1
|
Xiao SX, Gülseven Z, Clancy ET, Liew J, Carlo G, Kim S, Jiang S. Measuring early adolescents' prosocial behavior toward diverse others: Considering multiple social identities. J Adolesc 2024; 96:841-854. [PMID: 38345133 DOI: 10.1002/jad.12305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In a diverse society, individuals often need to make prosocial decisions toward others who vary on a range of intertwined social identities. Adolescence is a prime time to promote intergroup prosociality due to identity salience during this developmental stage. In this study, our goal was to develop and provide initial validation, of a novel measure on intergroup prosocial behavior considering gender and race/ethnicity. METHOD We used two independent samples of early adolescents (N1 = 118, Mage = 12.21 years, 55% boys, 59% White collected nationally in the United States.; N2 = 133, Mage = 12.77, 51.1% boys, 77% White collected locally in Arizona). RESULTS Using the data from Sample 1, Exploratory Factor Analyses revealed a two-factor solution capturing intergroup prosociality and personal distress. Confirmatory Factor Analyses with data from Sample 2 confirmed the factor structure. The reliability of intergroup prosociality was acceptable. Prosociality subscale was positively correlated with adolescents' empathy, sympathy, compliant, emotional, dire, and anonymous prosocial behaviors indicating convergent validity and negatively correlated with adolescents' public prosocial behavior indicating discriminant validity. Further, we examined whether youth engage in differential intergroup prosocial behavior using both variable-centered and person-centered approaches, combining data from Samples 1 and 2. While adolescents did not engage in differential intergroup prosocial behavior, Latent Profile Analyses revealed five distinct profiles of early adolescents' intergroup prosociality. Overall, this study advances research on youth's intergroup prosociality across two intersectional social identities, moving beyond the conceptualization of single social identities in intergroup research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonya Xinyue Xiao
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Zehra Gülseven
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, USA
| | - Erin T Clancy
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Jeffrey Liew
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Gustavo Carlo
- Department of Education, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Sarah Kim
- McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Su Jiang
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nielson MG, Martin CL, England DE, Hanish LD, Santos CE, Delay D, Updegraff KA, Rogers AA. Patterns of Gender Development Across Intersections of Age, Gender, and Ethnicity-Race. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2024; 53:1793-1812. [PMID: 38448690 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-024-02824-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Two components of gender identity are gender similarity, how one's self-concept relates to the major gender collectives (i.e., female, male), and felt pressure to conform to gender norms. The development of these components across ages and contexts has been understudied. The focus of this study was to examine variations in gender similarity and felt pressure across multiple intersecting contexts: developmental stage, gender, and ethnic-racial group. Six data sets were harmonized and means were compared across 2628 participants (51% girls, 49% boys) from four different developmental cohorts (childhood n = 678, early adolescence n = 1322, adolescence n = 415, and young adulthood n = 213) from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds (45% White, 23% Latinx/Hispanic, 11% Black/African-American, 7% Asian-American, 5% American Indian, and 5% Multiracial). Results revealed nuanced patterns: Gender intensification was supported in early adolescence, primarily for boys. Young adult men reported lower levels of pressure and gender typicality than younger boys, but young adult women's levels were generally not different than younger girls. Surprisingly, young adult women's levels of own-gender similarity and pressure from parents were higher than adolescent girls. Expectations of gender differences in gender typicality and felt pressure were supported for all ages except young adults, with higher levels for boys. Finally, there were more similarities than differences across ethnic-racial groups, though when there were differences, minoritized participants reported heightened gender typicality and pressure (largely accounted for by higher scores for Black and Latinx participants and lower scores for White and Multiracial participants). These results add to what is understood about contextually dependent gender development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G Nielson
- Psychology Department, New York University Abu Dhabi, 178B Building A3, Saadiyat Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Carol Lynn Martin
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Development, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Dawn E England
- School of Education, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, England
| | - Laura D Hanish
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Development, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Carlos E Santos
- Department of Social Welfare, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Dawn Delay
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Development, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Kimberly A Updegraff
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Adam A Rogers
