Presynaptic dopamine D2-like receptors inhibit excitatory transmission onto rat ventral tegmental dopaminergic neurones

Dopamine subsystems that track internal states

Food and water are rewarding in part because they satisfy our internal needs1,2. Dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are activated by gustatory rewards3-5, but how animals learn to associate these oral cues with the delayed physiological effects of ingestion is unknown. Here we show that individual dopaminergic neurons in the VTA respond to detection of nutrients or water at specific stages of ingestion. A major subset of dopaminergic neurons tracks changes in systemic hydration that occur tens of minutes after thirsty mice drink water, whereas different dopaminergic neurons respond to nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract. We show that information about fluid balance is transmitted to the VTA by a hypothalamic pathway and then re-routed to downstream circuits that track the oral, gastrointestinal and post-absorptive stages of ingestion. To investigate the function of these signals, we used a paradigm in which a fluid's oral and post-absorptive effects can be independently manipulated and temporally separated. We show that mice rapidly learn to prefer one fluid over another based solely on its rehydrating ability and that this post-ingestive learning is prevented if dopaminergic neurons in the VTA are selectively silenced after consumption. These findings reveal that the midbrain dopamine system contains subsystems that track different modalities and stages of ingestion, on timescales from seconds to tens of minutes, and that this information is used to drive learning about the consequences of ingestion.

Subcellular localization of D2 receptors in the murine substantia nigra

G-protein-coupled D2 autoreceptors expressed on dopamine neurons (D2Rs) inhibit transmitter release and cell firing at axonal endings and somatodendritic compartments. Mechanistic details of somatodendritic dopamine release remain unresolved, partly due to insufficient information on the subcellular distribution of D2Rs. Previous studies localizing D2Rs have been hindered by a dearth of antibodies validated for specificity in D2R knockout animals and have been limited by the small sampling areas imaged by electron microscopy. This study utilized sub-diffraction fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy to examine D2 receptors in a superecliptic pHlourin GFP (SEP) epitope-tagged D2 receptor knockin mouse. Incubating live slices with an anti-SEP antibody achieved the selective labeling of plasma membrane-associated receptors for immunofluorescent imaging over a large area of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). SEP-D2Rs appeared as puncta-like structures along the surface of dendrites and soma of dopamine neurons visualized by antibodies to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). TH-associated SEP-D2Rs displayed a cell surface density of 0.66 puncta/µm2, which corresponds to an average frequency of 1 punctum every 1.50 µm. Separate ultrastructural experiments using silver-enhanced immunogold revealed that membrane-bound particles represented 28% of total D2Rs in putative dopamine cells within the SNc. Structures immediately adjacent to dendritic membrane gold particles were unmyelinated axons or axon varicosities (40%), astrocytes (19%), other dendrites (7%), or profiles unidentified (34%) in single sections. Some apposed profiles also expressed D2Rs. Fluorescent and ultrastructural analyses also provided the first visualization of membrane D2Rs at the axon initial segment, a compartment critical for action potential generation. The punctate appearance of anti-SEP staining indicates there is a population of D2Rs organized in discrete signaling sites along the plasma membrane, and for the first time, a quantitative estimate of spatial frequency is provided.

GABAergic projections to the ventral tegmental area govern cocaine-conditioned reward

Elevated dopamine (DA) levels in the reward system underlie various drug-related behaviors, including addiction. As a major DA source in the reward system, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is highly regulated by GABAergic inputs projected from different brain regions. It was previously shown that cocaine exposure reduces GABA_A -mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in VTA DA neurons; however, the specific GABAergic input underlying this inhibitory effect remains unknown. Here, using optogenetics, we separately activate and characterize different GABAergic afferents innervating the VTA, focusing on the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc). GABA_A -mediated IPSCs were recorded from VTA DA neurons, and the effect of DA-induced inhibition was measured in an afferent-specific manner. In addition, to examine the effect of enhanced GABAergic tone on the rewarding properties of cocaine, we exogenously activated the different GABAergic inputs during the acquisition phase of cocaine conditioned place preference (CPP). We found that acute cocaine exposure strongly attenuates GABA_A -mediated IPSCs in VTA DA neurons from both inhibitory sources. Furthermore, exogenous light activation of both RMTg and NAc afferents in the VTA during the acquisition of cocaine-CPP significantly reduced the rewarding properties of cocaine. This behavioral observation was correlated with the reduction in the neuronal activity of VTA DA neurons as measured by the expression of c-fos. Together, these results emphasize the critical role of these GABAergic inputs to the VTA in modulating and potentially interrupting cocaine reward.

Progress in opioid reward research: From a canonical two-neuron hypothesis to two neural circuits

Opioid abuse and related overdose deaths continue to rise in the United States, contributing to the national opioid crisis in the USA. The neural mechanisms underlying opioid abuse and addiction are still not fully understood. This review discusses recent progress in basic research dissecting receptor mechanisms and circuitries underlying opioid reward and addiction. We first review the canonical GABA-dopamine neuron hypothesis that was upheld for half a century, followed by major findings challenging this hypothesis. We then focus on recent progress in research evaluating the role of the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine circuitries in opioid reward and relapse. Based on recent findings that activation of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) is equally rewarding and that GABA neurons in the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) and the substantia nigra pars reticula (SNr) are rich in mu opioid receptors and directly synapse onto midbrain DA neurons, we proposed that the RTMg→VTA → ventrostriatal and SNr → SNc → dorsostriatal pathways may act as the two major neural substrates underlying opioid reward and abuse. Lastly, we discuss possible integrations of these two pathways during initial opioid use, development of opioid abuse and maintenance of compulsive opioid seeking.

Differential Modulation of Ventral Tegmental Area Circuits by the Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ System

The neuropeptide nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) can be released by stressors and is associated with disorders of emotion regulation and reward processing. N/OFQ and its receptor, NOP, are enriched in dopaminergic pathways, and intra-ventricular agonist delivery decreases dopamine levels in the dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens (NAc), and ventral tegmental area (VTA). We used whole-cell electrophysiology in acute rat midbrain slices to investigate synaptic actions of N/OFQ. N/OFQ was primarily inhibitory, causing outward currents in both immunocytochemically identified dopaminergic (tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH(+))) and non-dopaminergic (TH(-)) VTA neurons; effect at 1 μm: 20 ± 4 pA. Surprisingly, this effect was mediated by augmentation of postsynaptic GABAAR currents, unlike the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), where the N/OFQ-induced outward currents were K+ channel dependent. A smaller population, 17% of all VTA neurons, responded to low concentrations of N/OFQ with inward currents (10 nm: -11 ± 2 pA). Following 100 nm N/OFQ, the response to a second N/OFQ application was markedly diminished in VTA neurons (14 ± 10% of first response) but not in SNc neurons (90 ± 20% of first response). N/OFQ generated outward currents in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-projecting VTA neurons, but inward currents in a subset of posterior anterior cingulate cortex (pACC)-projecting VTA neurons. While N/OFQ inhibited NAc-projecting VTA cell bodies, it had little effect on electrically or optogenetically evoked terminal dopamine release in the NAc measured ex vivo with fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). These results extend our understanding of the N/OFQ system in brainstem circuits implicated in many neurobehavioral disorders.

