1
|
Ramaraj JA, Narayan S. Anti-aging Strategies and Topical Delivery of Biopolymer-based Nanocarriers for Skin Cancer Treatment. Curr Aging Sci 2024; 17:31-48. [PMID: 36941817 DOI: 10.2174/1874609816666230320122018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Environmental factors like UV radiation and epigenetic changes are significant factors for skin cancer that trigger early aging. This review provides essential information on cancer development concerning aging, the receptors involved, and the therapeutic targets. Biopolymers like polysaccharide, polyphenols, proteins, and nucleic acid plays a vital role in the regulation of normal cell homeostasis. Therefore, it is pertinent to explore the role of biopolymers as antiaging formulations and the possibility of these formulations being used against cancer via topical administrations. As UV radiation is one of the predominant factors in causing skin cancer, the association of receptors between aging and cancer indicated that insulin receptor, melatonin receptor, toll-like receptor, SIRT 1 receptor, tumor-specific T cell receptor and mitochondria-based targeting could be used to direct therapeutics for suppression of cancer and prevent aging. Biopolymer-based nanoformulations have tremendously progressed by entrapment of drugs like curcumin and resveratrol which can prevent cancer and aging simultaneously. Certain protein signaling or calcium and ROS signaling pathways are different for cancer and aging. The involvement of mitochondrial DNA mutation along with telomere shortening with a change in cellular energetics leading to genomic instability in the aging process can also induce mitochondrial dysfunction and epigenetic alterations leading to skin cancer. Therefore, the use of biopolymers as a topical supplement during the aging process can result in the prevention of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jino Affrald Ramaraj
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Kelambakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603103, India
| | - Shoba Narayan
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Kelambakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603103, India
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jeon KB, Kim J, Lim CM, Park JY, Kim NY, Lee J, Oh DK, Yoon DY. Unsaturated oxidated fatty acid 12(S)-HETE attenuates TNF-α expression in TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated human keratinocytes. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 120:110298. [PMID: 37207444 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chronic skin inflammatory diseases are associated with abnormal immune responses characterized by skin barrier dysfunction. Keratinocytes participate in immune homeostasis regulated by immune cells. Immune homeostasis dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of skin diseases mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, which are produced by activated keratinocytes. 12(S)-Hydroxy eicosatetraenoic acid [12(S)-HETE], an arachidonic acid metabolite, has anti-inflammatory properties. However, the role of 12(S)-HETE in chronic skin inflammatory diseases has not been elucidated yet. In this study, we investigated the effect of 12(S)-HETE on TNF-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine expression. Our data showed that 12(S)-HETE modulates TNF-α mRNA and protein expression in TNF-α-/IFN-γ-treated human keratinocytes. Molecular docking analyses demonstrated that 12(S)-HETE bound to extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2, thus preventing ERK activation and downregulating phosphorylated ERK expression. We also demonstrated that 12(S)-HETE treatment inhibited IκB and ERK phosphorylation and nuclear factor (NF)-κB, p65/p50, and CCAAT/enhancerbindingproteinβ (C/EBPβ) translocation. Overall, our results showed that 12(S)-HETE attenuated TNF-α expression and secretion by inhibiting the mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK/NF-κB and C/EBPβ signaling pathways. Overall, these results suggest that 12(S)-HETE effectively resolved TNF-α-induced inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyeong-Bae Jeon
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinju Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Chae-Min Lim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Young Park
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Na-Yeon Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Lee
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Deok-Kun Oh
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Young Yoon
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Th2 Cytokines Affect the Innate Immune Barrier without Impairing the Physical Barrier in a 3D Model of Normal Human Skin. J Clin Med 2023; 12:jcm12051941. [PMID: 36902728 PMCID: PMC10003590 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12051941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Atopic dermatitis is one of the most common inflammatory skin diseases characterized by T helper (Th) 2 and Th22 cells producing interleukin (IL)-4/IL-13 and IL-22, respectively. The specific contribution of each cytokine to the impairment of the physical and the immune barrier via Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is poorly addressed concerning the epidermal compartment of the skin. (2) Methods: The effect of IL-4, IL-13, IL-22, and the master cytokine IL-23 is evaluated in a 3D model of normal human skin biopsies (n = 7) at the air-liquid interface for 24 and 48 h. We investigated by immunofluorescence the expressions of (i) claudin-1, zonula occludens (ZO)-1 filaggrin, involucrin for the physical barrier and (ii) TLR2, 4, 7, 9, human beta-defensin 2 (hBD-2) for the immune barrier. (3) Results: Th2 cytokines induce spongiosis and fail in impairing tight junction composition, while IL-22 reduces and IL-23 induces claudin-1 expression. IL-4 and IL-13 affect the TLR-mediated barrier largely than IL-22 and IL-23. IL-4 early inhibits hBD-2 expression, while IL-22 and IL-23 induce its distribution. (4) Conclusions: This experimental approach looks to the pathogenesis of AD through molecular epidermal proteins rather than cytokines only and paves the way for tailored patient therapy.
Collapse
|
4
|
Acne, Microbiome, and Probiotics: The Gut–Skin Axis. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071303. [PMID: 35889022 PMCID: PMC9318165 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this narrative review was to check the influence of the human microbiota in the pathogenesis of acne and how the treatment with probiotics as adjuvant or alternative therapy affects the evolution of acne vulgaris. Acne is a chronic inflammatory skin disease involving the pilosebaceous units. The pathogenesis of acne is complex and multifactorial involving genetic, metabolic, and hormonal factors in which both skin and gut microbiota are implicated. Numerous studies have shown the bidirectionality between the intestinal microbiota and skin homeostasis, a communication mainly established by modifying the immune system. Increased data on the mechanisms of action regarding the relevance of Cutibacterium acnes, as well as the importance of the gut–skin axis, are becoming known. Diverse and varied in vitro studies have shown the potential beneficial effects of probiotics in this context. Clinical trials with both topical and oral probiotics are scarce, although they have shown positive results, especially with oral probiotics through the modulation of the intestinal microbiota, generating an anti-inflammatory response and restoring intestinal integrity, or through metabolic pathways involving insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1). Given the aggressiveness of some standard acne treatments, probiotics should continue to be investigated as an alternative or adjuvant therapy.