- School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ballering AV, Burke SM, Maeckelberghe ELM, Rosmalen JGM. How to Ensure Inclusivity in Large-Scale General Population Cohort Studies? Lessons Learned with Regard to Including and Assessing Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2023:10.1007/s10508-023-02600-y. [PMID: 37186037 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-023-02600-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Despite recent advances in the measurement of sex, gender, and sexual orientation in large-scale cohort studies, the three concepts are still gaining relatively little attention, may be mistakenly equated, or non-informatively operationalized. The resulting imprecise or lacking information hereon in studies is problematic, as sex, gender, and sexual orientation are important health-related factors. Omission of these concepts from general population cohort studies might dismiss participants' identity and experiences and pushes research on sexual or gender minority populations toward purposive sampling, potentially introducing selection bias. It also reinforces the unintentional notion of irrelevance of these concepts to health research, ultimately disadvantaging sexual and gender minority populations. Similarly, a lack of uniform measures on sex, gender, and sexual orientation hampers multi-cohort studies in which data from multiple studies are combined, facilitating increased statistical power. This paper discusses the encountered pitfalls and lessons learned on including and assessing sex, gender, and sexual orientation in large-scale general population cohort studies, exemplified by the Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study. Additionally, we propose hands-on strategies on how to operationalize these concepts in an inclusive manner that is useful for large-scale general population cohort studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aranka V Ballering
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Sarah M Burke
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Els L M Maeckelberghe
- University Medical Center Groningen, Wenckebach Institute for Training and Education, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Judith G M Rosmalen
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center of Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dittman CK, Sprajcer M, Turley EL. Revisiting gendered parenting of adolescents: understanding its effects on psychosocial development. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 42:1-13. [PMID: 35967502 PMCID: PMC9364298 DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03536-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Today's adolescents are growing up in a unique sociocultural climate in which gender issues are highly prominent. Alongside new ways of understanding gender identity, there are persistent gender disparities in social, health and mental health outcomes despite increasingly egalitarian views and a significant public focus on sexual assault and gender-based violence. Given gender-differentiated outcomes emerge during adolescence, it is critical to revisit factors influencing adolescent gender development. It has been argued that gendered parenting, reflected in differences in parenting attitudes and behaviors directed towards boys and girls, influences gender development. While numerous studies have examined gendered parenting with children, there has been no previous synthesis of gendered parenting of adolescents. Method: The current narrative review presents an overview of research into gendered parenting of adolescents, including parental modelling, gendered environments, and specific parenting practices, and draws together the available research on how it impacts adolescents. Gendered parenting is also examined in the context of LGBTQI + and gender non-conforming adolescents. Results: There is limited research investigating the presence of gendered parenting of adolescents, and even less assessing its impact on adolescent psychosocial outcomes. The available literature suggests that there may be effects of gendered parenting on adolescents, particularly on their gender role attitudes and gender-typed behaviors. Conclusions: Future work is needed to better understand how gendered parenting of adolescents manifests in the family home. In addition, research is needed to examine the longitudinal impact of gendered parenting, particularly within non-traditional families, and across a range of sociocultural contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra K. Dittman
- Central Queensland University, Locked Bag 3333, 4670 Bundaberg, DC, QLD Australia
- Parenting and Family Support Centre, School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD Australia
| | - Madeline Sprajcer
- Appleton Institute, Central Queensland University, Norman Gardens, QLD Australia
| | - Emma L. Turley
- Central Queensland University, Locked Bag 3333, 4670 Bundaberg, DC, QLD Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Luckhoff HK, Asmal L, Scheffler F, du Plessis S, Chiliza B, Smit R, Phahladira L, Emsley R. Sex and gender associations with indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res 2022; 243:70-77. [PMID: 35245704 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2022.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been proposed that sex and gender differences described in schizophrenia can be explained from a neurodevelopmental perspective. AIM In this study, we examined the associations of biological sex and gender role endorsement with putative indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise. METHODS We used the Bem Sex Role Inventory to calculate masculinity scores in 77 patients with a first episode of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, and selected the following indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise: family history of schizophrenia, obstetric complications, premorbid functioning, neurological soft signs, and cognitive function. Secondary objectives included the moderating effects of age of onset of illness, substance use and negative symptoms on these associations. RESULTS There were no significant sex differences across any of the indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise. However, lower masculinity scores correlated significantly with poorer premorbid adjustment, sensory integration deficits and worse overall cognitive performance. Stepwise linear regression identified poorer premorbid adjustment in early adolescence and lower verbal learning scores as independent predictors of lower masculinity scores. In contrast to sex, gender showed several associations with indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise. CONCLUSIONS Lower masculinity scores may represent part of a phenotype for a neurodevelopmental anomaly that places some individuals on a pathway to schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hilmar Klaus Luckhoff
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa.