Acute Cocaine Reduces Excitatory Synaptic Transmission in Pyramidal Neurons of the Mouse Medial Prefrontal Cortex

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays critical roles in the development of cocaine addiction. Numerous studies have reported about the effects of cocaine on neuronal and synaptic activities in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area, which are brain regions associated with cocaine addiction; however, a limited number of studies have reported the effect of cocaine on mPFC neuronal activity. In this study, using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices, we present that under the condition where synaptic transmission is enhanced by increasing extracellular K⁺ concentration, cocaine significantly reduced the frequency but not amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents. These findings suggest that cocaine exposure could be a trigger to induce hypofrontality, which is related to the compulsive craving for cocaine use.

Neurophysiology of the brain stem in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is predominantly idiopathic in origin, and a large body of evidence indicates that gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunctions are a significant comorbid clinical feature; these dysfunctions include dysphagia, nausea, delayed gastric emptying, and severe constipation, all of which occur commonly before the onset of the well-known motor symptoms of PD. Based on a distinct distribution pattern of Lewy bodies (LB) in the enteric nervous system (ENS) and in the preganglionic neurons of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV), and together with the early onset of GI symptoms, it was suggested that idiopathic PD begins in the ENS and spreads to the central nervous system (CNS), reaching the DMV and the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). These two areas are connected by a recently discovered monosynaptic nigro-vagal pathway, which is dysfunctional in rodent models of PD. An alternative hypothesis downplays the role of LB transport through the vagus nerve and proposes that PD pathology is governed by regional or cell-restricted factors as the leading cause of nigral neuronal degeneration. The purpose of this brief review is to summarize the neuronal electrophysiological findings in the SNpc and DMV in PD.

The novel atypical antipsychotic cariprazine demonstrates dopamine D2 receptor-dependent partial agonist actions on rat mesencephalic dopamine neuronal activity

Aim

Cariprazine, a dopamine D₃‐preferring D₃/D₂ receptor partial agonist, is FDA approved for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute manic or mixed episodes of bipolar disorder. This study used in vivo electrophysiological techniques in anesthetized rats to determine cariprazine's effect on dopaminergic cell activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc).

Methods

Extracellular recordings of individual dopaminergic neurons were performed after oral or intravenous administration of cariprazine, the D₃ receptor antagonist SB 277011A, the D₂ receptor antagonist L741,626, and/or the D₃ receptor agonist PD 128,907.

Results

Acute oral treatment with cariprazine significantly increased and chronic cariprazine significantly decreased the number of spontaneously firing dopaminergic neurons in the VTA, but not in the SNc. Intravenous administration of cariprazine partially but significantly inhibited dopaminergic neuronal firing in both regions, which was prevented by L741,626 but not SB 277011A. In both VTA and SNc, cariprazine, SB 277011A, and L741,626 significantly antagonized the suppression of dopamine cell firing elicited by PD 128,907.

Conclusions

Cariprazine significantly modulates the number of spontaneously active VTA dopamine neurons and moderately suppresses midbrain dopamine neuronal activity. The contribution of dopamine D₂ receptors to cariprazine's in vivo effects is prevalent and that of D₃ receptors is less apparent.

The Evolving Understanding of Dopamine Neurons in the Substantia Nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area

In recent years, the population of neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra (SN) has been examined at multiple levels. The results indicate that the projections, neurochemistry, and receptor and ion channel expression in this cell population vary widely. This review centers on the intrinsic properties and synaptic regulation that control the activity of dopamine neurons. Although all dopamine neurons fire action potentials in a pacemaker pattern in the absence of synaptic input, the intrinsic properties that underlie this activity differ considerably. Likewise, the transition into a burst/pause pattern results from combinations of intrinsic ion conductances, inhibitory and excitatory synaptic inputs that differ among this cell population. Finally, synaptic plasticity is a key regulator of the rate and pattern of activity in different groups of dopamine neurons. Through these fundamental properties, the activity of dopamine neurons is regulated and underlies the wide-ranging functions that have been attributed to dopamine.

Circuit Analysis of a Drosophila Dopamine Type 2 Receptor That Supports Anesthesia-Resistant Memory

Dopamine is central to reinforcement processing and exerts this function in species ranging from humans to fruit flies. It can do so via two different types of receptors (i.e., D1 or D2) that mediate either augmentation or abatement of cellular cAMP levels. Whereas D1 receptors are known to contribute to Drosophila aversive odor learning per se, we here show that D2 receptors are specific for support of a consolidated form of odor memory known as anesthesia-resistant memory. By means of genetic mosaicism, we localize this function to Kenyon cells, the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, as well as GABAergic APL neurons and local interneurons of the antennal lobes, suggesting that consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory requires widespread dopaminergic modulation within the olfactory circuit. Additionally, dopaminergic neurons themselves require D2R, suggesting a critical role in dopamine release via its recognized autoreceptor function. Considering the dual role of dopamine in balancing memory acquisition (proactive function of dopamine) and its "forgetting" (retroactive function of dopamine), our analysis suggests D2R as central player of either process.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Dopamine provides different information; while it mediates reinforcement during the learning act (proactive function), it balances memory performance between two antithetic processes thereafter (retroactive function) (i.e., forgetting and augmentation). Such bidirectional design can also be found at level of dopamine receptors, where augmenting D1 and abating D2 receptors are engaged to balance cellular cAMP levels. Here, we report that consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory (ARM), but not other concomitant memory phases, are sensitive to bidirectional dopaminergic signals. By means of genetic mosaicism, we identified widespread dopaminergic modulation within the olfactory circuit that suggests nonredundant and reiterating functions of D2R in support of ARM. Our results oppose ARM to its concomitant memory phases that localize to mushroom bodies and propose a decentralized organization of consolidated ARM.

Dopamine: A Modulator of Circadian Rhythms in the Central Nervous System

Circadian rhythms are daily rhythms that regulate many biological processes – from gene transcription to behavior – and a disruption of these rhythms can lead to a myriad of health risks. Circadian rhythms are entrained by light, and their 24-h oscillation is maintained by a core molecular feedback loop composed of canonical circadian (“clock”) genes and proteins. Different modulators help to maintain the proper rhythmicity of these genes and proteins, and one emerging modulator is dopamine. Dopamine has been shown to have circadian-like activities in the retina, olfactory bulb, striatum, midbrain, and hypothalamus, where it regulates, and is regulated by, clock genes in some of these areas. Thus, it is likely that dopamine is essential to mechanisms that maintain proper rhythmicity of these five brain areas. This review discusses studies that showcase different dopaminergic mechanisms that may be involved with the regulation of these brain areas’ circadian rhythms. Mechanisms include how dopamine and dopamine receptor activity directly and indirectly influence clock genes and proteins, how dopamine’s interactions with gap junctions influence daily neuronal excitability, and how dopamine’s release and effects are gated by low- and high-pass filters. Because the dopamine neurons described in this review also release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA which influences clock protein expression in the retina, we discuss articles that explore how GABA may contribute to the actions of dopamine neurons on circadian rhythms. Finally, to understand how the loss of function of dopamine neurons could influence circadian rhythms, we review studies linking the neurodegenerative disease Parkinson’s Disease to disruptions of circadian rhythms in these five brain areas. The purpose of this review is to summarize growing evidence that dopamine is involved in regulating circadian rhythms, either directly or indirectly, in the brain areas discussed here. An appreciation of the growing evidence of dopamine’s influence on circadian rhythms may lead to new treatments including pharmacological agents directed at alleviating the various symptoms of circadian rhythm disruption.