Collapse
|
5
|
Shikama Y, Kurosawa M, Furukawa M, Kudo Y, Ishimaru N, Matsushita K. The Priming Potential of Interferon Lambda-1 for Antiviral Defense in the Oral Mucosa. Inflammation 2022; 45:1348-1361. [PMID: 35044570 PMCID: PMC8767043 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-022-01624-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The oral mucosa is one of the first lines of the innate host defense system against microbial invasion. Interferon (IFN) lambda-1 (IFN-λ1), a type III IFN, exhibits type I IFN-like antiviral activity. In contrast to ubiquitously expressed type I IFN receptors, IFN-λ receptor 1 (IFN-λR1), which has higher affinity for type III IFNs than low-affinity interleukin (IL)-10 receptor 2, is mainly expressed on epithelial cells. Although IFN-λ1 has been shown to exert antiviral effects in the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and skin, the regulation of type III IFN receptor expression and its functions in the oral mucosa remain unclear. We herein showed the expression of IFN-λR1 in human gingival keratinocytes. The expression of IL-6, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (a critical molecule for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection), and IL-8 in human primary gingival keratinocytes (HGK) were significantly higher following treatments with either type I IFN (IFN-β) or type II IFN (IFN-γ) than with IFN-λ1. However, the IFN-λ1 treatment strongly induced toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 and retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), which mainly recognize viral nucleic acids, via the STAT1-mediated pathway. Furthermore, a stimulation with a RIG-I or TLR3 agonist promoted the production of IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-λ in HGK, which was significantly enhanced by a pretreatment with IFN-λ1. These results suggest that IFN-λ1 may contribute to the activation of innate immune responses to oral viral infections by up-regulating the expression of RIG-I and TLR3 and priming their functions in keratinocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Shikama
- Department of Oral Disease Research, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka-cho, Obu, 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Mie Kurosawa
- Department of Oral Disease Research, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka-cho, Obu, 474-8511, Japan
| | - Masae Furukawa
- Department of Oral Disease Research, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka-cho, Obu, 474-8511, Japan
| | - Yasusei Kudo
- Department of Oral Bioscience, Tokushima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 3-18-15 Kuramoto-cho, Tokushima, 770-8504, Japan
| | - Naozumi Ishimaru
- Department of Oral Molecular Pathology, Tokushima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 3-18-15 Kuramoto-cho, Tokushima, 770-8504, Japan
| | - Kenji Matsushita
- Department of Oral Disease Research, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka-cho, Obu, 474-8511, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tanaka M, Kohchi C, Inagawa H, Ikemoto T, Hara-Chikuma M. Effect of topical application of lipopolysaccharide on contact hypersensitivity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 586:100-106. [PMID: 34837833 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the principal component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. The prior oral administration of LPS attenuates inflammatory responses, such as intestinal injury and atopic dermatitis, in mouse models; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we examined the effect of topical LPS application on allergic contact dermatitis and its mechanism of action using a murine contact hypersensitivity (CHS) model. Prolonged LPS application to the skin significantly suppressed 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced CHS. LPS application to the skin also reduced the phagocytosis of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran by Langerhans and dendritic cells. Cutaneous cell migration into the skin-draining lymph nodes (LNs) induced by FITC painting was reduced by LPS application. During the CHS response, DNFB application induced T-cell proliferation and inflammatory cytokine production in skin-draining LNs, whereas prolonged LPS application inhibited DNFB-induced T-cell growth and interferon gamma production, indicating suppression of DNFB-induced sensitization. These results suggest that prolonged LPS application suppressed DNFB-induced sensitization and subsequently CHS response. Our findings imply that topical application of LPS may prevent allergic dermatitis such as CHS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manami Tanaka
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinano-machi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Chie Kohchi
- Macrophi Inc., 2217-6 Hayashi-cho, Takamatsu-shi, Kagawa-ken, 761-0301, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Inagawa
- Macrophi Inc., 2217-6 Hayashi-cho, Takamatsu-shi, Kagawa-ken, 761-0301, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ikemoto
- Kyowa Co., Ltd., 1-22-2 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan
| | - Mariko Hara-Chikuma
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinano-machi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Soluble Factors and Receptors Involved in Skin Innate Immunity-What Do We Know So Far? Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121795. [PMID: 34944611 PMCID: PMC8698371 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The pattern recognition receptors, complement system, inflammasomes, antimicrobial peptides, and cytokines are innate immunity soluble factors. They sense, either directly or indirectly, the potential threats and produce inflammation and cellular death. High interest in their modulation has emerged lately, acknowledging they are involved in many cutaneous inflammatory, infectious, and neoplastic disorders. We extensively reviewed the implication of soluble factors in skin innate immunity. Furthermore, we showed which molecules target these factors, how these molecules work, and how they have been used in dermatological practice. Cytokine inhibitors have paved the way to a new era in treating moderate to severe psoriasis and atopic dermatitis.