| | - Laila Asmal
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| | - Frederika Scheffler
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| | - Stefan du Plessis
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| | - Bonginkosi Chiliza
- Department of Psychiatry, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Retha Smit
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| | - Lebogang Phahladira
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| | - Robin Emsley
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7550, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cislaghi B, Bhatia A, Li M, Lian Q, Baird S, Kayembe P, Chipeta E, Moreau C. Changes in the Sexual Double Standard Associated With Sociodevelopmental Factors Among Young Adolescents in Kinshasa. J Adolesc Health 2021; 69:S23-S30. [PMID: 34217455 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to describe the changes in adolescents' perceptions of a sexual double standard (SDS) over time and to examine the developmental and social factors associated with these changing perceptions. METHODS The sample includes 2,163 10- to 14-year-old adolescents from Kinshasa, interviewed at two time points (T0 and T1), 1 year apart. We examined associations between SDS and pubertal onset, family interactions, peer interactions, and media exposure. We conducted sex-stratified generalized estimation equation models to test associations between changes in SDS and sociodevelopmental factors at T0 as well as with changes in sociodevelopmental factors between T0 and T1. RESULTS At T0, the SDS score was 4.15/5 among boys and 4.43/5 among girls, signaling highly gender unequal perceptions. SDS scores increased over time, shifting toward greater inequality. Adolescents who were prepubertal at T0 experienced greater increases in SDS scores than those who were pubertal at T0. The greatest increase in SDS scores was observed among girls who transitioned through puberty between T0 and T1. High parental monitoring of boys mitigated the increase in SDS as did boys' increased exposure to social media between T0 and T1. Girls who had mixed-sex friendships also experienced less change in SDS perceptions compared with those who socialized in same-sex groups. CONCLUSIONS Puberty was associated with changes in SDS perceptions for all adolescents, whereas family interactions and media exposure affected changes in SDS perceptions for boys and peer interactions affected changes in SDS perceptions for girls.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beniamino Cislaghi
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | - Amiya Bhatia
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Mengmeng Li
- Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Qiguo Lian
- NHC Key Lab. of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah Baird
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Patrick Kayembe
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Effie Chipeta
- Department of Public Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Malawi, Blantyre, Malawi; Centre for Reproductive Health (CRH), University of Malawi, College of Medicine, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Caroline Moreau
- Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Soins Primaires et Prévention, Inserm U1018, Center for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health (CESP), Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Potter A, Dube S, Allgaier N, Loso H, Ivanova M, Barrios LC, Bookheimer S, Chaarani B, Dumas J, Feldstein-Ewing S, Freedman E, Garavan H, Hoffman E, McGlade E, Robin L, Johns MM. Early adolescent gender diversity and mental health in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2021; 62:171-179. [PMID: 32463952 PMCID: PMC7704539 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are known associations between mental health symptoms and transgender identity among adults. Whether this relationship extends to early adolescents and to gender domains other than identity is unclear. This study measured dimensions of gender in a large, diverse, sample of youth, and examined associations between diverse gender experiences and mental health. METHODS The ABCD study is an ongoing, longitudinal, US cohort study. Baseline data (release 2.0) include 11,873 youth age 9/10 (48% female); and the 4,951 1-year follow-up visits (age 10/11; 48% female) completed prior to data release. A novel gender survey at the 1-year visit assessed felt-gender, gender noncontentedness, and gender nonconformity using a 5-point scale. Mental health measures included youth- and parent-reports. RESULTS Roughly half a percent of 9/10-year-olds (n = 58) responded 'yes' or 'maybe' when asked, 'Are you transgender' at baseline. Recurrent thoughts of death were more prevalent among these youth compared to the rest of the cohort (19.6% vs. 6.4%, χ2 = 16.0, p < .001). At the 1-year visit, when asked about the three dimensions of gender on a 5-point scale, 33.2% (n = 1,605) provided responses that were not exclusively and totally aligned with one gender. Significant relationships were observed between mental health symptoms and gender diversity for all dimensions assessed. CONCLUSIONS Similar to adult studies, early adolescents identifying as transgender reported increased mental health symptoms. Results also point to considerable diversity in other dimensions of gender (felt-gender, gender noncontentedness, gender nonconformity) among 10/11-year-olds, and find this diversity to be related to critical mental health symptoms. These findings add to our limited understanding of the relationship between dimensions of gender and wellness for youth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Potter
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Sarahjane Dube
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Nicholas Allgaier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Hannah Loso
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Masha Ivanova
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Lisa C. Barrios
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Susan Bookheimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Bader Chaarani
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Julie Dumas
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Sarah Feldstein-Ewing
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Ed Freedman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Hugh Garavan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Elizabeth Hoffman
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Erin McGlade
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Leah Robin