Dopamine D₂ and acetylcholine α7 nicotinic receptors have subcellular distributions favoring mediation of convergent signaling in the mouse ventral tegmental area

Alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs) mediate nicotine-induced burst-firing of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a limbic brain region critically involved in reward and in dopamine D2 receptor (D2R)-related cortical dysfunctions associated with psychosis. The known presence of α7nAChRs and Gi-coupled D2Rs in dopamine neurons of the VTA suggests that these receptors are targeted to at least some of the same neurons in this brain region. To test this hypothesis, we used electron microscopic immunolabeling of antisera against peptide sequences of α7nACh and D2 receptors in the mouse VTA. Dual D2R and α7nAChR labeling was seen in many of the same somata (co-localization over 97%) and dendrites (co-localization over 49%), where immunoreactivity for each of the receptors was localized to endomembranes as well as to non-synaptic or synaptic plasma membranes often near excitatory-type synapses. In comparison with somata and dendrites, many more small axons and axon terminals were separately labeled for each of the receptors. Thus, single-labeled axon terminals were predominant for both α7nAChR (57.9%) and D2R (89.0%). The majority of the immunolabeled axonal profiles contained D2R-immunoreactivity (81.6%) and formed either symmetric or asymmetric synapses consistent with involvement in the release of both inhibitory and excitatory transmitters. Of 160 D2R-labeled terminals, 81.2% were presynaptic to dendrites that expressed α7nAChR alone or together with the D2R. Numerous glial processes inclusive of those enveloping either excitatory- or inhibitory-type synapses also contained single labeling for D2R (n=152) and α7nAChR (n=561). These results suggest that classic antipsychotic drugs, all of which block the D2R, may facilitate α7nAChR-mediated burst-firing by elimination of D2R-dependent inhibition in neurons expressing both receptors as well as by indirect pre-synaptic and glial mechanisms.

Modulation of ventral tegmental area dopamine receptors inhibit nicotine-induced anxiogenic-like behavior in the central amygdala

Nicotine, the major addictive substance in tobacco, increases the activity of the central amygdala (CeA). Amygdala is directly implicated in anxiety modulation and sends projections to the vicinity of the midbrain dopamine neurons, including the ventral tegmental area (VTA) which is a key area that controls nicotine dependence processes. In this study, the role of dopamine D(1) and D(2)/(3) receptors of the VTA on anxiogenic-like behavior induced with intra-CeA injection of nicotine has been investigated. Male Wistar rats with cannula aimed to the left CeA and the left VTA were submitted to the elevated plus-maze (EPM). The nicotine injection (1 μg/rat) into the CeA decreased the percentage of open arm time and open arm entries, but not locomotor activity, indicating an anxiogenic-like response. Intra-VTA injection of a dopamine D1 receptor antagonist, SCH23390 (0.25 μg/rat), and a dopamine D2/3 receptor antagonist, sulpiride (0.7 μg/rat), inhibited the anxiogenic-like response caused by intra-CeA injection of nicotine. These results suggest that the relationship between the VTA and the CeA may be involved in nicotine-induced anxiogenic-like behavior via dopamine D(1) and D(2)/(3) receptors. An understanding of these cellular processes will be crucial for the development of new intervention to combat nicotine effect.

Cocaine-induced adaptations in metabotropic inhibitory signaling in the mesocorticolimbic system

The addictive properties of psychostimulants such as cocaine are rooted in their ability to activate the mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) system. This system consists primarily of dopaminergic projections arising from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projecting to the limbic and cortical brain regions, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC). While the basic anatomy and functional relevance of the mesocorticolimbic DA system is relatively well-established, a key challenge remaining in addiction research is to understand where and how molecular adaptations and corresponding changes in function of this system facilitate a pathological desire to seek and take drugs. Several lines of evidence indicate that inhibitory signaling, particularly signaling mediated by the Gi/o class of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins), plays a key role in the acute and persistent effects of drugs of abuse. Moreover, recent evidence argues that these signaling pathways are targets of drug-induced adaptations. In this review we discuss inhibitory signaling pathways involving DA and the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in two brain regions - the VTA and PFC - that are central to the effects of acute and repeated cocaine exposure and represent sites of adaptations linked to addiction-related behaviors including sensitization, craving, and relapse.

Presynaptic inhibition of glutamate transmission by α2 receptors in the VTA

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) forms part of the mesocorticolimbic system and plays a pivotal role in reward and reinforcing actions of drugs of abuse. Glutamate transmission within the VTA controls important aspects of goal-directed behavior and motivation. Noradrenergic receptors also present in the VTA have important functions in the modulation of neuronal activity. Here we studied the effects of α2 noradrenergic receptor activation in the alteration of glutamate neurotransmission in VTA dopaminergic neurons from male Sprague-Dawley rats. We used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from putative VTA dopaminergic neurons and measured excitatory postsynaptic currents. Clonidine (40 μm) and UK 14,304 (40 μm), both α2 receptor agonists, reduced (approximately 40%) the amplitude of glutamate-induced excitatory postsynaptic currents. After clonidine administration, there was a dose-dependent reduction over the concentration range of 15-40 μm. Using yohimbine (20 μm) and two other α2 adrenergic receptor antagonists, idaxozan (40 μm) and atipemazole (20 μm), we demonstrated that the inhibitory action is specifically mediated by α2 receptors. Moreover, by inhibiting protein kinases with H-7 (75 μm), Rp-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic (11 μm) and chelerythrine (1 μm) it was shown that the clonidine-induced inhibition seems to involve a selective activation of the protein kinase C intracellular pathway. Increased paired-pulse ratios and changes in spontaneous and miniature excitatory postsynaptic current frequencies but not amplitudes indicated that the effect of the α2 agonist was presynaptically mediated. It is suggested that the suppression of glutamate excitatory inputs onto VTA dopaminergic neurons might be relevant in the regulation of reward and drug-seeking behaviors.

Insulin in the ventral tegmental area reduces hedonic feeding and suppresses dopamine concentration via increased reuptake

Mesolimbic dopamine (DA) signaling has been implicated in the incentive, reinforcing and motivational aspects of food intake. Insulin receptors are expressed on dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and insulin may act in the VTA to suppress feeding. However, the neural mechanisms underlying insulin effects in the VTA are poorly understood. Here, we measured the effects of insulin on evoked DA concentration in the VTA using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Insulin concentration-dependently reduced evoked somatodendritic DA in the VTA, requiring activation of phosphoinositol 3-kinase and mTOR signaling. Insulin depression of somatodendritic DA was abolished in the presence of a selective DA transporter (DAT) inhibitor, GBR 12909, as well as in VTA slices of DAT knockout mice, suggesting that insulin upregulated the number or function of DAT to reduce DA concentration. Finally, insulin administered to the VTA depressed sated feeding of sweetened high-fat food. Taken together, these results indicate that insulin depresses DA concentration in the VTA via increased reuptake of DA through DAT. Insulin-mediated decrease of DA in the VTA may suppress salience of food once satiety is reached.