Collapse
|
8
|
Fang Z, Li L, Zhang H, Zhao J, Lu W, Chen W. Gut Microbiota, Probiotics, and Their Interactions in Prevention and Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis: A Review. Front Immunol 2021; 12:720393. [PMID: 34335634 PMCID: PMC8317022 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.720393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a public health concern and is increasing in prevalence in urban areas. Recent advances in sequencing technology have demonstrated that the development of AD not only associate with the skin microbiome but gut microbiota. Gut microbiota plays an important role in allergic diseases including AD. The hypothesis of the “gut-skin” axis has been proposed and the cross-talk mechanism between them has been gradually demonstrated in the research. Probiotics contribute to the improvement of the intestinal environment, the balance of immune responses, regulation of metabolic activity. Most studies suggest that probiotic supplements may be an alternative for the prevention and treatment of AD. This study aimed to discuss the effects of probiotics on the clinical manifestation of AD based on gut microbial alterations. Here we reviewed the gut microbial alteration in patients with AD, the association between gut microbiota, epidermal barrier, and toll-like receptors, and the interaction of probiotics and gut microbiota. The potential mechanisms of probiotics on alleviating AD via upregulation of epidermal barrier and regulation of immune signaling had been discussed, and their possible effective substances on AD had been explored. This provides the supports for targeting gut microbiota to attenuate AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhifeng Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Lingzhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,(Yangzhou) Institute of Food Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Yangzhou, China.,Wuxi Translational Medicine Research Center and Jiangsu Translational Medicine Research, Institute Wuxi Branch, Wuxi, China
| | - Jianxin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,(Yangzhou) Institute of Food Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Wenwei Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Wei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Hirobe S, Susai R, Takeuchi H, Eguchi R, Ito S, Quan YS, Kamiyama F, Okada N. Characteristics of immune induction by transcutaneous vaccination using dissolving microneedle patches in mice. Int J Pharm 2021; 601:120563. [PMID: 33811967 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Transcutaneous immunization (TCI) is an appealing vaccination method. Compared with conventional injectable immunization, TCI is easier and less painful. We previously developed a dissolving microneedle (MN) patch and demonstrated that TCI using MN patches demonstrates high vaccination efficacy without adverse events in humans. In this study, we investigated the immune induction mechanism of TCI using our MN patch, focusing on inflammatory responses in the skin and on the dynamics, activation, and differentiation of various immunocompetent cells in draining lymph nodes (dLNs). We demonstrate that inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α increased in the skin at an early stage after MN patch application, inducing the infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils and promoting the activation and migration of skin-resident antigen-presenting cells (Langerhans and Langerin- dermal dendritic cells) to dLNs. Moreover, the activated antigen-presenting cells reaching the dLNs enhanced the differentiation of T (Teff, Tem, and Tcm) and B (plasma and memory) cells. This may contribute to the efficient antigen-specific antibody production induced by TCI using MN patches. We believe that our findings reveal a part of the immune induction mechanism by TCI and provide useful information for the development and improvement of TCI formulations based on the immune induction mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Hirobe
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Department of Molecular Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Department of Pharmacy, Osaka University Hospital, 2-15 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Ryo Susai
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Honoka Takeuchi
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Eguchi
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Sayami Ito
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Project for Vaccine and Immune Regulation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ying-Shu Quan
- CosMED Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., 32 Higashikujokawanishi-cho, Minami-ku, Kyoto 601-8014, Japan
| | - Fumio Kamiyama
- CosMED Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., 32 Higashikujokawanishi-cho, Minami-ku, Kyoto 601-8014, Japan
| | - Naoki Okada
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Project for Vaccine and Immune Regulation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Laboratory of Vaccine and Immune Regulation (BIKEN), Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Koike S, Yamasaki K. Melanogenesis Connection with Innate Immunity and Toll-Like Receptors. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249769. [PMID: 33371432 PMCID: PMC7767451 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidermis is located in the outermost layer of the living body and is the place where external stimuli such as ultraviolet rays and microorganisms first come into contact. Melanocytes and melanin play a wide range of roles such as adsorption of metals, thermoregulation, and protection from foreign enemies by camouflage. Pigmentary disorders are observed in diseases associated with immunodeficiency such as Griscelli syndrome, indicating molecular sharing between immune systems and the machineries of pigment formation. Melanocytes express functional toll-like receptors (TLRs), and innate immune stimulation via TLRs affects melanin synthesis and melanosome transport to modulate skin pigmentation. TLR2 enhances melanogenetic gene expression to augment melanogenesis. In contrast, TLR3 increases melanosome transport to transfer to keratinocytes through Rab27A, the responsible molecule of Griscelli syndrome. TLR4 and TLR9 enhance tyrosinase expression and melanogenesis through p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) and NFκB signaling pathway, respectively. TLR7 suppresses microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), and MITF reduction leads to melanocyte apoptosis. Accumulating knowledge of the TLRs function of melanocytes has enlightened the link between melanogenesis and innate immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saaya Koike
- Shiseido Global Innovation Center, Kanagawa 220-0011, Japan;
| | - Kenshi Yamasaki
- Department of Dermatology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-(22)-717-7271
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
The Immune Function of Keratinocytes in Anti-Pathogen Infection in the Skin. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DERMATOLOGY AND VENEREOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1097/jd9.0000000000000094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
|
12
|
Jiang Y, Tsoi LC, Billi AC, Ward NL, Harms PW, Zeng C, Maverakis E, Kahlenberg JM, Gudjonsson JE. Cytokinocytes: the diverse contribution of keratinocytes to immune responses in skin. JCI Insight 2020; 5:142067. [PMID: 33055429 PMCID: PMC7605526 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.142067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The skin serves as the primary interface between our body and the external environment and acts as a barrier against entry of physical agents, chemicals, and microbes. Keratinocytes make up the main cellular constitute of the outermost layer of the skin, contributing to the formation of the epidermis, and they are crucial for maintaining the integrity of this barrier. Beyond serving as a physical barrier component, keratinocytes actively participate in maintaining tissue homeostasis, shaping, amplifying, and regulating immune responses in skin. Keratinocytes act as sentinels, continuously monitoring changes in the environment, and, through microbial sensing, stretch, or other physical stimuli, can initiate a broad range of inflammatory responses via secretion of various cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. This diverse function of keratinocytes contributes to the highly variable clinical manifestation of skin immune responses. In this Review, we highlight the highly diverse functions of epidermal keratinocytes and their contribution to various immune-mediated skin diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanyun Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Dermatology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lam C Tsoi
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics and Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Allison C Billi
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Nicole L Ward
- Department of Nutrition and Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Paul W Harms
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Chang Zeng
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Emanual Maverakis
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - J Michelle Kahlenberg
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA.,A. Alfred Taubman Medical Research Institute, Michigan, USA
| | - Johann E Gudjonsson
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,A. Alfred Taubman Medical Research Institute, Michigan, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
The Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Skin Host Defense, Psoriasis, and Atopic Dermatitis. J Immunol Res 2019; 2019:1824624. [PMID: 31815151 PMCID: PMC6877906 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1824624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As the key defense molecules originally identified in Drosophila, Toll-like receptor (TLR) superfamily members play a fundamental role in detecting invading pathogens or damage and initiating the innate immune system of mammalian cells. The skin, the largest organ of the human body, protects the human body by providing a critical physical and immunological active multilayered barrier against invading pathogens and environmental factors. At the first line of defense, the skin is constantly exposed to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and TLRs, expressed in a cell type-specific manner by various skin cells, serve as key molecules to recognize PAMPs and DAMPs and to initiate downstream innate immune host responses. While TLR-initiated inflammatory responses are necessary for pathogen clearance and tissue repair, aberrant activation of TLRs will exaggerate T cell-mediated autoimmune activation, leading to unwanted inflammation, and the development of several skin diseases, including psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetic foot ulcers, fibrotic skin diseases, and skin cancers. Together, TLRs are at the interface between innate immunity and adaptive immunity. In this review, we will describe current understanding of the role of TLRs in skin defense and in the pathogenesis of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, and we will also discuss the development and therapeutic effect of TLR-targeted therapies.