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Michelle M. Johns
- Division of Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Peper JS, Burke SM, Wierenga LM. Sex differences and brain development during puberty and adolescence. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 175:25-54. [PMID: 33008529 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in behavior, and whether these behavioral differences are related to sex differences in brain development, has been a longstanding topic of debate. Presumably, sex differences can provide critically important leads for explaining the etiology of various illnesses that show (i) large sex differences in prevalence and (ii) have an origin before or during adolescence. The general aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of scientific studies on sex differences in normative brain and behavioral development across puberty and adolescence, including the (sex) hormone-driven transition phase of puberty. Moreover, we describe the literature on brain and behavioral development in gender dysphoria, a severe and persistent incongruence between the self-identified gender and the assigned sex at birth. From the literature it becomes clear there is evidence for a specific link between pubertal maturation and developmental changes in arousal, motivation, and emotion. However, this link is rather similar between boys and girls. Moreover, although there is substantial evidence for sex differences in mean brain structure, these have not always been linked to sex differences in behavior, cognition, or psychopathology. Furthermore, there is little evidence for sex differences in brain development and thus, studies so far have been unable to explain sex differences in cognition. Suggestions for future research and methodologic considerations are provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiska S Peper
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Sarah M Burke
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lara M Wierenga
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Xiao SX, Hashi EC, Korous KM, Eisenberg N. Gender differences across multiple types of prosocial behavior in adolescence: A meta-analysis of the prosocial tendency measure-revised (PTM-R). J Adolesc 2019; 77:41-58. [PMID: 31648167 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Literature on adolescent prosocial behavior (PB) has grown tremendously since the development of The Prosocial Tendency Measure-Revised (PTM-R), which includes subscales assessing different types of PB. However, findings of gender differences are inconsistent across studies. Thus, we computed meta-analyses to examine gender differences in adolescents' PB. Further, we examined the moderating roles of type of PB, and various sample (i.e., mean age, gender composition, ethnic composition) and study (i.e., reporter type, measurement form, reliability) characteristics in gender differences in PB. METHODS Using online databases (e.g., ProQuest), journal article references, and conference programs, we identified a total of 46 records from 32 studies (215 effect sizes, N = 12,024) across the globe that had measured adolescents' (age 10-18; 51% male) PB using the PTM-R or the PTM. RESULTS Gender differences in the PB were small to medium in magnitude (ds ranged from 0 to 0.35) for absolute gender differences (i.e., overall magnitude of gender differences regardless of which gender was higher). There were larger gender differences for gender-typed prosocial behaviors (e.g., altruistic, d = 0.35) than gender-neutral behaviors (e.g., anonymous, d = 0.03). The type of PB (i.e., altruistic, compliant, public, emotional, dire, anonymous) and region (i.e., European, U.S., traditional cultures, Asian) and were significant moderators. CONCLUSIONS Although males and females generally are more similar than different in their prosociality, it is important to consider the type of PB when examining gender differences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonya Xinyue Xiao
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, USA.
| | - Emi C Hashi
- Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, USA.
| | - Kevin M Korous
- T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, USA.
| | - Nancy Eisenberg
- The Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cook RE, Nielson MG, Martin CL, DeLay D. Early Adolescent Gender Development: The Differential Effects of Felt Pressure from Parents, Peers, and the Self. J Youth Adolesc 2019; 48:1912-1923. [PMID: 31520234 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-019-01122-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Most empirical research examining youth's gender development measures felt pressure to conform to gender norms using a composite value of felt pressure from multiple sources; however, because of the different socialization processes at work from parents, peers, and the self, analyzing these sources separately may elucidate different effects on gender development. Thus, the purpose of this study was to (a) differentiate the effects of perceived gender socialization pressure from parents, peers, and the self on early adolescents' own- and other-gender typicality, and (b) to examine whether a bi-directional relation between gender typicality and felt pressure is evident when distinguished across sources. With a sample of 212 early adolescents (54% girls; Mage = 11.11 years), felt pressure was found to be distinguishable by socialization source: adolescents' perceptions of parents, peers, and their own pressures were distinct, and each contributed differently to gender development. Pressure from self and peers were both found to relate concurrently to typicality (i.e., positively to own-gender typicality, negatively to other-gender typicality); only pressure from the self was found to have a longitudinal effect on adolescents' developing gender identity (i.e., an increase in own-gender typicality). Interestingly, other-gender typicality did not elicit higher felt pressure; in fact, it was negatively related to later felt pressure from the self, suggesting that adolescents may be developing self-acceptance of their levels of gender typicality. The findings suggest that the development of gender identity may involve a complex interplay with various sources of socialization pressures (e.g., parent, peers, self), and may further shift in relation to the adolescent's own levels of gender typicality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E Cook
- Arizona State University, P.O. Box 873701, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA.