Ventral tegmental area neurons are either excited or inhibited by cocaine's actions in the peripheral nervous system

Cocaine's multiple pharmacological substrates are ubiquitously present in the peripheral and central nervous system. Thus, upon its administration, cocaine acts in the periphery before directly acting in the brain. We determined whether cocaine alters ventral tegmental area (VTA) neuronal activity via its peripheral actions. In urethane-anesthetized rats, we recorded VTA neuron's responses to intravenous injections of two cocaine analogs: cocaine-hydrochloride (HCl, 0.25 mg/kg), which readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and cocaine-methiodide (MI, 0.33 mg/kg), which does not cross the BBB. Both cocaine analogs produced sustained changes in discharge rates that began 5 s after the initiation of a 10-s drug infusion. Within the first 90 s post-injection, the magnitudes of neuronal responsiveness of both cocaine analogs were comparable, but later the effects of cocaine-HCl were stronger and persisted longer than those of cocaine-MI. The proportion of neurons responsive to cocaine-HCl was twice that of cocaine-MI (74% and 35%, respectively). Both analogs also differed in their response onsets. Cocaine-MI rarely evoked responses after 1 min, whereas cocaine-HCl continued to evoke responses within 3 min post-injection. VTA neurons were either excited or inhibited by both cocaine analogs. Most units responsive to cocaine-MI, regardless of whether they were excited or inhibited, had electrophysiological characteristics of putative dopamine (DA) neurons. Units inhibited by cocaine-HCl also had characteristics of DA neurons, whereas excited neurons had widely varying action potential durations and discharge rates. Cocaine-MI and cocaine-HCl each produced changes in VTA neuron activity under full DA receptor blockade. However, the duration of inhibition was shortened and the number of excitations increased, and they occurred with an earlier onset during DA receptor blockade. These findings indicate that cocaine acts peripherally with a short latency and alters the activity of VTA neurons before its well-known direct actions in the brain.

Dopamine receptor signaling and current and future antipsychotic drugs

All currently efficacious antipsychotic drugs have as part of their mechanism the ability to attenuate some or all of the signaling through the dopamine D(2) receptor. More recently, the dopamine D(1) receptor has been hypothesized to be a promising target for the treatment of negative and/or cognitive aspects of schizophrenia that are not improved by current antipsychotics. Although cAMP has been presumed to be the primary messenger for signaling through the dopamine receptors, the last decade has unveiled a complexity that has provided exciting avenues for the future discovery of antipsychotic drugs (APDs). We review the signaling mechanisms of currently approved APDs at dopamine D(2) receptors, and note that aripiprazole is a compound that is clearly differentiated from other approved drugs. Although aripiprazole has been postulated to cause dopamine stabilization due to its partial D(2) agonist properties, a body of literature suggests that an alternative mechanism, functional selectivity, is of primary importance. Finally, we review the signaling at dopamine D(1) receptors, and the idea that drugs that activate D(1) receptors may have use as APDs for improving negative and cognitive symptoms. We address the current state of drug discovery in the D(1) area and its relationship to novel signaling mechanisms. Our conclusion is that although the first APD targeting dopamine receptors was discovered more than a half-century ago, recent research advances offer the possibility that novel and/or improved drugs will emerge in the next decade.

Amygdala-prefrontal pathways and the dopamine system affect nociceptive responses in the prefrontal cortex

Background

We previously demonstrated nociceptive discharges to be evoked by mechanical noxious stimulation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The nociceptive responses recorded in the PFC are conceivably involved in the affective rather than the sensory-discriminative dimension of pain. The PFC receives dense projection from the limbic system. Monosynaptic projections from the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) to the PFC are known to produce long-lasting synaptic plasticity. We examined effects of high frequency stimulation (HFS) delivered to the BLA on nociceptive responses in the rat PFC.

Results

HFS induced long lasting suppression (LLS) of the specific high threshold responses of nociceptive neurons in the PFC. Microinjection of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonists (2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV), dizocilpine (MK-801)) and also metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) group antagonists (α-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG), and 2-[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycyclopropyl]-3-(9H-xanthen-9-yl)-D-alanine (LY341495)), prevented the induction of LLS of nociceptive responses. We also examined modulatory effects of dopamine (DA) on the LLS of nociceptive responses. With depletion of DA in response to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) injection into the ipsilateral forebrain bundle, LLS of nociceptive responses was decreased, while nociceptive responses were normally evoked. Antagonists of DA receptor subtypes D2 (sulpiride) and D4 (3-{[4-(4-chlorophenyl) piperazin-1-yl] methyl}-1H-pyrrolo [2, 3-b] pyridine (L-745,870)), microinjected into the PFC, inhibited LLS of nociceptive responses.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that BLA-PFC pathways inhibited PFC nociceptive cell activities and that the DA system modifies the BLA-PFC regulatory function.

Dynamic regulation of midbrain dopamine neuron activity: intrinsic, synaptic, and plasticity mechanisms

Although the roles of dopaminergic signaling in learning and behavior are well established, it is not fully understood how the activity of dopaminergic neurons is dynamically regulated under different conditions in a constantly changing environment. Dopamine neurons must integrate sensory, motor, and cognitive information online to inform the organism to pursue outcomes with the highest reward probability. In this article, we provide an overview of recent advances on the intrinsic, extrinsic (i.e., synaptic), and plasticity mechanisms controlling dopamine neuron activity, mostly focusing on mechanistic studies conducted using ex vivo brain slice preparations. We also hope to highlight some unresolved questions regarding information processing that takes place at dopamine neurons, thereby stimulating further investigations at different levels of analysis.

P2 receptors are involved in the mediation of motivation-related behavior

The importance of purinergic signaling in the intact mesolimbic–mesocortical circuit of the brain of freely moving rats is reviewed. In the rat, an endogenous ADP/ATPergic tone reinforces the release of dopamine from the axon terminals in the nucleus accumbens as well as from the somatodendritic region of these neurons in the ventral tegmental area, as well as the release of glutamate, probably via P2Y₁ receptor stimulation. Similar mechanisms may regulate the release of glutamate in both areas of the brain. Dopamine and glutamate determine in concert the activity of the accumbal GABAergic, medium-size spiny neurons thought to act as an interface between the limbic cortex and the extrapyramidal motor system. These neurons project to the pallidal and mesencephalic areas, thereby mediating the behavioral reaction of the animal in response to a motivation-related stimulus. There is evidence that extracellular ADP/ATP promotes goal-directed behavior, e.g., intention and feeding, via dopamine, probably via P2Y₁ receptor stimulation. Accumbal P2 receptor-mediated glutamatergic mechanisms seem to counteract the dopaminergic effects on behavior. Furthermore, adaptive changes of motivation-related behavior, e.g., by chronic succession of starvation and feeding or by repeated amphetamine administration, are accompanied by changes in the expression of the P2Y₁ receptor, thought to modulate the sensitivity of the animal to respond to certain stimuli.

Activation of D₂-like receptors in rat ventral tegmental area inhibits cocaine-reinstated drug-seeking behavior

Relapse is a hallmark of cocaine addiction. Cocaine-induced neuroplastic changes in the mesocorticolimbic circuits critically contribute to this phenomenon. Pre-clinical evidence indicates that relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior depends on activation of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Thus, blocking such activation may inhibit relapse. Because the activity of dopamine neurons is regulated by D₂-like autoreceptors expressed on somatodendritic sites, this study, using the reinstatement model, aimed to determine whether activation of D₂-like receptors in the ventral tegmental area can inhibit cocaine-induced reinstatement of extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior. Rats were trained to self-administer i.v. cocaine (0.25 mg/infusion) under a modified fixed-ratio 5 schedule. After such behavior was well learned, rats went through extinction training to extinguish cocaine-seeking behavior. The effect of quinpirole, a selective D₂-like receptor agonist microinjected into the ventral tegmental area, on cocaine-induced reinstatement was then assessed. Quinpirole (0-3.2 μg/side) dose-dependently decreased cocaine-induced reinstatement and such effects were reversed by the selective D₂-like receptor antagonist eticlopride when co-microinjected with quinpirole into the ventral tegmental area. The effect appeared to be specific to the ventral tegmental area because quinpirole microinjected into the substantia nigra had no effect. Because D₂-like receptors are expressed on rat ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons projecting to the pre-frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens, our data suggest that these dopamine circuits may play a critical role in cocaine-induced reinstatement. The role of potential changes in D₂-like receptors and related signaling molecules of dopamine neurons in the vulnerability to relapse was discussed.