Collapse
|
14
|
Colombo S, Harmankaya N, Water JJ, Bohr A. Exploring the potential for rosacea therapeutics of siRNA dispersion in topical emulsions. Exp Dermatol 2019; 28:261-269. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.13881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Necati Harmankaya
- Department of Pharmacy; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | | | - Adam Bohr
- Umbed Pharmaceuticals; Frederiksberg Denmark
- Department of Pharmacy; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Park NH, Bae IH, Han S, Kim M, Lee SH, Park WS, Lee CS, Hwang JS. Anti-inflammatory effect of green tea petiole extracts in poly(I:C)–stimulated human epidermal keratinocytes and a human 3D skin equivalent. EUR J INFLAMM 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/2058739219857576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Green tea is one of the most popular non-alcoholic beverage crops worldwide. Leaf extracts of the green tea, Camellia sinensis, are known to have natural anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, relatively few studies have focused on the biological activities of green tea petiole (GTP) (the stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem, currently considered waste material) compared with other parts of the tree, such as the leaf, root, and flower. Here, we report the first investigation of the anti-inflammatory effect of GTP extract against poly(I:C)–stimulated human keratinocytes (a model of skin inflammatory conditions) and EpiDerm (a three-dimensional skin equivalent). Our results reveal that GTP extract suppresses the induction of the messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) encoding pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), and Interleukin-8 (IL-8)) and matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1). These findings indicate that GTP extract could prove useful in protecting skin cells from inflammatory conditions and skin aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nok Hyun Park
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Il-Hong Bae
- Basic Research & Innovation Division, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Seonsoo Han
- Safety & Regulatory Division, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Minkee Kim
- Safety & Regulatory Division, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hoon Lee
- Basic Research & Innovation Division, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Seok Park
- Basic Research & Innovation Division, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Seok Lee
- Department of Beauty and Cosmetic Science, Eulji University, Seongnam-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Sung Hwang
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Yao C, Han S, Park CH, Kim YJ, Lee DH, Chung JH. IRF3 signaling pathway serves an important role in poly(I:C)-induced procollagen reduction in human skin fibroblasts. Mol Med Rep 2017; 17:2581-2585. [PMID: 29207132 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.8136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are part of the immune system. They can recognize pathogen‑associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Toll‑like receptors (TLRs) and retinoic acid‑inducible gene 1 (RIG‑1)‑like receptors (RLRs) are 2 types of PRR in the innate immune system. Double‑stranded RNA (dsRNA) can exist as a PAMP, including dsRNA viruses. dsRNA is known as a ligand not only for TLR3 but also for RLRs, including melanoma differentiation‑associated gene 5 and RIG‑1. Collagen is the main structural protein in the extracellular space in the skin. Recently, it was reported that treatment of a synthetic dsRNA, poly(I:C), decreases procollagen expression in skin fibroblasts. However, signaling pathways involved in this process have not yet been fully elucidated. The present study further explored the underlying signaling pathways involved in the processes. It was demonstrated by western blotting that treatment of poly(I:C), but not another PAMP, Pam3CSK4, inhibited procollagen expression in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Treatment of poly(I:C)and Pam3CSK4 induced activation of the mitogen‑activated protein kinases and the nuclear factor‑κB pathways. However, only poly(I:C), but not Pam3CSK4, induced the activation of the interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) pathway. By using specific inhibitors, it was demonstrated that inhibition of IRF3 pathway relieved poly(I:C)‑induced procollagen reduction. In conclusion, IRF3 signaling pathway serves an important role in poly(I:C)‑induced procollagen reduction in skin fibroblasts. This suggests that the IRF3 signaling pathway may be a key target for collagen regulation in the skin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yao
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangbum Han
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| | - Chi-Hyun Park
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye-Ji Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chung
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110‑744, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Toll-like receptor 4 contributes to chronic itch, alloknesis, and spinal astrocyte activation in male mice. Pain 2017; 157:806-817. [PMID: 26645545 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) contributes importantly to spinal cord glial activation and chronic pain sensitization; however, its unique role in acute and chronic itch is unclear. In this study, we investigated the involvement of TLR4 in acute and chronic itch models in male mice using both transgenic and pharmacological approaches. Tlr4 mice exhibited normal acute itch induced by compound 48/80 and chloroquine, but these mice showed substantial reductions in scratching in chronic itch models of dry skin, induced by acetone and diethylether followed by water (AEW), contact dermatitis, and allergic contact dermatitis on the neck. Intrathecal (spinal) inhibition of TLR4 with lipopolysaccharide Rhodobacter sphaeroides did not affect acute itch but suppressed AEW-induced chronic itch. Compound 48/80 and AEW also produced robust alloknesis, a touch-elicited itch in wild-type mice, which was suppressed by intrathecal lipopolysaccharide R sphaeroides and Tlr4 deletion. Acetone and diethylether followed by water induced persistent upregulation of Tlr4 mRNA and increased TLR4 expression in GFAP-expressing astrocytes in spinal cord dorsal horn. Acetone and diethylether followed by water also induced TLR4-dependent astrogliosis (GFAP upregulation) in spinal cord. Intrathecal injection of astroglial inhibitor L-α-aminoadipate reduced AEW-induced chronic itch and alloknesis without affecting acute itch. Spinal TLR4 was also necessary for AEW-induced chronic itch in the cheek model. Interestingly, scratching plays an essential role in spinal astrogliosis because AEW-induced astrogliosis was abrogated by putting Elizabethan collars on the neck to prevent scratching the itchy skin. Our findings suggest that spinal TLR4 signaling is important for spinal astrocyte activation and astrogliosis that may underlie alloknesis and chronic itch.
