Children of prisoners: a growing public health problem

Australian Aboriginal women prisoners' experiences of being a mother: a review

PURPOSE

The rise in the incarceration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers is a major public health issue with multiple sequelae for Aboriginal children and the cohesiveness of Aboriginal communities. The purpose of this paper is to review the available literature relating to Australian Aboriginal women prisoners' experiences of being a mother.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

The literature search covered bibliographic databases from criminology, sociology and anthropology, and Australian history. The authors review the literature on: traditional and contemporary Aboriginal mothering roles, values and practices; historical accounts of the impacts of white settlement of Australia and subsequent Aboriginal affairs policies and practices; and women's and mothers' experiences of imprisonment.

FINDINGS

The review found that the cultural experiences of mothering are unique to Aboriginal mothers and contrasted to non-Aboriginal concepts. The ways that incarceration of Aboriginal mothers disrupts child rearing practices within the cultural kinship system are identified.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Aboriginal women have unique circumstances relevant to the concept of motherhood that need to be understood to develop culturally relevant policy and programs. The burden of disease and cycle of incarceration within Aboriginal families can be addressed by improving health outcomes for incarcerated Aboriginal mothers and female carers.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

To the authors' knowledge, this is the first literature review on Australian Aboriginal women prisoners' experiences of being a mother.

Restorative Justice Conferencing: Not a Panacea for the Overrepresentation of Australia's Indigenous Youth in the Criminal Justice System

Restorative justice conferencing is a police diversionary strategy used extensively in Australian jurisdictions to channel young offenders away from formal court processing. Advocates view conferencing as culturally appropriate and a means to reduce the overrepresentation of Indigenous young people because it is rooted in Indigenous justice traditions. However, whether conferencing is effective at reducing recidivism by Indigenous young people compared with non-Indigenous young people remains unknown. We examine this using a longitudinal cohort of youth offenders from Australia. Propensity score matching was used to match Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people at their first conference and examined reoffending outcomes to explore its efficacy at reducing recidivism ( n = 394). Results indicate that, despite statistically controlling for factors related to reoffending, recidivism levels postconference were significantly higher for Indigenous young people. These results suggest that conferencing is unlikely to address the problem of Indigenous overrepresentation within Australia's youth justice system.

School-Based Outcomes Among Youth With Incarcerated Parents: Differences by School Setting

BACKGROUND

Parental incarceration impacts millions of children in the United States and has important consequences for youths' adjustment and school-based outcomes.

METHODS

Using data from a survey of youth behavior in one large Midwestern state, we examined the effect of both present and past parental incarceration on school-based outcomes, across 3 school settings (public schools, alternative learning centers, and juvenile correctional facilities).

RESULTS

Parental incarceration was significantly associated with students' poor school-based outcomes; however, these effects varied markedly by school setting. Among youth in public schools, parental incarceration was consistently associated with poor school outcomes. There were mixed effects among youth in alternative learning centers and no significant effects among youth in juvenile correctional facilities.

CONCLUSIONS

The study adds to a body of literature demonstrating the negative effects of parental incarceration on youth's school-based outcomes for youth in public schools; however, findings were mixed for youth in alternative learning centers and juvenile correctional facilities. Implications for future research and school practitioners are discussed.

Quantifying maternal incarceration: a whole-population linked data study of Western Australian children born 1985-2011

OBJECTIVE

To measure the prevalence of children affected by maternal incarceration in Western Australia (WA).

METHODS

Using linked administrative data we identified all children born in WA between 1985 and 2011, whose biological mother was imprisoned during their childhood. Data was obtained through the WA Data Linkage Branch from the Department of Corrective Services, Midwives Notifications System and Birth Registrations data collections. Descriptive characteristics of the children (n=9,352) and their mothers (n=3,827) are reported. Prevalence was measured in two-ways, the proportion of children ever affected in childhood and affected annually.

RESULTS

Childhood prevalence of maternal incarceration was 26-times higher (95%CI 23.9-28.2) for Indigenous children born 1992-1996 with 18.8% Indigenous children and 0.7% non-Indigenous children affected while aged 0-17 years. On average 1,544 children were affected each year across 2003-2011, at rates of 2,929 per 100,000 Indigenous children and 108 per 100,000 non-Indigenous children.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings present the first census of children affected by maternal incarceration within an Australian State and identify a large disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations. Implications for public health: This study highlights the importance of formal consideration of children of women prisoners in the development of criminal justice policies and practices.

Mothering at a Distance: what incarcerated mothers value about a parenting programme

BACKGROUND

Children with incarcerated mothers experience adverse health, social and emotional circumstances, and are a particularly vulnerable group. Mothers in custody face significant challenges in parenting their children.

AIMS

The study aimed to identify participants' views on impact of a parenting support programme for incarcerated mothers in NSW Australia.