Developmental increase in D1-like dopamine receptor-mediated inhibition of glutamatergic transmission through P/Q-type channel regulation in the basal forebrain of rats

Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of non-N-methyl-d-aspartate glutamatergic excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) were carried out from cholinergic neurons in slices of basal forebrain (BF) of developing rats aged 21-42 postnatal days to elucidate postnatal developmental change in Ca(2+) channel subtypes involved in the transmission as well as that in dopamine D(1)-like receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition. The amplitude of EPSCs was inhibited by bath application of omega-conotoxin GVIA (omega-CgTX; 3 microM) or omega-agatoxin-TK (omega-Aga-TK; 200 nM) throughout the age range examined, suggesting that multiple types of Ca(2+) channel are involved in the transmission. The EPSC fraction reduced by omega-CgTX decreased with age, whereas that reduced by omega-Aga-TK increased. Inhibition of the EPSCs by a D(1)-like receptor agonist, SKF 81297 (SKF; 30 microM) increased with age in parallel with the increase in omega-Aga-TK-induced inhibition. An activator of the adenylyl cyclase (AC) pathway, forskolin (FK; 10 microM) inhibited the EPSCs, and FK-induced inhibition also increased with age in parallel with the increase in SKF-induced inhibition. Throughout the age range examined, SKF showed no further inhibitory effect on the EPSCs after omega-Aga-TK- or FK-induced effect had reached steady-state. These findings suggest that D(1)-like receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition of glutamate release onto cholinergic BF neurons increases with age, and that the change is coupled with a developmental increase in the contribution of P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels as well as a developmental increase in AC pathway contribution.

In vivo patch-clamp analysis of dopaminergic antinociceptive actions on substantia gelatinosa neurons in the spinal cord

To elucidate the mechanisms of antinociception mediated by the dopaminergic descending pathway in the spinal cord, we investigated the actions of dopamine (DA) on substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons by in vivo whole-cell patch-clamp methods. In the voltage-clamp mode (V(H)=-70mV), the application of DA induced outward currents in about 70% of SG neurons tested. DA-induced outward current was observed in the presence of either Na(+) channel blocker, tetrodotoxin (TTX) or a non-NMDA receptor antagonist, CNQX, and was inhibited by either GDP-β-S in the pipette solution or by perfusion of a non-selective K(+) channel blocker, Ba(2+). The DA-induced outward currents were mimicked by a selective D2-like receptor agonist, quinpirole and attenuated by a selective D2-like receptor antagonist, sulpiride, indicating that the DA-induced outward current is mediated by G-protein-activated K(+) channels through D2-like receptors. DA significantly suppressed the frequency and amplitude of glutamatergic spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs). DA also significantly decreased the frequency of miniature EPSCs in the presence of TTX. These results suggest that DA has both presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibitory actions on synaptic transmission in SG neurons. We showed that DA produced direct inhibitory effects in SG neurons to both noxious and innocuous stimuli to the skin. Furthermore, electrical stimulation of dopaminergic diencephalic spinal neurons (A11), which project to the spinal cord, induced outward current and suppressed the frequency and amplitude of EPSCs. We conclude that the dopaminergic descending pathway has an antinociceptive effect via D2-like receptors on SG neurons in the spinal cord.

Dopaminergic modulation of receptive fields in rat sensorimotor cortex

Dopaminergic projections to primary sensorimotor cortex (SMC) have been described anatomically, but their functional role is unknown. The objective here was to characterize how dopamine modulates the somatosensory evoked potential (SEP) and its receptive field in SMC. SEPs were evoked by median and tibial nerve stimulation and recorded using thin-film multielectrode arrays implanted epidurally over the caudal sensorimotor cortex of rats. SEP amplitudes and receptive fields were measured before and after intracortical injection of a D1- (SCH 23390) or a D2-receptor antagonist (raclopride). Both increased maximum SEP amplitudes by 107.5% and 82.1%, respectively (p<0.01), while vehicle application had no effect (5.9% change). SEP latencies and receptive fields remained unchanged. Dopamine antagonists increase the excitability of sensorimotor cortex to afferent signals. Dopamine, therefore, expectedly reduces SMC excitability thereby improving sensory signal-to-noise ratio. Dopaminergic modulation may render SMC circuitry more effective in processing sensory information from different sources.

Ethanol action on dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area: interaction with intrinsic ion channels and neurotransmitter inputs

The dopaminergic system originating in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) has been extensively studied over the past decades as a critical neural substrate involved in the development of alcoholism and addiction to other drugs of abuse. Accumulating evidence indicates that ethanol modulates the functional output of this system by directly affecting the firing activity of VTA dopamine neurons, whereas withdrawal from chronic ethanol exposure leads to a reduction in the functional output of these neurons. This chapter will provide an update on the mechanistic investigations of the acute ethanol action on dopamine neuron activity and the neuroadaptations/plasticities in the VTA produced by previous ethanol experience.

Prostaglandin E receptor EP1 enhances GABA-mediated inhibition of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and regulates dopamine level in the dorsal striatum

Dopamine (DA) is a neuromodulator that is critical for sensory-motor, cognitive and emotional functions. We previously found that mice lacking prostaglandin E receptor EP1 showed impulsive emotional behaviors accompanied by enhanced DA turnover in the frontal cortex and striatum. Given that these behavioral phenotypes were corrected by DA receptor antagonists, we hypothesized that EP1 deficiency causes a hyperdopaminergic state for its behavioral phenotype. Here we tested this hypothesis by examining the EP1 action in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. We first used microdialysis and found an elevated extracellular DA level in the dorsal striatum of EP1-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. Despite the EP1 expression in the striatum, neither deficiency nor activation of EP1 altered the intrastriatal control for DA release, uptake or degradation. Immunohistochemistry revealed punctate EP1 signals apposed with dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Many EP1 signals were colocalized with a marker for GABAergic synapses. Further, an EP1 agonist enhanced GABA(A)-mediated inhibitory inputs to SNc dopaminergic neurons in midbrain slices. Therefore, the prostaglandin E(2)-EP1 signaling directly enhances GABAergic inputs to SNc dopaminergic neurons. The lack of this EP1 action may lead to a hyperdopaminergic state of EP1-deficient mice.

Activity-dependent regulation of synapses by retrograde messengers

Throughout the brain, postsynaptic neurons release substances from their cell bodies and dendrites that regulate the strength of the synapses they receive. Diverse chemical messengers have been implicated in retrograde signaling from postsynaptic neurons to presynaptic boutons. Here, we provide an overview of the signaling systems that lead to rapid changes in synaptic strength. We consider the capabilities, specializations, and physiological roles of each type of signaling system.