| | | | | | - Dawn DeLay
- Arizona State University, P.O. Box 873701, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Oshin LA, Milan S. My strong, Black daughter: Racial/ethnic differences in the attributes mothers value for their daughters. CULTURAL DIVERSITY & ETHNIC MINORITY PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 25:179-187. [PMID: 30507209 PMCID: PMC6438745 DOI: 10.1037/cdp0000206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The Strong Black Woman (SBW) ideal, which emphasizes self-reliance and strength, is considered an influential cultural image for many Black women. Research on how the SBW ideal may be reflected in maternal socialization is largely theoretical or qualitative. METHODS Guided by cultural models of parenting, we tested for racial/ethnic differences in the importance and meaning of SBW-related attributes among 194 low-income, Black (22%), White (20%), and Latina (57%) families. Mothers (M = 41.6 years) and daughters (M = 15.4 years) completed semistructured interviews, q-sort tasks, and self-report measures. Group differences were examined with analysis of covariance, logistic regression, and multigroup path models. RESULTS Black adolescents were not described by mothers or adolescents as possessing more SBW-related attributes (e.g., strong-willed, independent, assertive) compared to adolescents of other racial/ethnic groups; however, tests of moderation indicate group differences in how mothers perceived these attributes. Black adolescents with high SBW-related attributes were viewed by their mothers as showing leadership, whereas White and Latina adolescents with these attributes were viewed by mothers as having externalizing problems. Black mothers also rated these attributes as more important for young adult women to possess compared to other mothers. Finally, Black mothers described self-reliance as the critical developmental task for their daughter more than White and Latina mothers. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest attributes consistent with the SBW ideal are valued by Black mothers more than Latina and White mothers from similar communities and provide empirical support about the potential importance of the SBW ideal in how Black mothers raise their daughters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda A. Oshin
- University of Connecticut – 406 Babbidge Rd., U1020, Storrs, CT 06269
| | - Stephanie Milan
- University of Connecticut – 406 Babbidge Rd., U1020, Storrs, CT 06269
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigates if and why audience gender ratios vary between museum YouTube channels, including for museums of the same type.
Design/methodology/approach
Gender ratios were examined for public comments on YouTube videos from 50 popular museums in English-speaking nations. Terms that were more frequently used by males or females in comments were also examined for gender differences.
Findings
The ratio of female to male YouTube commenters varies almost a hundredfold between museums. Some of the difference could be explained by gendered interests in museum themes (e.g. military, art) but others were due to the topics chosen for online content and could address a gender minority audience.
Practical implications
Museums can attract new audiences online with YouTube videos that target outside their expected demographics.
Originality/value
This is the first analysis of YouTube audience gender for museums.
Collapse
|
13
|
Pink for Girls, Red for Boys, and Blue for Both Genders: Colour Preferences in Children and Adults. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0955-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
14
|
MacPhee D, Prendergast S. Room for Improvement: Girls’ and Boys’ Home Environments are Still Gendered. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0936-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
|
15
|
Berenbaum SA, Beltz AM, Bryk K, McHale S. Gendered Peer Involvement in Girls with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Effects of Prenatal Androgens, Gendered Activities, and Gender Cognitions. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2018; 47:915-929. [PMID: 29318470 PMCID: PMC9173056 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-017-1112-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A key question in understanding gender development concerns the origins of sex segregation. Children's tendencies to interact with same-sex others have been hypothesized to result from gender identity and cognitions, behavioral compatibility, and personal characteristics. We examined whether prenatal androgen exposure was related to time spent with boys and girls, and how that gendered peer involvement was related to sex-typed activities and gender identity and cognitions. We studied 54 girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) aged 10-13 years varying in degree of prenatal androgen exposure: 40 girls with classical CAH (C-CAH) exposed to high prenatal androgens and 14 girls with non-classical CAH (NC-CAH) exposed to low, female-typical, prenatal androgens. Home interviews and questionnaires provided assessments of gendered activity interests and participation, gender identity, and gender cognitions. Daily phone calls over 7 days assessed time spent in gendered activities and with peers. Girls with both C-CAH and NC-CAH interacted more with girls than with boys, with no significant group differences. The groups did not differ significantly in gender identity or gender cognitions, but girls with C-CAH spent more time in male-typed activities and less time in female-typed activities than did girls with NC-CAH. Time spent with girls reflected direct effects of gender identity/cognitions and gender-typed activities, and an indirect effect of prenatal androgens (CAH type) through gender-typed activities. Our results extend findings that prenatal androgens differentially affect gendered characteristics and that gendered peer interactions reflect combined effects of behavioral compatibility and feelings and cognitions about gender. The study also shows the value of natural experiments for testing hypotheses about gender development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheri A Berenbaum
- Department of Psychology, 453 Moore Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
| | - Adriene M Beltz
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kristina Bryk
- Department of Psychology, 453 Moore Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Susan McHale
