull 2013; 39:857-66. [PMID: 22446565 PMCID: PMC3686443 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbs040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test our hypothesis that valacyclovir, an antiherpes virus-specific medication, added to antipsychotics (APs) would improve cognitive performance and psychopathology among schizophrenia subjects exposed to neurotropic herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV1). METHODS Using a double-blind placebo-controlled design, we randomized 24 HSV1-seropositive schizophrenia subjects to receive either valacyclovir (n = 12) or placebo (n = 12) for 18 weeks in addition to stable doses of APs. Valacyclovir dose was stabilized at 1.5 g twice daily orally. At each visit, subjects were evaluated for severity of psychopathology and side effects using standardized scales and a study-specific semistructured checklist. A computerized neurocognitive battery validated on both schizophrenia and healthy subjects was administered at baseline and follow-up. Intent-to-treat analysis, using linear regression models that included all randomized subjects, were used to examine differential changes in cognition and psychopathology scores over 18 weeks between valacyclovir and placebo, accounting for placebo response. RESULTS Valacyclovir group improved in verbal memory, working memory, and visual object learning compared with placebo group. The effect sizes (Cohen's d) were 0.79 for working memory, 1.14 for immediate verbal memory, and 0.97 for the visual object learning. Psychotic symptom severity did not improve. CONCLUSIONS Supplemental valacyclovir may alleviate impairments in cognitive domains that are often observed in schizophrenia but not psychotic symptoms in those exposed to HSV1. If replicated, this approach could provide a novel strategy to treat cognitive impairments in a subgroup of schizophrenia subjects who can be reliably identified using a blood test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konasale M. Prasad
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 3811 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, US; tel: 412-586-9014, fax: 412-246-6350, e-mail:
| | - Shaun M. Eack
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA,School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Matcheri S. Keshavan
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Robert H. Yolken
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Satish Iyengar
- Department of Statistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
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Liu Y, Tai A, Joo KI, Wang P. Visualization of DC-SIGN-mediated entry pathway of engineered lentiviral vectors in target cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67400. [PMID: 23840690 PMCID: PMC3696072 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are potent antigen-presenting cells and therefore have enormous potential as vaccine targets. We have previously developed an engineered lentiviral vector (LV) that is pseudotyped with a mutated Sindbis virus glycoprotein (SVGmu), which is capable of targeting DCs through Dendritic Cell-specific ICAM3-grabbing Nonintegrin (DC-SIGN), a receptor that is predominantly expressed by DCs. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the internalization and trafficking mechanisms of this viral vector system through direct visualization of GFP-Vpr-tagged viral particles in target DCs, which was further corroborated by drug inhibition and dominant-negative mutants of cellular proteins that regulate the endocytic traffic. We demonstrated that our engineered LVs enter the cell via receptor-mediated clathrin- and dynamin-dependent endocytosis. Microtubule networks were also involved in a productive infection. Viral vector fusion was low-pH-dependent and occurred in the early endosomal stage of the intracellular transport. Autophagy was also examined for its effect on transduction efficiency, and we observed that enhanced autophage activity reduced vector infectivity, while suppressed autophagy boosted transduction efficiency. This study shed some light on the internalization and trafficking mechanisms of DC-directed LVs and offers some strategies to further improve the efficiency of LV-mediated gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yarong Liu
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - April Tai
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Kye-Il Joo
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: or (KJ); or (PW)
| | - Pin Wang
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: or (KJ); or (PW)
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Subgroup J avian leukosis virus infection inhibits autophagy in DF-1 cells. Virol J 2013; 10:196. [PMID: 23773913 PMCID: PMC3720224 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Subgroup J avian leukosis virus (ALV-J) infection can induce tumor-related diseases in chickens. Previous studies by our laboratory demonstrated that ALV-J infection of DF-1 cells resulted in altered activity and phosphorylation of AKT. However, little is known about the subsequent activation of host DF-1 cells. Results In the current study, autophagy inhibition was observed for ALV-J infected DF-1 cells. Our data showed that the autophagosome protein, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II (LC3-II), was reduced considerably in DF-1 cells infected with active ALV-J, while no change was observed for cells infected with inactivated ALV-J. Autophagy inhibition was also confirmed by fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Interestingly, when autophagy was promoted by rapamycin, the titers of ALV-J replication were decreased, and the replication level of ALV-J was significantly enhanced when atg5 (autophagy-related gene 5) was knocked out. Conclusions These results suggested that ALV-J infection could down-regulate autophagy in DF-1 cells during viral replication. This study is the first to report on the relationship between ALV-J infection and autophagy in DF-1 cells.