CRF enhancement of GIRK channel-mediated transmission in dopamine neurons

Dopamine neurons in the ventral midbrain contribute to learning and memory of natural and drug-related rewards. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), a stress-related peptide, is thought to be involved in aspects of relapse following drug withdrawal, but the cellular actions are poorly understood. This study investigates the action of CRF on G-protein-linked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) mediated by GIRK (Kir3) channels in dopamine neurons. CRF enhanced the amplitude and slowed the kinetics of IPSCs following activation of D2-dopamine and GABA(B) receptors. This action was postsynaptic and dependent on the CRF(1) receptor. The enhancement induced by CRF was attenuated by repeated in vivo exposures to psychostimulants or restraint stress. The results indicate that CRF influences dopamine- and GABA-mediated inhibition in the midbrain, suggesting implications for the chronic actions of psychostimulants and stress on dopamine-mediated behaviors.

Midbrain dopamine receptor availability is inversely associated with novelty-seeking traits in humans

Novelty-seeking personality traits are a major risk factor for the development of drug abuse and other unsafe behaviors. Rodent models of temperament indicate that high novelty responding is associated with decreased inhibitory autoreceptor control of midbrain dopamine neurons. It has been speculated that individual differences in dopamine functioning also underlie the personality trait of novelty seeking in humans. However, differences in the dopamine system of rodents and humans, as well as the methods for assessing novelty responding/seeking across species leave unclear to what extent the animal models inform our understanding of human personality. In the present study we examined the correlation between novelty-seeking traits in humans and D(2)-like (D(2)/D(3)) receptor availability in the substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area. Based on the rodent literature we predicted that novelty seeking would be characterized by lowered levels of D(2)-like (auto)receptor availability in the midbrain. Thirty-four healthy adults (18 men, 16 women) completed the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire-Novelty-Seeking Scale and PET scanning with the D(2)/D(3) ligand [(18)F]fallypride. Novelty-Seeking personality traits were inversely associated with D(2)-like receptor availability in the ventral midbrain, an effect that remained significant after controlling for age. We speculate that the lower midbrain (auto)receptor availability seen in high novelty seekers leads to accentuated dopaminergic responses to novelty and other conditions that induce dopamine release.

Ethanol enhances glutamate transmission by retrograde dopamine signaling in a postsynaptic neuron/synaptic bouton preparation from the ventral tegmental area

It is well documented that somatodendritically released dopamine is important in the excitability and synaptic transmission of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Recently we showed that in midbrain slices, acute ethanol exposure facilitates glutamatergic transmission onto dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA is a brain region critical to the rewarding effects of abused drugs, including ethanol. We hypothesized that ethanol facilitation might result from an increase in somatodendritically released dopamine, which acts retrogradely on dopamine D(1) receptors on glutamate-releasing axons and consequently leads to an increase in glutamate release onto dopaminergic neurons. To further test this hypothesis and to examine whether ethanol facilitation can occur at the single-cell level, VTA neurons were freshly isolated from rat brains using an enzyme-free procedure. These isolated neurons retain functional synaptic terminals, including those that release glutamate. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) mediated by glutamate alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors were recorded from these freshly isolated putative dopaminergic neurons. We found that acute application of clinically relevant concentrations of ethanol (10-80 mM) significantly facilitated the frequency of sEPSCs but not their mean amplitude. Ethanol facilitation was mimicked by the D(1) agonist SKF 38393 and by the dopamine uptake blocker GBR 12935 but was blocked by the D(1) antagonist SKF 83566, and by depleting dopamine stores with reserpine, as well as by chelating postsynaptic calcium with BAPTA. Furthermore, the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin eliminated the facilitation of sEPSCs induced by ethanol but not by SKF 38393. These results constitute the first evidence from single isolated cells of ethanol facilitation of glutamate transmission to dopaminergic neurons in the VTA. In addition, we show that ethanol facilitation has a postsynaptic origin and a presynaptic locus. Furthermore, ethanol stimulation of a single dopaminergic neuron is capable of eliciting the release of somatodendritic dopamine, which is sufficient to influence glutamatergic transmission at individual synapses.

Dopaminergic suppression of synaptic transmission in the lateral entorhinal cortex

Dopaminergic projections to the superficial layers of the lateral entorhinal cortex can modulate the strength of olfactory inputs to the region. We have found that low concentrations of dopamine facilitate field EPSPs in the entorhinal cortex, and that higher concentrations of dopamine suppress synaptic responses. Here, we have used whole-cell current clamp recordings from layer II neurons to determine the mechanisms of the suppression. Dopamine (10 to 50 μM) hyperpolarized membrane potential and reversibly suppressed the amplitude of EPSPs evoked by layer I stimulation. Both AMPA- and NMDA-mediated components were suppressed, and paired-pulse facilitation was also enhanced indicating that the suppression is mediated largely by reduced glutamate release. Blockade of D₂-like receptors greatly reduced the suppression of EPSPs. Dopamine also lowered input resistance, and reduced the number of action potentials evoked by depolarizing current steps. The drop in input resistance was mediated by activation of D₁-like receptors, and was prevented by blocking K⁺ channels with TEA. The dopaminergic suppression of synaptic transmission is therefore mediated by a D₂ receptor-dependent reduction in transmitter release, and a D₁ receptor-dependent increase in a K⁺ conductance. This suppression of EPSPs may dampen the strength of sensory inputs during periods of elevated mesocortical dopamine activity.

Ethanol facilitates glutamatergic transmission to dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area

The cellular mechanisms underlying alcohol addiction are poorly understood. In several brain areas, ethanol depresses glutamatergic excitatory transmission, but how it affects excitatory synapses on dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a crucial site for the development of drug addiction, is not known. We report here that in midbrain slices from rats, clinically relevant concentrations of ethanol (10-80 mM) increase the amplitude of evoked EPSCs and reduce their paired-pulse ratio in dopamine neurons in the VTA. The EPSCs were mediated by glutamate alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors. In addition, ethanol increases the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous EPSCs. Furthermore, ethanol increases extracellular glutamate levels in the VTA of midbrain slices. The effects of ethanol are mimicked by SKF 38393, a dopamine D(1) receptor agonist, and by GBR 12935, a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, and they are blocked by SKF 83566, a D(1) antagonist, or by reserpine, which depletes dopamine stores. The enhancement of sEPSC frequency reaches a peak with 40 mM ethanol and declines with concentrations >or=80 mM ethanol, which is quite likely a result of D(2) receptor activation as raclopride, a D(2) receptor blocker, significantly enhanced 80 mM ethanol-induced enhancement of sEPSCs. Finally, 6, 7-dinitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione (DNQX), an AMPA receptor antagonist, attenuates ethanol-induced excitation of VTA DA neurons. We therefore conclude that, acting via presynaptic D(1) receptors, ethanol at low concentrations increases glutamate release in the VTA, thus raising somatodendritic dopamine release, which further activates the presynaptic D(1) receptors. Enhancement of this positive feedback loop may significantly contribute to the development of alcohol addiction.

Nanomolar propofol stimulates glutamate transmission to dopamine neurons: a possible mechanism of abuse potential?