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Endendijk JJ, Groeneveld MG, Mesman J. The Gendered Family Process Model: An Integrative Framework of Gender in the Family. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2018; 47:877-904. [PMID: 29549542 PMCID: PMC5891573 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1185-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews and integrates research on gender-related biological, cognitive, and social processes that take place in or between family members, resulting in a newly developed gendered family process (GFP) model. The GFP model serves as a guiding framework for research on gender in the family context, calling for the integration of biological, social, and cognitive factors. Biological factors in the model are prenatal, postnatal, and pubertal androgen levels of children and parents, and genetic effects on parent and child gendered behavior. Social factors are family sex composition (i.e., parent sex, sexual orientation, marriage status, sibling sex composition) and parental gender socialization, such as modeling, gender-differentiated parenting, and gender talk. Cognitive factors are implicit and explicit gender-role cognitions of parents and children. Our review and the GFP model confirm that gender is an important organizer of family processes, but also highlight that much is still unclear about the mechanisms underlying gender-related processes within the family context. Therefore, we stress the need for (1) longitudinal studies that take into account the complex bidirectional relationship between parent and child gendered behavior and cognitions, in which within-family comparisons (comparing behavior of parents toward a boy and a girl in the same family) are made instead of between-family comparisons (comparing parenting between all-boy families and all-girl families, or between mixed-gender families and same-gender families), (2) experimental studies on the influence of testosterone on human gender development, (3) studies examining the interplay between biology with gender socialization and gender-role cognitions in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joyce J Endendijk
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Child and Adolescent Studies, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen G Groeneveld
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Judi Mesman
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Vocational interests across 20 years of adulthood: Stability, change, and the role of work experiences. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
18
|
Lee B, Skinner OD, McHale SM. Links between gendered leisure time in childhood and adolescence and gendered occupational aspirations. J Adolesc 2017; 62:96-107. [PMID: 29175638 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The world of work remains gender-segregated, and research is needed to identify factors that may give rise to women's and men's vocational choices. This study explored bidirectional relations between youth's gendered career aspirations and the proportions of youth's leisure time spent in stereotypically gendered activities and gendered social contexts. Participants were 203 youth (52% girls) from predominantly white, working and middle class families living in the US, who reported on their occupational aspirations and gendered interests in home interviews and on their daily activities in a series of 7 nightly phone interviews on two occasions, in middle childhood (Mage = 10.9) and in adolescence (Mage = 17.3). Path models revealed that aspirations predicted youth's time use more so than the reverse. Time in gendered social contexts, specifically time in female-only contexts, but not time in gender-typed activities, predicted career aspirations. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bora Lee
- Department of Education, Korea University, South Korea.
| | - Olivenne D Skinner
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
| | - Susan M McHale
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Skinner OD, McHale SM. The Development and Correlates of Gender Role Orientations in African-American Youth. Child Dev 2017; 89:1704-1719. [PMID: 28474457 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study charted the development of gendered personality qualities, activity interests, and attitudes across adolescence (approximately ages 9-18) among 319 African-American youth from 166 families. The relations between daily time spent with father, mother, and male and female peers-the gendered contexts of youth's daily activities-and (changes in) these gender role orientations were also assessed. Boys and girls differed in their gender role orientations in stereotypical ways: interest in masculine and feminine activities, and attitude traditionality generally declined, but instrumentality increased across adolescence and expressivity first increased and later decreased. Some gender differences and variations in change were conditioned by time spent with same- and other-sex gender parents and peers. The most consistent pattern was time with male peers predicting boys' stereotypical characteristics.
Collapse
|
20
|
Khorashad BS, Aghili Z, Kreukels BP, Hiradfar M, Roshan GM, Afkhamizadeh M, Abbaszadegan MR, Ghaemi N, Khazai B, Cohen-Kettenis P. Psychosexual Outcome Among Iranian Individuals With 5α-Reductase Deficiency Type 2 and Its Relationship With Parental Sexism. J Sex Med 2016; 13:1629-1641. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
|
21
|
Endendijk JJ, Beltz AM, McHale SM, Bryk K, Berenbaum SA. Linking Prenatal Androgens to Gender-Related Attitudes, Identity, and Activities: Evidence From Girls With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2016; 45:1807-15. [PMID: 26940967 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-016-0693-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Key questions for developmentalists concern the origins of gender attitudes and their implications for behavior. We examined whether prenatal androgen exposure was related to gender attitudes, and whether and how the links between attitudes and gendered activity interest and participation were mediated by gender identity and moderated by hormones. Gender attitudes (i.e., gender-role attitudes and attitudes about being a girl), gender identity, and gender-typed activities were reported by 54 girls aged 10-13 years varying in degree of prenatal androgen exposure, including 40 girls with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (C-CAH) exposed to high prenatal androgens and 14 girls with non-classical (NC) CAH exposed to low, female-typical, prenatal androgens. Both girls with C-CAH and NC-CAH reported positive attitudes about being a girl and egalitarian gender attitudes, consistent with their female-typical gender identity. In contrast, girls with C-CAH had more male-typed activity interest and participation than girls with NC-CAH. Gender attitudes were linked to activities in both groups, with gender identity mediating the links. Specifically, gender-role attitudes and positive attitudes about being a girl were associated with feminine gender identity, which in turn was associated with decreased male-typed activity interests and participation, and increased female-typed activity interests. Our results are consistent with schema theories, with attitudes more closely associated with gender identity than with prenatal androgens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joyce J Endendijk