Collapse
|
18
|
Chong H, Yang G, Sidhu S, Ibbetson J, Kopecki Z, Cowin A. Reducing Flightless I expression decreases severity of psoriasis in an imiquimod-induced murine model of psoriasiform dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 2016; 176:705-712. [DOI: 10.1111/bjd.14842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H.T. Chong
- Regenerative Medicine; Future Industries Institute; University of South Australia; Adelaide South Australia Australia
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health; University of Adelaide; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - G.N. Yang
- Regenerative Medicine; Future Industries Institute; University of South Australia; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - S. Sidhu
- Department of Dermatology; Royal Adelaide Hospital; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - J. Ibbetson
- Surgical Pathology Division; South Australia Pathology; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - Z. Kopecki
- Regenerative Medicine; Future Industries Institute; University of South Australia; Adelaide South Australia Australia
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health; University of Adelaide; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| | - A.J. Cowin
- Regenerative Medicine; Future Industries Institute; University of South Australia; Adelaide South Australia Australia
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health; University of Adelaide; Adelaide South Australia Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome arise from malignant T cells that reside in skin, and subsequently are capable of circulating between skin, lymph nodes, and blood. The pathophysiologic mechanisms that cause and result in different behaviors of the skin-homing-malignant T cells in different stages of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) are still unknown. It is hypothesized that the skin microenvironment which is composed by various immune cell subsets as well as their spatial distribution and T-cell interaction through different chemokines and cytokines have an important role in the development and pathogenesis of CTCL and will be addressed in this chapter. RECENT FINDINGS Recent studies have discovered that malignant T cells in Sézary syndrome are of the central memory T-cell subset, whereas those in mycosis fungoides are nonrecirculating skin-resident effector memory T cells, and have shown a protumorigenic role of mast cells and macrophages in CTCL. In addition, it has been observed that malignant T cells may exhibit features of one of these three distinct phenotypes (forkhead box P3 + regulatory T-cell phenotype, Th2 phenotype, and Th17 phenotype) and are functionally exhausted through an increased expression of certain coinhibitory molecules, such as programmed death-1. SUMMARY All these new findings could assist in the development of novel targeted therapies for CTCL.
Collapse
|
20
|
Elefanti L, Sacco G, Stagni C, Rastrelli M, Menin C, Russo I, Alaibac M. TLR7 Gln11Leu single nucleotide polymorphism and susceptibility to cutaneous melanoma. Oncol Lett 2016; 12:275-280. [PMID: 27347137 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.4584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma is a life-threatening skin cancer. Its incidence is rapidly increasing, and early diagnosis is the main factor able to improve its poor prognosis. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are transmembrane glycoproteins that recognize pathogen- and damage-associated molecular patterns, against which TLRs activate the innate immune response and initiate the adaptive immune response. Genetic variations of these receptors may alter the immune system, and are involved in evolution and susceptibility to various diseases, including cancer. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the presence of TLR7 glutamine (Gln) 11 leucine (Leu) polymorphism confers an increased susceptibility to cutaneous melanoma. For that purpose, a case-control study was performed with 182 melanoma cases and 89 controls. To highlight the possible association between the aforementioned polymorphism and the susceptibility to melanoma, 93 cases of single melanoma and 89 cases of multiple primary melanoma (MPM) were compared in the present study. Since the TLR7 gene is localized on the chromosome X, the allelic frequency of the Gln11Leu polymorphism was analyzed separately in males and females. The distribution of allele frequencies between melanoma cases and controls (P=0.245) and between single melanoma and MPM cases (P=0.482) was not significant. Therefore, the present results do not suggest an association between TLR7 Gln11Leu polymorphism and susceptibility to cutaneous melanoma. Further studies are required to analyze the influence of other TLR polymorphisms on the susceptibility to malignant melanoma and the involvement of innate immunity in this malignancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Elefanti
- Immunology and Molecular Oncology Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology, Scientific Institute for Hospitalization, Treatment and Research, Padua I-35128, Italy
| | - Giorgia Sacco
- Department of Medicine, Dermatology Unit, University of Padua, Padua I-35121, Italy
| | - Camilla Stagni
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, Oncology and Immunology Unit, University of Padua, Padua I-35100, Italy
| | - Marco Rastrelli
- Melanoma and Soft Tissue Sarcoma Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology, Scientific Institute for Hospitalization, Treatment and Research, Padua I-35128, Italy
| | - Chiara Menin
- Immunology and Molecular Oncology Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology, Scientific Institute for Hospitalization, Treatment and Research, Padua I-35128, Italy
| | - Irene Russo
- Department of Medicine, Dermatology Unit, University of Padua, Padua I-35121, Italy
| | - Mauro Alaibac
