NUTRIENT TRANSPORT BY THE CRUSTACEAN GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT: RECENT ADVANCES WITH VESICLE TECHNIQUES

Synthesis of digestive enzymes, food processing, and nutrient absorption in decapod crustaceans: a comparison to the mammalian model of digestion

The ∼15.000 decapod crustaceans that are mostly omnivorous have evolved a structurally and functionally complex digestive system. They have highly effective cuticular chewing and filtering structures in the stomach, which are regularly renewed by moulting. Decapods produce a broad range of digestive enzymes including chitinases, cellulases, and collagenases with unique properties. These enzymes are synthesized in the F-cells of the hepatopancreas and are encoded in the genome as pre-pro-proteins. In contrast to mammals, they are stored in a mature form in the lumen of the stomach to await the next meal, and therefore, the enzymes are particularly stable. The fat emulsifiers are fatty acyl-dipeptides rather than bile salts. After mechanical and chemical processing of the food in the cardiac stomach, the chyme is filtered by two unique filter systems of different mesh-size. The filtrate is then transferred to the hepatopancreas where the nutrients are absorbed by the R-cells, mostly via carriers, resembling nutrient absorption in the small intestine of mammals. The absorbed nutrients are used to fuel the metabolism of the hepatopancreas, are supplied to other organs, and are stored in the R-cells as glycogen and lipid reserves. Export lipids are secreted from the R-cells into the haemolymph as high density lipoproteins that mainly consist of phospholipids. In contrast to mammals, the midgut tube and hindgut contribute only little to food processing and nutrient absorption. The oesophagus, stomach and hindgut are well innervated but the hepatopancreas lacks nerves. Hormone cells are abundant in the midgut and hepatopancreas epithelia. Microorganisms are often present in the intestine of decapods, but they are apparently not essential for digestion and nutrition.

Assimilation of elements and digestion in grass shrimp pre-exposed to dietary mercury

Grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio were fed mercury (Hg)-contaminated oligochaetes for 15 days and analyzed for Hg, cadmium (Cd), and carbon assimilation efficiencies (AE) as well as toxicological end points related to digestion. Disproportionate increases in stable Hg concentrations in shrimp did not appear to be related to partitioning to trophically available Hg in worms. Hg AE by pre-exposed shrimp reached a plateau (approximately 53 %), whereas Cd AE varied (approximately 40-60 %) in a manner that was not dose-dependent. Carbon AE did not differ among treatments (approximately 69 %). Gut residence time was not impacted significantly by Hg pre-exposure (grand median approximately 465 min), however, there was a trend between curves showing percentages of individuals with markers in feces over time versus treatment. Feces-elimination rate did not vary with dietary pre-exposure. Extracellular protease activity varied approximately 1.9-fold but did not exhibit dose-dependency. pH increased over the range of Hg pre-exposures within the anterior (pH approximately 5.33-6.51) and posterior (pH approximately 5.29-6.25) regions of the cardiac proventriculus and Hg assimilation exhibited a negative relationship to hydrogen ion concentrations. The results of this study indicate that previous Hg ingestion can elicit post-assimilatory impacts on grass shrimp digestive physiology, which may, in turn, influence Hg assimilation during subsequent digestive cycles.