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Adriene M Beltz
- Department of Human Development & Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, 453 Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Susan M McHale
- Department of Human Development & Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Kristina Bryk
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, 453 Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Sheri A Berenbaum
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, 453 Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
Many important psychological characteristics show sex differences, and are influenced by sex hormones at different developmental periods. We focus on the role of sex hormones in early development, particularly the differential effects of prenatal androgens on aspects of gender development. Increasing evidence confirms that prenatal androgens have facilitative effects on male-typed activity interests and engagement (including child toy preferences and adult careers), and spatial abilities, but relatively minimal effects on gender identity. Recent emphasis has been directed to the psychological mechanisms underlying these effects (including sex differences in propulsive movement, and androgen effects on interest in people versus things), and neural substrates of androgen effects (including regional brain volumes, and neural responses to mental rotation, sexually arousing stimuli, emotion, and reward). Ongoing and planned work is focused on understanding the ways in which hormones act jointly with the social environment across time to produce varying trajectories of gender development, and clarifying mechanisms by which androgens affect behaviors. Such work will be facilitated by applying lessons from other species, and by expanding methodology. Understanding hormonal influences on gender development enhances knowledge of psychological development generally, and has important implications for basic and applied questions, including sex differences in psychopathology, women's underrepresentation in science and math, and clinical care of individuals with variations in gender expression.
Collapse
|
23
|
Lawson KM, Crouter AC, McHale SM. Links between Family Gender Socialization Experiences in Childhood and Gendered Occupational Attainment in Young Adulthood. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2015; 90:26-35. [PMID: 26977112 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gendered occupational segregation remains prevalent across the world. Although research has examined factors contributing to the low number of women in male-typed occupations - namely science, technology, engineering, and math - little longitudinal research has examined the role of childhood experiences in both young women's and men's later gendered occupational attainment. This study addressed this gap in the literature by examining family gender socialization experiences in middle childhood - namely parents' attitudes and work and family life - as contributors to the gender typicality of occupational attainment in young adulthood. Using data collected from mothers, fathers, and children over approximately 15 years, the results revealed that the associations between childhood socialization experiences (∼10 years old) and occupational attainment (∼26 years old) depended on the sex of the child. For sons but not daughters, mothers' more traditional attitudes towards women's roles predicted attaining more gender-typed occupations. In addition, spending more time with fathers in childhood predicted daughters attaining less and sons acquiring more gender-typed occupations in young adulthood. Overall, evidence supports the idea that childhood socialization experiences help to shape individuals' career attainment and thus contribute to gender segregation in the labor market.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katie M Lawson
- Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University
| | - Ann C Crouter
- Human Development & Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University
| | - Susan M McHale
- Human Development & Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Lee B, Lawson KM, McHale SM. Longitudinal Associations Between Gender-typed Skills and Interests and Their Links to Occupational Outcomes. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2015; 88:121-130. [PMID: 25843956 PMCID: PMC4383179 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Although gender-based occupational segregation has declined in past decades, the world of work remains segregated by gender. Grounded in research showing that individuals tend to choose jobs that match their interests and skills, this study examined the longitudinal associations between gendered activity interests and skills from middle childhood through adolescence and tested gendered interests and skills, measured in adolescence, as predictors of occupational outcomes in young adulthood. Data were collected from 402 participants at four time points- when they averaged 10, 12, 16, and 25 years old. Results revealed that the longitudinal linkages between male-typed interests and skills were bidirectional, that both male-typed interests and skills in adolescence predicted working in male-typed occupations in young adulthood, and that skills, but not interests, predicted income. In contrast, female-typed interests predicted female-typed skills, but not the reverse, adolescent female-typed skills (but not interests) predicted working in female-typed occupations in young adulthood, and there were no links between female-typed interests or skills and income. Discussion focuses on the differential meanings and developmental implications of male-versus female-typed interests and skills.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bora Lee
- Pennsylvania State University, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, 106 Beecher-Dock House. University Park, PA 16802
| | - Katie M. Lawson
- Ball State University, Department of Psychological Science, 113 North Quad Bldg. Muncie, IN 47306
| | - Susan M. McHale
- Pennsylvania State University, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, 106 Beecher-Dock House. University Park, PA 16802
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Berenbaum SA, Beltz AM, Corley R. The importance of puberty for adolescent development: conceptualization and measurement. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2015; 48:53-92. [PMID: 25735941 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