- Department of Medicine, Dermatology Unit, University of Padua, Padua I-35121, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Russo I, Cona C, Saponeri A, Bassetto F, Baldo V, Alaibac M. Association between Toll-like receptor 7 Gln11Leu single-nucleotide polymorphism and basal cell carcinoma. Biomed Rep 2016; 4:459-462. [PMID: 27073632 DOI: 10.3892/br.2016.597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSC) are the most common form of human skin cancer. The majority of NMSC are basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) with a BCC:SCC incidence ratio of 4:1 in immunocompetent patients. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are transmembrane glycoproteins that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated molecular patterns, against which they activate the innate immune response and initiate the adaptive immune response. Genetic variations of these receptors can alter the immune system and are involved in evolution and susceptibility of various diseases, including cancer. Imiquimod, an agonist of TLR7, is applied topically in the treatment of premalignant and malignant skin disorders, in particular BCC. The high efficacy of this TLR7 agonist toward BCC supports a possible role of this receptor in the induction of BCC and, consequently, polymorphisms of this receptor could be responsible for a greater or lesser susceptibility to BCC. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the presence of the functional TLR7 rs179008/Gln11Leu promoter polymorphism conferred an increased susceptibility to BCC. A case-control study with 177 BCC cases and 158 controls was performed to highlight the possible association between this polymorphism and the susceptibility to BCC. As the TLR7 gene is localized on chromosome X, the allelic frequency of this polymorphism was analyzed separately in males and females. The analysis of the distribution of frequencies of wild-type TLR7 and variant TLR7 carrying the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs179008 in patients with BCC and healthy subjects did not reveal any statistically significant difference between cases and controls. This study does not suggest the involvement of the SNP rs179008 of TLR7 in the susceptibility to BCC, but cannot exclude a role for TLR7 in BCC carcinogenesis considering the high efficacy of the TLR7 agonist, imiquimod, in the treatment of this neoplastic disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Russo
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Padova, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Camilla Cona
- Plastic Surgery Unit, University of Padova, I-35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Andrea Saponeri
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Padova, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Franco Bassetto
- Plastic Surgery Unit, University of Padova, I-35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Baldo
- Public Health Unit, University of Padova, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Mauro Alaibac
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Padova, I-35121 Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Bao L, Zhang H, Mohan GC, Shen K, Chan LS. Differential expression of inflammation-related genes in IL-4 transgenic mice before and after the onset of atopic dermatitis skin lesions. Mol Cell Probes 2015; 30:30-8. [PMID: 26585782 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
IL-4 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis (AD), a common chronic inflammatory skin disease. We have generated IL-4 transgenic (Tg) mice by over-expressing IL-4 in the epidermis. These mice spontaneously develop chronic pruritic inflammatory skin lesions, which meet the clinical and histological diagnostic criteria for human AD. Systemic survey of immune-related genes in this mouse model, however, has not been performed. In this study, we utilize PCR array technique to examine hundreds of inflammation-related genes in the IL-4 Tg mice before and after the onset of skin lesions as well as in their wild type (WT) littermates. Only those genes with at least 2-fold up-regulation or down-regulation and with a P-value of less than 0.05 in comparison to WT controls were identified and analyzed. In the skin lesions, many chemokines, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and other AD-related factors are dysregulated compared to the wild type mice. Particularly, CXCL5, IL-1β, IL-24, IL-6, oncostatin M, PTGS2, FPR1 and REG3γ are up-regulated several hundred-fold. In the pre-lesional group that shows no obvious skin abnormality on clinical observation, 30 dysregulated genes are nevertheless identified though the fold changes are much less than that of the lesional group, including CCL6, CCL8, CCL11, CCL17, CXCL13, CXCL14, CXCR3 and IL-12Rβ2. Finally using ELISA, we demonstrate that 4 most dramatically up-regulated factors in the skin are also elevated in the peripheral blood of the IL-4 Tg mice. Taken together, our data have identified hundreds of dysregulated factors in the IL-4 Tg mice before and after the onset of skin lesions. Future detailed examination of these factors will shed light on our understanding of the development and progression of AD and help to discover important biomarkers for clinical AD diagnosis and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Bao
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Huayi Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Girish C Mohan
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kui Shen
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Lawrence S Chan
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Microbiology/Immunology, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA; Medical Service, Jesse Brown VA Med Center, Chicago, IL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Abstract
Mycosis fungoides (MF) is the most common type of cutaneous lymphoma, accounting for almost 50% of all primary cutaneous lymphomas. When initially described, it was believed to be a distinct clinical entity with a pathognomonic histopathologic picture. Through the years we have come to know that, like syphilis, MF is a great masquerader and can present clinically and histopathologically in many ways. This review is an attempt to cover the many faces of MF that have evolved through the years.