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38
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The immunologic basis for severe neonatal herpes disease and potential strategies for therapeutic intervention. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:369172. [PMID: 23606868 PMCID: PMC3626239 DOI: 10.1155/2013/369172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) infect a large proportion of the world's population. Infection is life-long and can cause periodic mucocutaneous symptoms, but it only rarely causes life-threatening disease among immunocompetent children and adults. However, when HSV infection occurs during the neonatal period, viral replication is poorly controlled and a large proportion of infants die or develop disability even with optimal antiviral therapy. Increasingly, specific differences are being elucidated between the immune system of newborns and those of older children and adults, which predispose to severe infections and reflect the transition from fetal to postnatal life. Studies in healthy individuals of different ages, individuals with primary or acquired immunodeficiencies, and animal models have contributed to our understanding of the mechanisms that control HSV infection and how these may be impaired during the neonatal period. This paper outlines our current understanding of innate and adaptive immunity to HSV infection, immunologic differences in early infancy that may account for the manifestations of neonatal HSV infection, and the potential of interventions to augment neonatal immune protection against HSV disease.
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Friedman GK, Raborn J, Kelly VM, Cassady KA, Markert JM, Gillespie GY. Pediatric glioma stem cells: biologic strategies for oncolytic HSV virotherapy. Front Oncol 2013; 3:28. [PMID: 23450706 PMCID: PMC3584319 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
While glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common adult malignant brain tumor, GBMs in childhood represent less than 10% of pediatric malignant brain tumors and are phenotypically and molecularly distinct from adult GBMs. Similar to adult patients, outcomes for children with high-grade gliomas (HGGs) remain poor. Furthermore, the significant morbidity and mortality yielded by pediatric GBM is compounded by neurotoxicity for the developing brain caused by current therapies. Poor outcomes have been attributed to a subpopulation of chemotherapy and radiotherapy resistant cells, termed “glioma stem cells” (GSCs), “glioma progenitor cells,” or “glioma-initiating cells,” which have the ability to initiate and maintain the tumor and to repopulate the recurring tumor after conventional therapy. Future innovative therapies for pediatric HGG must be able to eradicate these therapy-resistant GSCs. Oncolytic herpes simplex viruses (oHSV), genetically engineered to be safe for normal cells and to express diverse foreign anti-tumor therapeutic genes, have been demonstrated in preclinical studies to infect and kill GSCs and tumor cells equally while sparing normal brain cells. In this review, we discuss the unique aspects of pediatric GSCs, including markers to identify them, the microenvironment they reside in, signaling pathways that regulate them, mechanisms of cellular resistance, and approaches to target GSCs, with a focus on the promising therapeutic, genetically engineered oHSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory K Friedman
- Brain Tumor Research Program, Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL, USA
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40
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Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a rare but severe complication of frequent and mostly benign infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). Although rapid and sensitive diagnosis tools and active antiviral drugs are available, HSE morbidity/mortality levels remain unsatisfactory. Molecular and cellular determinants of HSE are incompletely understood. The rarity and severity of the disease have suggested an increased susceptibility of some subjects to HSV infection. Numerous experimental studies have investigated the respective role of host and viral factors in HSE. The results of these studies have illustrated the major role of the innate immune response, in particular interferons (IFNs), in limiting access of the virus into and/or virus replication in the central nervous system (CNS). In a few children with HSE, specific defects of the immune innate response have been identified, which impair the IFN-α/β and IFN-λ production of fibroblasts and/or neurons infected with HSV and render these cells more permissive to infection. The mutations affect proteins involved in the IFN pathway induced by stimulation of the TLR3 receptor. The patients' susceptibility to infection is restricted to HSV CNS invasion, underlining the major role of TLR3 in CNS protection against viral infection. The incomplete clinical penetrance of these molecular defects suggests that other factors (age, infectious dose) are involved in HSE. Whether pathogenesis of adult HSE is similar has not been investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Rozenberg
- Service de virologie, pôle biologie pharmacie pathologie, hôpital Cochin, bâtiment Jean-Dausset, 27, rue du Faubourg-St-Jacques, 75679 Paris cedex 14, France.