How and why are teenagers different from children and adults? A key question concerns the ways in which pubertal development shapes psychological changes in adolescence directly through changes to the brain and indirectly through the social environment. Empirical work linking pubertal development to adolescent psychological function draws from several different perspectives, often with varying approaches and a focus on different outcomes and mechanisms. The main themes concern effects of atypical pubertal timing on behavior problems during adolescence, effects of pubertal status (and associated hormones) on normative changes in behaviors that can facilitate or hinder development (especially risk-taking, social reorientation, and stress responsivity), and the role of puberty in triggering psychopathology in vulnerable individuals. There is also interest in understanding the ways in which changes in the brain reflect pubertal processes and underlie psychological development in adolescence. In this chapter, we consider the ways that puberty might affect adolescent psychological development, and why this is of importance to developmentalists. We describe the processes of pubertal development; summarize what is known about pubertal influences on adolescent development; consider the assumptions that underlie most work and the methodological issues that affect the interpretation of results; and propose research directions to help understand paths from puberty to behavior. Throughout, we emphasize the importance of pubertal change in all aspects of psychological development, and the ways in which puberty represents an opportunity to study the interplay of biological and social influences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheri A Berenbaum
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Pediatrics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | - Adriene M Beltz
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Robin Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Steensma TD, Kreukels BPC, de Vries ALC, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Gender identity development in adolescence. Horm Behav 2013; 64:288-97. [PMID: 23998673 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Puberty and Adolescence".This article aims to provide an outline of what is currently known on trajectories, and contributing factors to gender identity development in adolescence. We give a historical overview of the concept of gender identity, and describe general identity development in adolescence, gender identity development in the general population and in gender variant youth. Possible psychosocial (such as child and parental characteristics) and biological factors (such as the effects of prenatal exposure to gonadal hormones and the role of genetics) contributing to a gender variant identity are discussed. Studies focusing on a number of psychosocial and biological factors separately, indicate that each of these factors influence gender identity formation, but little is known about the complex interplay between the factors, nor about the way individuals themselves contribute to the process. Research into normative and gender variant identity development of adolescents is clearly lagging behind. However, studies on persons with gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development, show that the period of adolescence, with its changing social environment and the onset of physical puberty, seems to be crucial for the development of a non-normative gender identity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Steensma
- Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Self-Perceived Gender Typicality, Gender-Typed Attributes, and Gender Stereotype Endorsement in Elementary-School-Aged Children. SEX ROLES 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-012-0184-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
28
|
Abstract
High rates of incarceration among American men, coupled with high rates of fatherhood among men in prison, have motivated recent research on the effects of parental imprisonment on children's development. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the relationship between paternal incarceration and developmental outcomes for approximately 3,000 urban children. We estimate cross-sectional and longitudinal regression models that control not only for fathers' basic demographic characteristics and a rich set of potential confounders, but also for several measures of pre-incarceration child development and family fixed effects. We find significant increases in aggressive behaviors and some evidence of increased attention problems among children whose fathers are incarcerated. The estimated effects of paternal incarceration are stronger than those of other forms of father absence, suggesting that children with incarcerated fathers may require specialized support from caretakers, teachers, and social service providers. The estimated effects are stronger for children who lived with their fathers prior to incarceration but are also significant for children of nonresident fathers, suggesting that incarceration places children at risk through family hardships including and beyond parent-child separation.
Collapse
|
29
|
Marcell AV, Eftim SE, Sonenstein FL, Pleck JH. Associations of Family and Peer Experiences with Masculinity Attitude Trajectories at the Individual and Group Level in Adolescent and Young Adult Males. MEN AND MASCULINITIES 2011; 14:10.1177/1097184X11409363. [PMID: 24187483 PMCID: PMC3813305 DOI: 10.1177/1097184x11409363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Data were drawn from 845 males in the National Survey of Adolescent Males who were initially aged 15-17, and followed-up 2.5 and 4.5 years later, to their early twenties. Mixed-effects regression models (MRM) and semiparametric trajectory analyses (STA) modeled patterns of change in masculinity attitudes at the individual and group levels, guided by gender intensification theory and cognitive-developmental theory. Overall, men's masculinity attitudes became significantly less traditional between middle adolescence and early adulthood. In MRM analyses using time-varying covariates, maintaining paternal coresidence and continuing to have first sex in uncommitted heterosexual relationships were significantly associated with masculinity attitudes remaining relatively traditional. The STA modeling identified three distinct patterns of change in masculinity attitudes. A traditional-liberalizing trajectory of masculinity attitudes was most prevalent, followed by traditional-stable and nontraditional-stable trajectories. Implications for gender intensification and cognitive-developmental approaches to masculinity attitudes are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arik V. Marcell
- School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sorina E. Eftim
- ICF International, the Environmental and Toxicology Division, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Freya L. Sonenstein
- Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joseph H. Pleck
- Human and Community Development, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Gender Conceptualizations in Female High School Seniors: Relationships with Global Self-Worth and Multiple Measures of Body Image. SEX ROLES 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-011-0028-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
31
|
|