Collapse
|
24
|
Oliveira CBD, Vasconcellos C, Sakai-Valente NY, Sotto MN, Luiz FG, Belda Júnior W, Sousa MDGTD, Benard G, Criado PR. Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4 expression of keratinocytes from patients with localized and disseminated dermatophytosis. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2015; 57:57-61. [PMID: 25651327 PMCID: PMC4325524 DOI: 10.1590/s0036-46652015000100008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few studies on the role of innate immune response in
dermatophytosis. An investigation was conducted to define the involvement of
Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) 2 and 4 in localized (LD) and disseminated (DD)
dermatophytosis due to T. rubrum. Fifteen newly diagnosed patients,
eight patients with LD and seven with DD, defined by involvement of at least three
body segments were used in this study. Controls comprised twenty skin samples from
healthy individuals undergoing plastic surgery. TLR2 and TLR4 were quantified in skin
lesions by immunohistochemistry. A reduced expression of TLR4 in the lower and upper
epidermis of both LD and DD patients was found compared to controls; TLR2 expression
was preserved in the upper and lower epidermis of all three groups. As TLR4 signaling
induces the production of inflammatory cytokines and neutrophils recruitment, its
reduced expression likely contributed to the lack of resolution of the infection and
the consequent chronic nature of the dermatophytosis. As TLR2 expression acts to
limit the inflammatory process and preserves the epidermal structure, its preserved
expression may also contribute to the persistent infection and limited inflammation
that are characteristic of dermatophytic infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Cídia Vasconcellos
- Department of Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Neusa Y Sakai-Valente
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation Unit 53, Division of Clinical Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Mirian Nacagami Sotto
- Department of Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Guedes Luiz
- Instituto Pasteur de São Paulo, Laboratório de Diagnóstico da Raiva, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Walter Belda Júnior
- Department of Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria da Gloria Teixeira de Sousa
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation Unit 53, Division of Clinical Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Gil Benard
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation Unit 53, Division of Clinical Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Ricardo Criado
- Department of Dermatology, Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Matin N, Tabatabaie O, Mohammadinejad P, Rezaei N. Therapeutic targeting of Toll-like receptors in cutaneous disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 19:1651-63. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1069275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
|
26
|
Kajita AI, Morizane S, Takiguchi T, Yamamoto T, Yamada M, Iwatsuki K. Interferon-Gamma Enhances TLR3 Expression and Anti-Viral Activity in Keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:2005-2011. [PMID: 25822580 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize specific microbial products in the innate immune response. TLR3, a double-stranded RNA sensor, is thought to have an important role in viral infections, but the regulation of TLR3 expression and its function in keratinocytes are not fully understood. Here we show the Th1 cytokine IFN-γ increased the TLR3 expression via STAT1 in cultured normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs). Co-stimulation with IFN-γ and the TLR3 ligand poly (I:C) synergistically increased the expression of IFN-β, IL-6, IL-8, and human β-defensin-2 in NHEKs compared with poly (I:C) or IFN-γ alone. These synergistic inductions were significantly inhibited by an endosomal acidification inhibitor, chloroquine, and by TLR3 siRNA. Co-stimulation with IFN-γ and poly (I:C) also significantly enhanced the anti-viral activity against herpes simplex virus type-1 in NHEKs compared with poly (I:C) or IFN-γ alone. In addition to the in vitro findings, an immunohistochemical analysis revealed IFN-γ-positive cells surrounding herpetic vesicles. These findings indicate that IFN-γ might contribute to the innate immune response to cutaneous viral infections by enhancing TLR3 expression and function in keratinocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A I Kajita
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shin Morizane
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan.
| | - Tetsuya Takiguchi
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Takenobu Yamamoto
- Department of Dermatology, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Japan
| | - Masao Yamada
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Keiji Iwatsuki
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are cellular sensors designed to recognize molecular danger signals associated with exogenous or endogenous threats. Their activation leads to initiation of the host's immune responses in order to remove or contain the danger. However, one of the most effective methods of defense against invading pathogens and parasites is itch. The perception of itch elicits the rapid defensive action to scratch, which can remove the offending pathogen or parasite before infection can occur. Recent findings show that TLRs such as TLR3, TLR4, and TLR7 are expressed in a subset of pruriceptive/nociceptive neurons in the dorsal root and trigeminal ganglion providing a direct link between TLR activation and itch. Activation of neuronal TLRs can initiate itch sensation by coupling with ion channels. Furthermore, TLRs are expressed in skin cells and glial cells in the spinal cord to regulate inflammation and neuroinflammation in chronic itch. Thus, identification of the role of TLRs in neurons, skin cells, and glial cells may provide new targets for the treatment of chronic itch, a common clinical problem associated with skin diseases, systemic diseases, and metabolic disorders, for which current treatments are far from sufficient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Taves
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Park HS, Jin SP, Lee Y, Oh IG, Lee S, Kim JH, Cho KH, Chung JH. Toll-like receptor 2 mediates a cutaneous reaction induced by repetitive ultraviolet B irradiation in C57/BL6 micein vivo. Exp Dermatol 2014; 23:591-5. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Sun Park
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University Boramae Hospital; Seoul South Korea
| | - Seon Pil Jin
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University College of Medicine; Seoul South Korea
| | - Youngae Lee
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology; WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University; Osaka Japan
| | - In Gyung Oh
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University College of Medicine; Seoul South Korea
| | - Serah Lee
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University College of Medicine; Seoul South Korea
| | - Jung Ho Kim
- Department of Pathology; Seoul National University Boramae Hospital; Seoul South Korea
| | - Kwang Hyun Cho
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University College of Medicine; Seoul South Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chung
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Dermatology; Seoul National University College of Medicine; Seoul South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
TLR7-expressing cells comprise an interfollicular epidermal stem cell population in murine epidermis. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5831. [PMID: 25060222 PMCID: PMC5376061 DOI: 10.1038/srep05831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Normal interfollicular epidermis (IFE) homeostasis is maintained throughout the entire life by its own stem cells that self-renew and generate progeny that undergo terminal differentiation. However, the fine markers of the stem cells in interfollicular epidermis are not well defined yet. Here we found that TLR7 identified the existence of progenitors and interfollicular epidermal stem cells in murine skin. In vitro, TLR7-expressing cells comprised of two subpopulations that were competent to proliferate and exhibited distinct differentiation potentials. Three-dimensional (3D) organotypic culture and skin reconstitution assays showed that TLR7-expressing cells were able to reconstruct the interfollicular epidermis. Finally, TLR7-expressing cells maintained the intact interfollicular epidermal structures revealed in serial transplantation assays in vivo in mice. Taken together, our results suggest that TLR7-expressing cells comprise an interfollicular epidermal stem cell population.