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41
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A neuron-specific role for autophagy in antiviral defense against herpes simplex virus. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 12:334-45. [PMID: 22980330 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFNs) are considered to be the universal mechanism by which viral infections are controlled. However, many IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) rely on antiviral pathways that are toxic to host cells, which may be detrimental in nonrenewable cell types, such as neurons. We show that dorsal root ganglionic (DRG) neurons produced little type I IFNs in response to infection with a neurotropic virus, herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1). Further, type I IFN treatment failed to completely block HSV-1 replication or to induce IFN-primed cell death in neurons. We found that DRG neurons required autophagy to limit HSV-1 replication both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast, mucosal epithelial cells and other mitotic cells responded robustly to type I IFNs and did not require autophagy to control viral replication. These findings reveal a fundamental difference in the innate antiviral strategies employed by neurons and mitotic cells to control HSV-1 infection.
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Yordy B, Tal MC, Hayashi K, Arojo O, Iwasaki A. Autophagy and selective deployment of Atg proteins in antiviral defense. Int Immunol 2012; 25:1-10. [PMID: 23042773 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxs101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an evolutionarily ancient process eukaryotic cells utilize to remove and recycle intracellular material in order to maintain cellular homeostasis. In metazoans, the autophagy machinery not only functions in this capacity but also has evolved to perform a diverse repertoire of intracellular transport and regulatory functions. In response to virus infections, the autophagy machinery degrades viruses, shuttles viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns to endosomes containing Toll-like receptors, facilitates viral-antigen processing for major histocompatibility complex presentation and transports antiviral proteins to viral replication sites. This is accomplished through canonical autophagy or through processes involving distinct subsets of the autophagy-related genes (Atgs). Herein, we discuss how the variable components of the autophagy machinery contribute to antiviral defense and highlight three emerging themes: first, autophagy delivers viral cytosolic components to several distinct endolysosomal compartments; second, Atg proteins act alone, as subgroups or collectively; and third, the specificity of autophagy and the autophagy machinery is achieved by recognition of triggers and selective targeting by adaptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Yordy
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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43
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De Chiara G, Marcocci ME, Sgarbanti R, Civitelli L, Ripoli C, Piacentini R, Garaci E, Grassi C, Palamara AT. Infectious agents and neurodegeneration. Mol Neurobiol 2012; 46:614-38. [PMID: 22899188 PMCID: PMC3496540 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-012-8320-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of epidemiologic and experimental data point to chronic bacterial and viral infections as possible risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Infections of the central nervous system, especially those characterized by a chronic progressive course, may produce multiple damage in infected and neighbouring cells. The activation of inflammatory processes and host immune responses cause chronic damage resulting in alterations of neuronal function and viability, but different pathogens can also directly trigger neurotoxic pathways. Indeed, viral and microbial agents have been reported to produce molecular hallmarks of neurodegeneration, such as the production and deposit of misfolded protein aggregates, oxidative stress, deficient autophagic processes, synaptopathies and neuronal death. These effects may act in synergy with other recognized risk factors, such as aging, concomitant metabolic diseases and the host’s specific genetic signature. This review will focus on the contribution given to neurodegeneration by herpes simplex type-1, human immunodeficiency and influenza viruses, and by Chlamydia pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna De Chiara