Anesthesiologists among physicians are on the top of the drug abuse list, and the mechanism is unclear. Recent studies suggest occupation-related second-hand exposure to i.v. drugs, including propofol, may play a role. Growing evidence indicates that propofol is one of the choices of drugs being abused. In this study, we show that propofol at minute concentrations increases glutamatergic excitatory synaptic transmission and discharges of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). We found that acute application of propofol (0.1-10 nM) to the VTA in midbrain slices of rats increased the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) mediated by alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors. We observed that propofol increased the amplitude but decreased the paired-pulse ratio of EPSCs evoked by stimulation in the absence and the presence of gabazine (SR 95531), a GABA(A) receptor antagonist. Moreover, the propofol-induced facilitation of EPSCs was mimicked by 6-phenyl-4-azabicyclo[5.4.0]undeca-7,9,11-triene-9,10-diol (SKF38393), an agonist of dopamine D(1) receptor, and by 1-[2-(diphenylmethoxy)ethyl]-4-(3-phenylpropyl)piperazine dihydrochloride (GBR 12935), a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, but blocked by (+/-)-7-bromo-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4, 5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine hydrochloride (SKF83566), a D(1) antagonist, or by depleting dopamine stores with reserpine. Finally, 1 nM propofol increased the spontaneous discharge rate of dopamine neurons. These findings suggest that propofol at minute concentrations enhances presynaptic D(1) receptor-mediated facilitation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission and the excitability of VTA dopamine neurons, probably by increasing extracellular dopamine levels. These changes in synaptic plasticity in the VTA, an addiction-related brain area might contribute to the development of propofol abuse and the increased susceptibility to addiction of other drugs.

Presynaptic receptors for dopamine, histamine, and serotonin

Presynaptic receptors for dopamine, histamine and serotonin that are located on dopaminergic, histaminergic and sertonergic axon terminals, respectively, function as autoreceptors. Presynaptic receptors also occur as heteroreceptors on other axon terminals. Auto- and heteroreceptors mainly affect Ca(2+) -dependent exocytosis from the receptor-bearing nerve ending. Some additionally subserve other presynaptic functions.Presynaptic dopamine, histamine and serotonin receptors are involved in various (patho)physiological conditions. Examples are the following:Dopamine autoreceptors play a role in Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and drug addiction. Dopamine heteroreceptors affecting the release of acetylcholine and of amino acid neurotransmitters in the basal ganglia are also relevant for Parkinson's disease. Peripheral dopamine heteroreceptors on postganglionic sympathetic terminals influence heart rate and vascular resistance through modulation of noradrenaline release. Blockade of histamine autoreceptors increases histamine synthesis and release and may support higher CNS functions such as arousal, cognition and learning. Peripheral histamine heteroreceptors on C fiber and on postganglionic sympathetic fiber terminals diminish neuropeptide and noradrenaline release, respectively. Both inhibititory effects are beneficial in myocardial ischemia. The inhibition of neuropeptide release also explains the antimigraine effects of some agonists of presynaptic histamine receptors. Upregulation of presynaptic serotonin autoreceptors is probably involved in the pathogenesis of major depression. Correspondingly, antidepressant treatments can be linked with a reduced density of 5-HT autoreceptors. 5-HT Heteroreceptor activation diminishes acetylcholine and GABA release and may therefore increase anxiety. In the periphery, presynaptic 5-HT heteroreceptor agonists shorten migraine attacks by inhibition of the release of neuropeptides from trigeminal afferents, apart from their constrictive action on meningeal vessels.

Control of the Subthalamic Innervation of the Rat Globus Pallidus by D2/3 and D4 Dopamine Receptors

The effects of activating dopaminergic D2/3 and D4 receptors during activation of the subthalamic projection to the globus pallidus (GP) were explored in rat brain slices using the whole cell patch-clamp technique. Byocitin labeling and both orthodromic and antidromic activation demonstrated the integrity of some subthalamopallidal connections in in vitro parasagittal brain slices. Excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) that could be blocked by CNQX and AP5 were evoked onto pallidal neurons by local field stimulation of the subthalamopallidal pathway in the presence of bicuculline. Bath application of dopamine and quinpirole, a dopaminergic D2-class receptor agonist, reduced evoked EPSCs by about 35%. This effect was only partially blocked by sulpiride, a D2/3 receptor antagonist. The sulpiride-sensitive reduction of the subthalamopallidal EPSC was associated with an increase in the paired-pulse ratio (PPR) and a reduction in the frequency but not the mean amplitude of spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs), indicative of a presynaptic site of action, which was confirmed by variance–mean analysis. The sulpiride-resistant EPSC reduction was mimicked by PD 168,077 and blocked by L-745,870, selective D4 receptor agonist and antagonist, respectively, suggesting the involvement of D4 receptors. The reduction of EPSCs produced by PD 168,077 was not accompanied by changes in PPR or the frequency of sEPSCs; however, it was accompanied by a reduction in mean sEPSC amplitude, indicative of a postsynaptic site of action. These results show that dopamine modulates subthalamopallidal excitation by presynaptic D2/3 and postsynaptic D4 receptors. The importance of this modulation is discussed.

Acute D2/D3 dopaminergic agonism but chronic D2/D3 antagonism prevents NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Antagonists of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor, most likely by producing disinhibtion in complex circuits, acutely produce psychosis and cognitive disturbances in humans, and neurotoxicity in rodents. Studies examining NMDA Receptor Hypofunction (NRHypo) neurotoxicity in animals, therefore, may provide insights into the pathophysiology of psychotic disorders. Dopaminergic D2 and/or D3 agents can modify psychosis over days to weeks, suggesting involvement of these transmitter system(s).

METHODS

We studied the ability of D2/D3 agonists and antagonists to modify NRHypo neurotoxicity both after a one-time acute exposure and after chronic daily exposure.

RESULTS

Here we report that D2/D3 dopamine agonists, probably via D3 receptors, prevent NRHypo neurotoxicity when given acutely. The protective effect with D2/D3 agonists is not seen after chronic daily dosing. In contrast, the antipsychotic haloperidol does not affect NRHypo neurotoxicity when given acutely at D2/D3 doses. However, after chronic daily dosing of 1, 3, or 5 weeks, haloperidol does prevent NRHypo neurotoxicity with longer durations producing greater protection.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the changes that occur in the NRHypo circuit after chronic exposure to dopaminergic agents could provide important clues into the pathophysiology of psychotic disorders.

Cocaine enhances NMDA receptor-mediated currents in ventral tegmental area cells via dopamine D5 receptor-dependent redistribution of NMDA receptors

Cocaine-induced plasticity of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) plays an important role in brain adaptations that promote addictive behaviors. However, the mechanisms responsible for triggering these synaptic changes are unknown. Here, we examined the effects of acute cocaine application on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in rat midbrain slices. Cocaine caused a delayed increase in NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated synaptic currents in putative VTA dopamine (DA) cells. This effect was mimicked by a specific DA reuptake inhibitor and by a DA D1/D5 receptor agonist. The effect of cocaine was blocked by a DA D1/D5 receptor antagonist as well as by inhibitors of the cAMP/cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. Furthermore, biochemical analysis showed an increase in the immunoreactivity of the NMDAR subunits NR1 and NR2B and their redistribution to the synaptic membranes in VTA neurons. Accordingly, NMDAR-mediated EPSC decay time kinetics were significantly slower after cocaine, suggesting an increased number of NR2B-containing NMDARs. Finally, pharmacological analysis indicates that NR2B subunits might be incorporated in triheteromeric NR1/NR2A/NR2B complexes rather than in "pure" NR1/NR2B NMDA receptors. Together, our data suggest that acute cocaine increases NMDAR function in the VTA via activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway mediated by a DA D5-like receptor, leading to the insertion of NR2B-containing NMDARs in the membrane. These results provide a potential mechanism by which acute cocaine promotes synaptic plasticity of VTA neurons, which could ultimately lead to the development of addictive behaviors.