Collapse
|
30
|
Ulupi N, . M, Sumantri C, Wibawan I. Study of Kampung Chicken Resistance Against Salmonella enteritidis Using TLR4 Gene as Marker. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.3923/ijps.2014.467.472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
31
|
van der Veen JW, Soeteman-Hernández LG, Ezendam J, Stierum R, Kuper FC, van Loveren H. Anchoring molecular mechanisms to the adverse outcome pathway for skin sensitization: Analysis of existing data. Crit Rev Toxicol 2014; 44:590-9. [DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.925425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
32
|
Jawed SI, Myskowski PL, Horwitz S, Moskowitz A, Querfeld C. Primary cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome). J Am Acad Dermatol 2014; 70:205.e1-16; quiz 221-2. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2013.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
|
33
|
Li X, Li J, Yang Y, Hou R, Liu R, Zhao X, Yan X, Yin G, An P, Wang Y, Zhang K. Differential gene expression in peripheral blood T cells from patients with psoriasis, lichen planus, and atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013; 69:e235-e243. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2013.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Revised: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
34
|
Interrelationship of dendritic cells, type 1 interferon system, regulatory T cells and toll-like receptors and their role in lichen planus and lupus erythematosus -- a literature review. Arch Oral Biol 2013; 58:1532-40. [PMID: 23845753 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Revised: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
There is evidence that the activation of some receptors of the toll-like family (TLRs) of the innate immune system, and also changes in expression levels of forkhead box p3 (Foxp3) protein, which is found in regulatory T cells (Tregs), could be involved in the development of autoimmunity. We present here a literature review focusing on the interrelationship of dendritic cells, TLRs, Tregs and type 1 interferon in autoimmune diseases, with special interest in lichen planus and lupus erythematosus. Understanding the specific role of each of these factors would help elucidate the obscure aetiology of such diseases and open new perspectives for their management and treatment.
Collapse
|
35
|
Eiró N, Ovies C, Fernandez-Garcia B, Álvarez-Cuesta CC, González L, González LO, Vizoso FJ. Expression of TLR3, 4, 7 and 9 in cutaneous malignant melanoma: relationship with clinicopathological characteristics and prognosis. Arch Dermatol Res 2012. [PMID: 23179584 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-012-1300-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have achieved an extraordinary amount of interest in cancer research due to their role in tumor progression. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and clinical relevance of TLR3, 4, 7 and 9 in cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM). The expression levels of TLR3, 4, 7 and 9 were analyzed in tumors from 30 patients with CMM. The analysis was performed by immunohistochemistry, and the results were correlated with various clinicopathological findings and with relapse-free survival. Our results indicate that there was a wide variability in the immunostaining score values for each receptor. Positive staining for TLRs was generally found in tumor cells, especially for TLR4 and TLR9. Nevertheless, a significant percentage of tumors also showed TLR4 expression in mononuclear inflammatory cells (62.1 %) and in fibroblast-like cells (34.5 %). Our results showed no significant association between score values for each TLR and clinicopathological characteristics of patients. However, our results demonstrated that high TLR4 expression was significantly associated with a shortened relapse-free survival (p = 0.001). Therefore, TLR4 expression may be a new prognostic factor of unfavorable evolution in cutaneous malignant melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Eiró
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain
| | - C Ovies
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain
| | - B Fernandez-Garcia
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain
| | | | - L González
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain
| | - L O González
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain.,Servicio de Anatomía Patológica, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Gijón, Spain
| | - F J Vizoso
- Unidad de Investigación, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Avda. Eduardo Castro s/n, Gijón, 33920, Asturias, Spain. .,Servicio de Cirugía General, Fundación Hospital de Jove, Gijón, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Salem SAM, Abu-Zeid RM, Nada OH. Immunohistochemical study of toll-like receptors 1 and 2 expression in cutaneous lichen planus lesions. Arch Dermatol Res 2012; 305:125-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00403-012-1267-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Revised: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
37
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) has been elucidated in many human infectious, autoimmune and neoplastic diseases. Previously, TLR2 and TLR4 expression in oral lichen planus (OLP) was described. The aim of our study was to examine expression patterns of TLR4 and TLR9 in normal oral mucosa and OLP and describe the effect of topical tacrolimus treatment on the expression of TLR4 and TLR9 in OLP. METHODS Toll-like receptor 4 and TLR9 expression was analysed by immunohistochemistry in five samples of normal oral mucosa and 50 samples of OLP (31 representing clinically white and 19 clinically erythematous/erosive lesions). We evaluated also the effect of topical tacrolimus on TLR4 and TLR9 expression in a patient with OLP. RESULTS Toll-like receptor 4 and TLR9 expression was increased in OLP epithelium compared with normal epithelium (P < 0.001); no significant difference between the two clinical types of OLP was observed. TLR9 expression was strongest in the superficial layer of the epithelium (P < 0.001), while the expression of TLR4 was strongest in the basal layer (P < 0.001). Treatment of OLP lesions with topical tacrolimus resulted in clinical improvement but had no effect on TLR expression levels. CONCLUSIONS Toll-like receptor 4 and TLR9 are induced in OLP; our finding confirms the results of a previous study. TLR4 and TLR9 may play a part in the pathogenesis of OLP. Further studies are needed to dissect the definitive role of TLRs in OLP pathogenesis and progression and to determine the effect of tacrolimus on the function of TLRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Siponen
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
de Koning HD, Simon A, Zeeuwen PLJM, Schalkwijk J. Pattern recognition receptors in infectious skin diseases. Microbes Infect 2012; 14:881-93. [PMID: 22516809 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
During the last decade, multiple pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) have been identified. These are involved in the innate immune response against a plethora of pathogens. However, PRR functioning can also be detrimental, even during infections. This review discusses the current knowledge on PRRs that recognize dermatotropic pathogens, and potential therapeutical implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heleen D de Koning
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|