L-proline transport by purified cell types of lobster hepatopancreas

The hepatopancreas of the American lobster, Homarus americanus, has four epithelial cell types that are anatomically distinguishable and can be separated for in vitro investigation of their individual biological roles in the intact organ using centrifugal elutriation. Previous studies employing this separation method have produced hepatopancreatic cell suspensions that have been used to examine the nature of copper transport, 2 Na+/1 H+ exchange, and D-glucose absorption by each cell type in isolation from the other cells comprising the tubular epithelium. The present investigation used this method to study amino acid transport by E-, F-, R-, and B-cells of the lobster hepatopancreas in order to characterize the absorption processes for protein digestion products by this organ and to identify which cell type was most likely the responsible agent for net transcellular transfer of these organic molecules from lumen to blood. Results indicated that heptopancreatic E- and F-cell types were the only cells exhibiting Na+-dependent 3H-L-proline transport. Further examination of 3H-L-proline influx by F-cell suspensions indicated that this cell type possessed plasma membrane Na+-dependent IMINO-like and B0-like transport mechanisms and Na+-independent L-like transport mechanisms. Using selective inhibitors of these separate transport systems (e.g., L-pipecolate, L-alanine, and L-leucine), the IMINO-like transporter appeared to predominate in L-proline influx into F-cells, while lesser amounts of amino acid transport took place by the B0-like and L-like systems. The results of this study suggest that the hepatopancreatic F-cell is the epithelial cell type responsible for the bulk of amino acid absorption by this organ and that the IMINO-like transporter is responsible for most of the L-proline transfer through this agent. It is further suggested that as digestion and absorption proceeds in the hepatopancreas and concentrations of luminal amino acids and sodium fall, Na+-dependent transport systems, like the IMINO-like and B0-like, increase their binding affinities for their substrates to maximize nutrient transfer across the epithelium.

3H-L-histidine and 65Zn(2+) are cotransported by a dipeptide transport system in intestine of lobster Homarus americanus

The tubular intestine of the American lobster Homarus americanus was isolated in vitro and perfused with a physiological saline whose composition was based on hemolymph ion concentrations and contained variable concentrations of (3)H-l-histidine, (3)H-glycyl-sarcosine and (65)Zn(2+). Mucosa to serosa (M-->S) flux of each radiolabelled substrate was measured by the rate of isotope appearance in the physiological saline bathing the tissue on the serosal surface. Addition of 1-50 micromol l(-1) zinc to the luminal solution containing 1-50 micromol l(-1) (3)H-l-histidine significantly (P<0.01) increased M-->S flux of amino acid compared to controls lacking the metal. The kinetics of M-->S (3)H-l-histidine flux in the absence of zinc followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics (K(m)=6.2+/-0.8 micromol l(-1); J(max) =0.09+/-0.004 pmol cm(-2) min(-1)). Addition of 20 micromol l(-1) zinc to the luminal perfusate increased both kinetic constants (K(m)=19+/-3 micromol l(-1); J(max)=0.28+/-0.02 pmol cm(-2) min(-1)). Addition of both 20 micromol l(-1) zinc and 100 micromol l(-1) l-leucine abolished the stimulatory effect of the metal alone (K(m)=4.5+/-1.7 micromol l(-1); J(max)=0.08+/-0.008 pmol cm(-2) min(-1)). In the absence of l-histidine, M-->S flux of (65)Zn(2+) also followed the Michaelis-Menten relationship and addition of l-histidine to the perfusate significantly (P<0.01) increased both kinetic constants. Addition of either 50 micromol l(-1) Cu(+) or Cu(2+) and 20 micromol l(-1) l-histidine simultaneously abolished the stimulatory effect of l-histidine alone on transmural (65)Zn(2+) transport. Zinc-stimulation of M-->S (3)H-l-histidine flux was significantly (P<0.01) reduced by the addition of 100 micromol l(-1) glycyl-sarcosine to the perfusate, as a result of the dipeptide significantly (P<0.01) reducing both l-histidine transport K(m) and J(max). Transmural transport of (3)H-glycyl-sarcosine was unaffected by the presence of either l-histidine or l-leucine when either amino acid was added to the perfusate alone, but at least a 50% reduction in peptide transport was observed when zinc and either of the amino acids were added simultaneously. These results show that (3)H-l-histidine and (65)Zn(2+) are cotransported across the lobster intestine by a dipeptide carrier protein that binds both substrates in a bis-complex (Zn-[His](2)) resembling the normal dipeptide substrate. In addition, the transmural transports of both substrates may also occur by uncharacterized carrier processes that are independent of one another and appear relatively specific to the solutes used in this study.