Exocytotic release of dopamine in ventral tegmental area slices from C57BL/6 and dopamine transporter knockout mice

The present study used voltammetry to ascertain whether electrically stimulated somatodendritic dopamine release in ventral tegmental area slices from C57BL/6 and dopamine transporter knockout mice was due to exocytosis or dopamine transporter reversal, as has been debated. The maximal concentration of electrically evoked dopamine release was similar between ventral tegmental area slices from dopamine transporter knockout and C57BL/6 mice. Dopamine transporter blockade (10 microM nomifensine) in slices from C57BL/6 mice inhibited dopamine uptake but did not alter peak evoked dopamine release. In addition, dopamine release and uptake kinetics in ventral tegmental area slices from dopamine transporter knockout mice were unaltered by the norepinephrine transporter inhibitor, desipramine (10 microM), or the serotonin transporter inhibitor, fluoxetine (10 microM). Furthermore, maximal dopamine release in ventral tegmental area slices from both C57BL/6 and dopamine transporter knockout mice was significantly decreased in response to Na(+) channel blockade by 1 microM tetrototoxin, removal of Ca(2+) from the perfusion media and neuronal vesicular monoamine transporter inhibition by RO-04-1284 (10 microM) or tetrabenazine (10 and 100 microM). Finally, the glutamate receptor antagonists AP-5 (50 and 100 microM) and CNQX (20 and 50 microM) had no effect on peak somatodendritic dopamine release in C57BL/6 mice. Overall, these data suggest that similar mechanisms, consistent with exocytosis, govern electrically evoked dopamine release in ventral tegmental area slices from C57BL/6 and dopamine transporter knockout mice.

Field potential recording in the ventral tegmental area: pharmacological and toxicological evaluations of postsynaptic dopaminergic neuron activity

Addictive drugs and psychologic stress influence the input strength of ventral tegmental area (VTA) neurons, which implies the involvement of synaptic plasticity in dopaminergic neurons. Properties of excitatory synaptic transmission to the dopaminergic neurons have been analyzed using intracellular and patch-clamp recording methods. In the present study, we attempted to establish the field recording procedure in VTA slice preparations to monitor excitatory synaptic transmission. We evaluated this procedure using slice preparations from 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-treated animals. In horizontal slices containing the VTA, electrical stimulation of anterior afferent fibers produced two distinct negative field potentials, presumably a fiber volley component and a transsynaptic component. Pharmacological analysis revealed that the transsynaptic component was composed of bicuculline-sensitive and CNQX-sensitive components. Neonatal 6-OHDA administration reduced approximately 90% of tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the VTA and eliminated more than 50% of the transsynaptic components. This result suggests that at least 50% of the observed transsynaptic component reflected the postsynaptic responses of the dopaminergic neurons.

Effects of theanine, r-glutamylethylamide, on neurotransmitter release and its relationship with glutamic acid neurotransmission

t Theanine, r-glutamylethylamide, is one of the major amino acid components in green tea and many researchers have compared theanine's effects with glutamic acid because the chemical structure is similar. In the previous study, we demonstrated that theanine can pass brain-blood barrier and may play as an agonist or an antagonist of some receptors. In this study, we investigated the effects of theanine on neurotransmitter release in the rat brain striatum by in vivo brain microdialysis and examined whether theanine affected glutamate transporters by comparing it with a glutamate transporter blocker, L-trans-Pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (L-trans-2,4-PDC). Because we investigated whether the effects of theanine is similar to L-trans-2,4-PDC on the brain neurotransmission, we measured dopamine release and some amino acids release which are known as excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitters from neurons by theanine or L-trans-2,4-PDC perfusion into the rat brain striatum. L-trans-2,4-PDC or theanine perfusion into the brain striatum caused dopamine release from dopaminergic neurons. In addition, L-trans-2,4-PDC perfusion increased glutamic acid, aspartic acid and, whereas theanine perfusion prevented aspartic acid release and increased glycine release. These results suggested that the mechanism of dopamine release caused by theanine is different from glutamate transporter blockers or glutamic acid. Further, L-trans-2,4-PDC cause excitatory neurotransmission, whereas theanine may inhibit excitatory neurotransmission and cause inhibitory neurotransmission via glycine receptors.

Differential effects of cocaine-induced seizures and lethality on M(1)-like muscarinic and dopaminergic D (1)- and D (2)-like binding receptors in mice brain

This work was designed to study the changes produced by cocaine-induced seizures and lethality on dopaminergic D(1)- and D(2)-like receptors, muscarinic M(1)-like binding sites, as well as acetylcholinesterase activity in mice prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum (ST). Binding assays were performed in brain homogenates from the PFC and ST and ligands used were [(3)H]-N-methylscopolamine, [(3)H]-NMS (in the presence of carbachol), [(3)H]-SCH 23390 and [(3)H]-spiroperidol (in presence of mianserin), for muscarinic (M(1)-like), D(1)- and D(2)-like receptors, respectively. Brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was also determined in these brain areas. Cocaine-induced SE decreased [(3)H]-SCH 23390 binding in both ST and PFC areas. A decrease in [(3)H]-NMS binding and an increase in [(3)H]-spiroperidol binding in PFC was also observed. Cocaine-induced lethality increased [(3)H]-spiroperidol binding in both areas and decreased [(3)H]-NMS binding only in PFC, while no difference was seen in [(3)H]-SCH 23390 binding. Neither SE, nor lethality altered [(3)H]-NMS binding in ST. AChE activity increased after SE in ST while after death the increase occurred in both PFC and ST. In conclusion, cocaine-induced SE and lethality produces differential changes in brain cholinergic and dopaminergic receptors, depending on the brain area studied suggesting an extensive and complex involvement of these with cocaine toxicity in central nervous system.

Depression of retinogeniculate synaptic transmission by presynaptic D2-like dopamine receptors in rat lateral geniculate nucleus

Extraretinal projections onto neurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) play an important role in modifying sensory information as it is relayed from the visual thalamus to neocortex. The dLGN receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area; however, the role of dopamine in synaptic transmission in dLGN has not been explored. In the present study, whole cell recordings were obtained to examine the actions of dopamine on glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Dopamine (2-100 microm) strongly suppressed excitatory synaptic transmission in dLGN relay neurons that was evoked by optic tract stimulation and mediated by both N-methyl-d-aspartate and non-N-methyl-d-aspartate glutamate receptors. In contrast, dopamine did not alter inhibitory synaptic transmission arising from either dLGN interneurons or thalamic reticular nucleus neurons. The suppressive action of dopamine on excitatory synaptic transmission was mimicked by the D(2)-like dopamine receptor agonist bromocriptine (2-25 microm) but not by the D(1)-like receptor agonist SKF38393 (10-25 microm). In addition, the dopamine-mediated suppression was antagonized by the D(2)-like receptor antagonist sulpiride (10-20 microm) but not by the D(1)-like receptor antagonist SCH23390 (5-25 microm). The dopamine-mediated decrease in evoked excitatory postsynaptic current amplitude was accompanied by an increase in the magnitude of paired-pulse depression. Furthermore, dopamine also reduced the frequency but not the amplitude of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents. Taken together, these data suggest that dopamine may act presynaptically to regulate the release of glutamate at the retinogeniculate synapse and modify transmission of visual information in the dLGN.