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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Hussein ITM, Cheng E, Ganaie SS, Werle MJ, Sheema S, Haque A, Mir MA. Autophagic clearance of Sin Nombre hantavirus glycoprotein Gn promotes virus replication in cells. J Virol 2012; 86:7520-9. [PMID: 22553339 PMCID: PMC3416297 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.07204-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Hantavirus glycoprotein precursor (GPC) is posttranslationally cleaved into two glycoproteins, Gn and Gc. Cells transfected with plasmids expressing either GPC or both Gn and Gc revealed that Gn is posttranslationally degraded. Treatment of cells with the autophagy inhibitors 3-methyladenine, LY-294002, or Wortmanin rescued Gn degradation, suggesting that Gn is degraded by the host autophagy machinery. Confocal microscopic imaging showed that Gn is targeted to autophagosomes for degradation by an unknown mechanism. Examination of autophagy markers LC3-I and LC3-II demonstrated that both Gn expression and Sin Nombre hantavirus (SNV) infection induce autophagy in cells. To delineate whether induction of autophagy and clearance of Gn play a role in the virus replication cycle, we downregulated autophagy genes BCLN-1 and ATG7 using small interfering RNA (siRNA) and monitored virus replication over time. These studies revealed that inhibition of host autophagy machinery inhibits Sin Nombre virus replication in cells, suggesting that autophagic clearance of Gn is required for efficient virus replication. Our studies provide mechanistic insights into viral pathogenesis and reveal that SNV exploits the host autophagy machinery to decrease the intrinsic steady-state levels of an important viral component for efficient replication in host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islam T M Hussein
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
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45
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Tabor-Godwin JM, Tsueng G, Sayen MR, Gottlieb RA, Feuer R. The role of autophagy during coxsackievirus infection of neural progenitor and stem cells. Autophagy 2012; 8:938-53. [PMID: 22751470 DOI: 10.4161/auto.19781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) has previously been shown to utilize autophagy in an advantageous manner during the course of infection of the host cell. However, few studies have determined whether stem cells induce autophagy in a similar fashion, and whether virus-induced autophagy occurs following infection of stem cells. Therefore, we compared the induction of autophagy following CVB3 infection of neural progenitor and stem cells (NPSCs), which we have recently shown to be highly susceptible to CVB3 infection, to HL-1 cells, a transformed cardiomyocyte cell line. As previously demonstrated for other susceptible host cells, HL-1 cells showed an increase in the activity of autophagic signaling following infection with a CVB3 expressing dsRed protein (dsRed-CVB3). Furthermore, viral titers in HL-1 cells increased in the presence of an inducer of autophagy (CCPA), while viral titers decreased in the presence of an inhibitor of autophagy (3-MA). In contrast, no change in autophagic signaling was seen in NPSCs following infection with dsRed-CVB3. Also, basal levels of autophagy in NPSCs were found to be highly elevated in comparison to HL-1 cells. Autophagy could be induced in NPSCs in the presence of rapamycin without altering levels of dsRed-CVB3 replication. In differentiated NPSC precursors, autophagy was activated during the differentiation process, and a decrease in autophagic signaling was observed within all three CNS lineages following dsRed-CVB3 infection. Hence, we conclude that the role of autophagy in modulating CVB3 replication appears cell type-specific, and stem cells may uniquely regulate autophagy in response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna M Tabor-Godwin
- Cell & Molecular Biology Joint Doctoral Program, Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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Hypoxia Moderates γ(1)34.5-Deleted Herpes Simplex Virus Oncolytic Activity in Human Glioma Xenoline Primary Cultures. Transl Oncol 2012; 5:200-7. [PMID: 22741039 DOI: 10.1593/tlo.12115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia plays a critical role in the tumor microenvironment of high-grade gliomas by promoting the glioma stem cell (GSC)-like phenotype, which displays resistance to standard therapies. We tested three glioblastoma multiforme xenograft lines (xenolines) against γ(1)34.5-deleted recombinant oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) C101 under 1% (hypoxia) and 20.8% (normoxia) oxygen tension for effects on oHSV infectivity, replication, and cytotoxicity in all tumor cells and CD133(+) GSCs. Expression levels of CD133, a putative GSC marker, and CD111 (nectin-1), an adhesion molecule that is the most efficient method for HSV entry, increased significantly under hypoxia in all three xenolines. Despite increased CD111 expression under hypoxic conditions, oHSV infectivity, cytotoxicity and viral recovery were not improved or were diminished in all three xenolines under hypoxia. In contrast, wild-type HSV-1 equally infected xenoline cells in normoxia and hypoxia, suggesting that the 34.5 mutation plays a role in the decreased C101 infectivity in hypoxia. Importantly, CD133(+) cells were not more resistant to oHSV than CD133(-) tumor cells regardless of oxygen tension. Furthermore, CD133 expression decreased as viral dose increased in two of the xenolines suggesting that up-regulation of CD133 in hypoxia was not the cause of reduced viral efficacy. Our findings that oHSV infectivity and cytotoxicity were diminished under hypoxia in several GBM xenolines likely have important implications for clinical applications of oHSV therapies, especially considering the vital role of hypoxia in the microenvironment of GBM tumors.