Morphology of the midgut trunk in the penaeid shrimp,Sicyonia ingentis, highlighting novel nuclear pore particles and fixed hemocytes

The morphology of the midgut trunk (MGT) in the penaeid shrimp Sicyonia ingentis was examined by light and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Although the function of the MGT is poorly understood, it is not involved with the digestion and absorption of nutrients, and it appears to be the surface of a shrimp least protected from penetration by potential pathogens. As described for other decapod crustaceans, the MGT in shrimp is composed of a simple columnar epithelium separated from a layer of connective tissue by a thick basal lamina. Beneath the basal lamina is a previously unreported layer of hemocytes, exclusively of the granulocyte variety, embedded in a matrix continuous with the basal lamina and extending into the connective tissue. This layer was observed in four other species of penaeid shrimp. Granulocytes in circulation can phagocytose and encapsulate foreign material and the granules contain antibacterial molecules, lysosomal enzymes, and prophenoloxidase. We suggest that the granulocytes associated with the basal lamina have matured at this site and are well positioned to fight potential pathogens that have penetrated the epithelial layer of the MGT. A second observation is the presence of clusters of cylinders bound to the nuclear pores of the epithelial cells. The possibility that these clusters are viruses, organelles, or abnormal organelles induced by disease or toxic materials is discussed. These unique particles were observed in S. ingentis but none of the other penaeid shrimp we examined.

Expression of Na(+) / D-glucose cotransport in Xenopus laevis oocytes by injection of poly(A)(+) RNA isolated from lobster (Homarus americanus) hepatopancreas

Xenopus laevis oocytes were used for expression and characterization of lobster (Homarus americanus) hepatopancreas Na(+)-dependent D-glucose transport activity. Poly(A)(+) RNA from the whole hepatopancreatic tissue was injected and transport activity was assayed by alpha-D-[2-(3)H] glucose. Injection of lobster hepatopancreatic poly(A)(+) RNA resulted in a dose (1-20 ng) and time (1-5 days) dependent increase of Na(+)-dependent D-glucose uptake. Kinetics of Na(+)-dependent glucose transport was a hyperbolic function (K(m)=0.47+/-0.04 mM) of external D-glucose concentration and a sigmoidal function (K(Na)=68.32+/-1.57 mM; Hill coefficient=2.22+/-0.09) of external Na(+) concentration. In addition, Na(+)-dependent D-glucose uptake was significantly inhibited by both (0.1-0.5 mM) phloridzin and (0.1-0.5 mM) methyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside. After size fractionation through a sucrose density gradient, poly(A)(+) RNA fractions with an average length of 2-4 kb induced a twofold increase in Na(+)-dependent phloridzin-inhibited D-glucose uptake as compared to total poly(A)(+) RNA-induced uptake. The results of this study provide the functional basis to screen lobster hepatopancreatic cDNA libraries for clones encoding putative and still not known crustacean SGLT-type Na(+)/glucose co-transporter(s).

D-glucose transport in decapod crustacean hepatopancreas

Physiological mechanisms of gastrointestinal absorption of organic solutes among crustaceans remain severely underinvestigated, in spite of the considerable relevance of characterizing the routes of nutrient absorption for both nutritional purposes and formulation of balanced diets in aquaculture. Several lines of evidence attribute a primary absorptive role to the digestive gland (hepatopancreas) and a secondary role to the midgut (intestine). Among absorbed organic solutes, the importance of D-glucose in crustacean metabolism is paramount. Its plasma levels are finely tuned by hormones (crustacean hyperglycemic hormone, insulin-like peptides and insulin-like growth factors) and the function of certain organs (i.e. brain and muscle) largely depends on a balanced D-glucose supply. In the last few decades, D-glucose absorptive processes of the gastrointestinal tract of crustaceans have been described and transport mechanisms investigated, but not fully disclosed. We briefly review our present knowledge of D-glucose transport processes in the crustacean hepatopancreas. A discussion of previous results from experiments with hepatopancreatic epithelial brush-border membrane vesicles is presented. In addition, recent advances in our understandings of hepatopancreatic D-glucose transport are shown, as obtained (1) after isolation of purified R-, F-, B- and E-cell suspensions from the whole organ by centrifugal elutriation, and (2) by protein expression in hepatopancreatic mRNA-injected Xenopus laevis oocytes. In a perspective, the applicability of these novel methods to the study of hepatopancreatic absorptive function will certainly improve our knowledge of this structurally complex organ.