METHODS

The mixed-methods study examined 134 responses to open and closed questions on a questionnaire for programme participants.

RESULTS

Participants found the programme worthwhile, engaging and relevant. It enhanced their parenting knowledge and confidence. Open-ended responses highlighted program elements which participants valued, specifically support for their parenting role in complicated circumstances, greater understanding of child development and perspectives, and practical strategies for facilitating connections with their children during their incarceration.

CONCLUSIONS

The study informs nurses working with women who have experienced incarceration and their children, both in custodial and community settings.

The case for improving the health of ex-prisoners

The global prison population exceeds 10 million and continues to grow; more than 30 million people are released from custody annually. These individuals are disproportionately poor, disenfranchised, and chronically ill. There are compelling, evidence-based arguments for improving health outcomes for ex-prisoners on human rights, public health, criminal justice, and economic grounds. These arguments stand in stark contrast to current policy and practice in most settings. There is also a dearth of evidence to guide clinicians and policymakers on how best to care for this large and growing population during and after their transition from custody to community. Well-designed longitudinal studies, clinical trials, and burden of disease studies are pivotal to closing this evidence gap.

The impact of parental incarceration on the physical and mental health of young adults

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the relationship between parental incarceration history and young adult physical and mental health outcomes using Wave 1 and Wave 4 data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.

METHODS

Dependent variables included self-reported fair/poor health and health diagnoses. The independent variable was parental incarceration history. Cross-tabulations and logistic regression models were run.

RESULTS

Positive, significant associations were found between parental incarceration and 8 of 16 health problems (depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, cholesterol, asthma, migraines, HIV/AIDS, and fair/poor health) in adjusted logistic regression models. Those who reported paternal incarceration had increased odds of 8 mental and physical health problems, whereas those who reported maternal incarceration had increased odds of depression. For paternal incarceration, with the exception of HIV/AIDS, larger associations were found for mental health (odds ratios range 1.43-1.72) as compared with physical health (odds ratios range 1.26-1.31) problems. The association between paternal incarceration and HIV/AIDs should be interpreted with caution because of the low sample prevalence of HIV/AIDs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests exposure to parental incarceration in childhood is associated with health problems in young adulthood. Extant literature suggests underlying mechanisms that link parental incarceration history to poor outcomes in offspring may include the lack of safe, stable, nurturing relationships and exposure to violence. To prevent poor health in offspring of the incarcerated, additional studies are needed to (1) confirm the aforementioned associations and (2) assess whether adverse experiences and violence exposure in childhood mediate the relationship between parental incarceration history and offspring health problems.

Criminal career-related factors among female robbers in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and a presumed 'revolving-door' situation

INTRODUCTION

Risk-taking behaviors, family criminality, poverty, and poor parenting have been frequently associated with an earlier onset of criminal activities and a longer criminal career among male convicts.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to identify factors related to the onset and recurrence of criminal behavior among female robbers in the State of São Paulo - Brazil.

METHOD

It was a cross-sectional study carried out inside a feminine penitentiary in São Paulo. From June 2006 to June 2010, 175 inmates convicted only for robbery were recruited to be evaluated about family antecedents of criminal conviction, alcohol and drug misuse, impulsiveness, depressive symptoms, and psychosocial features. RESULTS Having family antecedents of criminal conviction consistently predicted an earlier onset of criminal activities and a longer criminal career among female robbers. Drug use in youth and the severity of drug misuse were significantly related to the initiation and recurrence of criminal behavior, respectively.

DISCUSSION

Prisons must systematically screen detainees and provide treatments for those with health problems in general. Children of inmates should obtain help to modify the negative consequences of their parents' incarceration in order to mitigate the negative consequences of pursuing this 'static' factor.

Attitudes towards sex: a comparison of prisoners and the general community

BACKGROUND

National population surveys of attitudes towards sexual issues typically exclude prisoners and little is known about their attitudes compared with the community.

METHODS

Using computer-assisted telephone interviews, we compared a representative sample of 2289 prisoners (men=1960, women=329), aged 18-59 years, from two Australian states against a national community sample of 6755 participants (men=3333, women=3421).

RESULTS

Overall, prisoners were slightly more conservative in their attitudes towards sex than the community. They were more likely than the community to agree with the statement that abortion is wrong (men: adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=3.3, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.8-3.9; women: AOR=1.7, 95% CI: 1.2-2.4) and that male homosexuality is wrong (men: AOR=2.6, 95% CI: 2.2-3.1; women: AOR=1.7, 95% CI: 1.2-2.3); these differences were more pronounced for men than women. The attitudes of prisoners and the community varied with age. Attitudinal differences between prisoners and the community tended to be larger than the differences between women and men (agree that abortion is wrong: prisoners, AOR=0.5, 95% CI: 0.4-0.7; community, AOR=0.8, 95% CI: 0.7-0.9; agree that male homosexuality is wrong: prisoners, AOR=0.4, 95% CI: 0.3-0.5; community, AOR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.5-0.7).