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47
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Shi J, Luo H. Interplay between the cellular autophagy machinery and positive-stranded RNA viruses. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2012; 44:375-84. [PMID: 22343377 PMCID: PMC7110239 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gms010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved cellular process that acts as a key regulator in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Recent studies implicate an important role for autophagy in infection and immunity by removing invading pathogens and through modulating innate and adaptive immune responses. However, several pathogens, notably some positive-stranded RNA viruses, have subverted autophagy to their own ends. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how viruses with a positive-stranded RNA genome interact with the host autophagy machinery to control their replication and spread. We review the mechanisms underlying the induction of autophagy and discuss the pro- and anti-viral functions of autophagy and the potential mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Shi
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, UBC James Hogg Research Centre, Institute for Heart + Lung Health, St Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
| | - Honglin Luo
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, UBC James Hogg Research Centre, Institute for Heart + Lung Health, St Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada,Correspondence address. Tel: +1-604-682-2344 ext. 62847; Fax: +1-604-806-9274; E-mail:
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Meng C, Zhou Z, Jiang K, Yu S, Jia L, Wu Y, Liu Y, Meng S, Ding C. Newcastle disease virus triggers autophagy in U251 glioma cells to enhance virus replication. Arch Virol 2012; 157:1011-8. [PMID: 22398914 PMCID: PMC7087167 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1270-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can replicate in tumor cells and induce apoptosis in late stages of infection. However, the interaction between NDV and cells in early stages of infection is not well understood. Here, we report that, shortly after infection, NDV triggers the formation of autophagosomes in U251 glioma cells, as demonstrated by an increased number of double-membrane vesicles, GFP-microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (GFP-LC3) a dot formations, and elevated production of LC3II. Moreover, modulation of NDV-induced autophagy by rapamycin, chloroquine or small interfering RNAs targeting the genes critical for autophagosome formation (Atg5 and Beclin-1) affects virus production, indicating that autophagy may be utilized by NDV to facilitate its own production. Furthermore, the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Beclin-1 pathway plays a role in NDV-induced autophagy and virus production. Collectively, our data provide a unique example of a paramyxovirus that uses autophagy to enhance its production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunchun Meng
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Kobayashi S, Orba Y, Yamaguchi H, Kimura T, Sawa H. Accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins is related to West Nile virus-induced neuronal apoptosis. Neuropathology 2011; 32:398-405. [PMID: 22129084 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1789.2011.01275.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) belongs to the Flaviviridae family of viruses and has emerged as a significant cause of viral encephalitis in humans, animals and birds. It has been reported that WNV replication directly induces neuronal injury, followed by neuronal cell death proven as apoptosis. Therefore, it is important to understand the mechanism of neuronal apoptosis caused by this virus to develop strategies to control its pathogenicity. Accumulation of ubiquitinated abnormal proteins has been reported to be associated with neuronal apoptosis in some pathological conditions. A lot of cellular stresses prevent cellular protein quality control mechanisms, resulting in the accumulation of ubiquitinated abnormal proteins. To obtain a better understanding of the mechanisms of WNV-induced neuronal apoptosis, we evaluated the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in the WNV-infected neuronal cells. We have observed that WNV infection caused massive neuronal injury in the brains of mice. Viral antigen was detected in the neuronal cytoplasm of the cells exhibiting neuronal apoptosis. Notably, ubiquitinated proteins were detected in WNV-infected neuronal cells. In addition, accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins was markedly enhanced in mouse neuroblastoma, Neuro-2a cells after WNV infection. Our histopathological and in vitro studies suggest that accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in neuronal cells might be associated with neuronal apoptosis caused by WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Kobayashi
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Li JK, Liang JJ, Liao CL, Lin YL. Autophagy is involved in the early step of Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Microbes Infect 2011; 14:159-68. [PMID: 21946213 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), an enveloped Flavivirus with a positive-sense RNA genome, causes acute encephalitis with high mortality in humans. We used a virulent (RP-9) and an attenuated (RP-2ms) JEV strain to assess the role of autophagy in JEV infection. By monitoring the levels of lipidated LC3, we found that autophagy was induced in human NT-2 cells infected with RP-2ms, especially at the late stage, and to a lesser extent with RP-9. The induction of autophagy by rapamycin increased viral production, whereas the inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine reduced viral yields for both RP-9 and RP-2ms. The viral replication of RP-9 and RP-2ms was also reduced in cells with downregulated ATG5 or Beclin 1 expression, suggesting a proviral role of autophagy in JEV replication. To determine the step of JEV life cycle affected by autophagy, we used an mCherry-LC3 fusion protein as the autophagosome marker. Little of no colocalization of LC3 puncta with dsRNA was noted, whereas the input JEV particles were targeted to autophagosomes stained positive for early endosome marker. Overall, we show for the first time that the cellular autophagy process is involved in JEV infection and the inoculated viral particles traffic to autophagosomes for subsequent steps of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Kun Li
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
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