Ion transport processes of crustacean epithelial cells

Epithelial cells of the gut, antennal glands, integument, and gills of crustaceans regulate the movements of ions into and across these structures and thereby influence the concentrations of ions in the hemolymph. Specific transport proteins serving cations and anions are found on apical and basolateral cell membranes of epithelia in these tissues. In recent years, a considerable research effort has been directed at elucidating their physiological and molecular properties and relating these characteristics to the overall biology of the organisms. Efforts to describe ion transport in crustaceans have focused on the membrane transfer properties of Na+/H+ exchange, calcium uptake as it relates to the molt cycle, heavy metal sequestration and detoxification, and anion movements into and across epithelial cells. In addition to defining the properties and mechanisms of cation movements across specific cell borders, work over the past 5 yr has also centered on defining the molecular nature of certain transport proteins such as the Na+/H+ exchanger in gill and gut tissues. Monovalent anion transport proteins of the gills and gut have received attention as they relate to osmotic and ionic balance in euryhaline species. Divalent anion secretion events of the gut have been defined relative to potential roles they may have in hyporegulation of the blood and in hepatopancreatic detoxification events involving complexation with cationic metals.

Electrogenic 2 Na+/1 H+ exchange in crustaceans

Hepatopancreatic brush border membrane vesicles of the freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii and the marine lobster, Homarus americanus exhibited 22Na uptake which was Cl-independent, amiloride sensitive, and stimulated by a transmembrane H gradient (Hi greater than Ho). Sodium influx by vesicles of both species were sigmoidal functions of [Na]o, yielding Hill coefficients that were not significantly different (P greater than 0.5) than 2.0. Estimations of half-saturation constants (KNa) were 82.2 mM (prawn) and 280.1 mM (lobster), suggesting a possible adaptation of this transporter to environmental salinity. Trans-stimulation and cis-inhibition experiments involving variable [H] suggested that the exchangers in both species possessed single internal cation binding sites (pK 6.5-6.7) and two external cation binding sites (prawn, pK 4.0 and 5.7; lobster pK 3.5 and 6.1). Similar cis inhibition studies using amiloride as a competitive inhibitor of Na uptake supported the occurrence of dual external sites (prawn, Ki50 and 1520 microM; lobster Ki9 and 340 microM). Electrogenic Na/H exchange by vesicles from both crustaceans was demonstrated using equilibrium shift experiments where a transmembrane potential was used as the only driving force for the transport event. Transport stoichiometries of the antiporters were determined using Static Head analysis where driving forces for cation transfer were balanced using a 10:1 Na gradient, a 100:1 H gradient, and a stoichiometry of 2.0. These electrogenic 2 Na/1 H exchangers appear thermodynamically capable of generating sufficient gastric acidification for organismic digestive activities.

Sodium-coupled sugar and amino acid transport in an acidic microenvironment

1. Nutrient transport mechanisms of lobster hepatopancreatic epithelial brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) are strongly influenced by the acidic nature of the tubular lumen. 2. Sodium-dependent glucose uptake by BBMV was electrogenic and was stimulated at low pH by reducing sugar transport Ki, without affecting JM. 3. Glutamate was largely transported in zwitterionic form at pH 4.0 by an electrically silent cotransport mechanism with both Na and Cl. 4. Increased H+ concentration tripled the apparent membrane permeability to glutamate as well as the amino acid transport JM. 5. At pH 4.0 leucine was transported as a cation by two dissimilar carrier systems: a Na-independent process shared by polar amino acids, and an electroneutral Na-2Cl-dependent mechanism shared with non-polar amino acids. 6. A model is proposed for hepatopancreatic BBMV at acidic pH which employs ionic chemical gradients and membrane potential as nutrient transport driving forces.