CONCLUSION

Prisoners have either similar or less accepting attitudes towards sex than the general population. These attitudes contrast with the higher engagement in risk behaviours reported by prisoners.

The physical health status of young Australian offenders

AIMS

To describe the socio-economic background and physical health status of young offenders in custody in New South Wales (Australia).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey of all young offenders held at nine juvenile detention centres across New South Wales (NSW) (eight male and one female) between January and March 2003.

METHODS

Demographic and health information was collected by nurse interviewers and psychologists using a face-to-face interview. Blood and urine samples were collected to screen for blood-borne viruses and sexually transmissible infections.

RESULTS

The final sample comprised 242 young people (223 males and 19 females). Overall, 90% of those assessed rated their general health as 'excellent', 'very good' or 'good'. Sixty-nine (30%) young offenders reported that they had been previously diagnosed with asthma. Two young women reported a past diagnosis of diabetes with the results of the random blood glucose testing indicating that a further six young people required testing for possible diabetes. None of those tested were positive for HIV, 9% tested positive for hepatitis C antibody, and 11% tested positive for hepatitis B core-antibody.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that young offenders in New South Wales have backgrounds characterised by extreme disadvantage (poor educational attainment, unemployment, and care placements) and poor physical health. Parental incarceration was common to 43% of the sample. Our findings reinforce the concept that for marginalised groups, contact with the criminal justice system represents an important opportunity to detect illness, initiate treatment, and promote contact with health services.

Do paternal arrest and imprisonment lead to child behaviour problems and substance use? A longitudinal analysis

BACKGROUND

Children of prisoners are at increased risk of impaired health, behavioural problems and substance misuse; however, the causal pathways to these problems are unclear. Under some circumstances, parental imprisonment may result in improved outcomes for the child. This study investigates the impact of paternal arrest and imprisonment on child behaviour and substance use, as a function of child gender, and in the context of known social and familial risk factors.

METHODS

Longitudinal analysis of an Australian birth cohort (N = 2,399) recruited 1981-83, with child outcomes measured at age 14. Participants were recruited prenatally from a large, public hospital in Brisbane, Australia and followed up in the community. History of paternal arrest and imprisonment were based on maternal self-report, at age 14. Outcome measures included mother- and child-reported internalising and externalising behaviour (CBCL and YSR), and child self-reported alcohol and tobacco use.

RESULTS

In univariate analyses, paternal imprisonment was associated with maternal reports of increased child internalising (OR = 1.82, 95%CI 1.08-3.06) and externalising (OR = 2.24, 95%CI 1.41-3.57), and alcohol use (OR = 1.68, 95%CI 1.11-2.53) at age 14. However, controlling for socio-economic status, maternal mental health and substance use, parenting style and family adjustment, these associations became non-significant. For boys only, in the multivariate model paternal arrest but not imprisonment predicted alcohol (OR = 1.79, 95%CI 1.09-2.95) and tobacco (OR = 1.83, 95%CI 1.03-3.25) use at age 14.

CONCLUSIONS

The association between paternal arrest and imprisonment and adverse outcomes in adolescence is accounted for by well-established social and familial risk factors. Paternal imprisonment may not, in itself, increase the risk for child behaviour and substance use problems.

Maternal partner criminality and cannabis use in young adulthood: prospective study

OBJECTIVES

The present study examined whether the experience of the arrest or incarceration of a mother's partner before a child reached 14 years of age was associated with use of cannabis in early adulthood and, if so, whether this association was confounded or mediated by other factors.

METHOD

Data were from the Mater Hospital University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy, a prospective birth cohort study in Brisbane, Australia. The history of partner arrest and incarceration was reported by mothers at the 14 year follow up. Mothers were divided into four groups: mothers whose partner had no history of arrest or incarceration, mothers reporting partner arrest, mothers reporting partner incarceration, and unpartnered mothers. Young adults' cannabis use was assessed at 21 years. Other covariates were prospectively measured between birth and 14 years.

RESULTS

After controlling for potential confounding and mediating factors, frequent use of cannabis at age 21 was more likely among young adults with a history of maternal partner arrest (odds ratio=2.3; 95% confidence interval: 1.4-3.8). There was no significant association between maternal partner incarceration or single motherhood, and cannabis use at age 21.

CONCLUSIONS

Arrest of the mother's partner before the child is 14 is associated with that child's increased cannabis use at age 21 but this does not appear to be the case for children whose fathers have been imprisoned. It appears that for children whose fathers have been arrested, the father's ongoing presence in the family may result in worse outcomes for the child, including an increased risk of cannabis use in young adulthood.