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Olszanowski M, Tołopiło A. "Anger? No, thank you. I don't mimic it": how contextual modulation of facial display meaning impacts emotional mimicry. Cogn Emot 2024; 38:530-548. [PMID: 38303660 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2310759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Research indicates that emotional mimicry predominantly occurs in response to affiliative displays, such as happiness, while the mimicry of antagonistic displays, like anger, is seldom observed in social contexts. However, contextual factors, including the identity of the displayer (e.g. social similarity with the observer) and whose action triggered the emotional reaction (i.e. to whom display is directed), can modulate the meaning of the display. In two experiments, participants observed happiness, sadness, and anger expressed by individuals with similar or different social attitudes in response to actions from either a participant or another person. Results demonstrated that three manipulated factors - displayer social similarity, whose action caused an emotional display, and the type of emotional display - affected participants' perception of the display. In turn, mimicry was predominantly observed in response to happiness (Experiments 1 and 2), to a lesser extent to sadness (Experiment 1), and not to anger. Furthermore, participants mimicked individuals who were more socially similar (Experiment 1), while whose action caused an emotional reaction did not influence mimicry. The findings suggest that when the context mitigates the meaning of negative or antagonistic facial displays, it does not necessarily increase the inclination to mimic them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Olszanowski
- Center for Research on Biological Basis of Social Behavior, SWPS University in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Tołopiło
- Center for Research on Biological Basis of Social Behavior, SWPS University in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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2
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Tan E, Hamlin JK. Toddlers' affective responses to sociomoral scenes: Insights from physiological measures. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 237:105757. [PMID: 37566958 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
A growing literature suggests that preverbal infants are sensitive to sociomoral scenes and prefer prosocial agents over antisocial agents. It remains unclear, however, whether and how emotional processes are implicated in infants' responses to prosocial/antisocial actions. Although a recent study found that infants and toddlers showed more positive facial expressions after viewing helping (vs. hindering) events, these findings were based on naïve coder ratings of facial activity; furthermore, effect sizes were small. The current studies examined 18- and 24-month-old toddlers' real-time reactivity to helping and hindering interactions using three physiological measures of emotion-related processes. At 18 months, activity in facial musculature involved in smiling/frowning was explored via facial electromyography (EMG). At 24 months, stress (sweat) was explored via electrodermal activity (EDA). At both ages, arousal was explored via pupillometry. Behaviorally, infants showed no preferences for the helper over the hinderer across age groups. EMG analyses revealed that 18-month-olds showed higher corrugator activity (more frowning) during hindering (vs. helping) actions, followed by lower corrugator activity (less frowning) after hindering (vs. helping) actions finished. These findings suggest that antisocial actions elicited negativity, perhaps followed by brief disengagement. EDA analyses revealed no significant event-related differences. Pupillometry analyses revealed that both 18- and 24-month-olds' pupils were smaller after viewing hindering (vs. helping), replicating recent evidence with 5-month-olds and suggesting that toddlers also show less arousal following hindering than following helping. Together, these results provide new evidence with respect to whether and how arousal/affective processes are involved when infants process sociomoral scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enda Tan
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - J Kiley Hamlin
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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3
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Xu X, Hu P. Exploring the Influence of Context on Emotional Mimicry and Intention: An Affirmation of the Correction Hypothesis. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:677. [PMID: 37622817 PMCID: PMC10451474 DOI: 10.3390/bs13080677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emotional mimicry, a phenomenon frequently observed in our everyday interactions, is the act of replicating another individual's facial expression. The Emotion Mimicry in Context View and the Correction Hypothesis underscore the critical role of context and intention within emotional mimicry. METHODS In two distinct studies, participants were presented with facial expressions of models (happiness and anger) within various contexts (affiliative, distancing, and neutral). Concurrently, we recorded electromyography (EMG) to index emotional mimicry, while participants explicitly rated the models' intentions. RESULTS We observed context swiftly influences emotional mimicry within 500 ms, notably when the intentions of contexts are opposing to the intentions of facial expressions, leading to weakened muscle responses and diminished perceived intention. Furthermore, a notable correlation was discovered in the mimicry of angry faces; the more distancing the context, the stronger the corrugator supercilii (CS) muscle activity after context processing. CONCLUSIONS First, emotional mimicry should not be simply viewed as an output corresponding to the expresser's facial expressions but the dynamic process involving the active participation of the observer. Second, intention serves as a pivotal anchor, effectively integrating facial and contextual information. As such, we provided empirical support for the Correction Hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ping Hu
- Department of psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China;
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4
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Xu Q, Sommer W, Recio G. Control over emotional facial expressions: Evidence from facial EMG and ERPs in a Stroop-like task. Biol Psychol 2023; 181:108611. [PMID: 37302517 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Facial expressions carry important social signals that must be precisely regulated despite potentially conflicting demands on veridicality, communicative intent, and the social situation. In a sample of 19 participants we investigated the challenges of deliberately controlling two facial expressions (smiles and frowns) by the emotional congruency with the expressions of adult and infant counterparts. In a Stroop-like task requiring participants' deliberate expressions of anger or happiness, we investigated the impact of task-irrelevant background pictures of adults and infants showing negative, neutral, or positive facial expressions. Participants' deliberate expressions were measured with electromyogram (EMG) of the M. zygomaticus major and M. corrugator supercilii. The latencies of EMG onsets revealed similar congruency effects for smiles and frowns with significant facilitation and inhibition components relative to the neutral condition. Interestingly, the facilitation effect for frown responses by negative facial expressions was significantly smaller vis a vis infant as compared to adult background faces. This diminished facilitation of frowns by infant's expressions of distress may relate to the activation of caregiver behavior or empathy. We investigated the neural correlates of the observed performance effects by recording event-related-potentials (ERPs). Increased amplitudes in ERP components were observed in incongruent relative to neutral conditions, revealing interference effects on both types of deliberate facial expressions, at different processing stages, namely, structural facial encoding (N170), conflict monitoring (N2), to semantic analysis (N400).
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Xu
- Department of Psychology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
| | - Werner Sommer
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Guillermo Recio
- Departament de Psicologia Clínica i Psicobiologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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5
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Zhang L, Chen Y, Wei Y, Leng J, Kong C, Hu P. Kick Cat Effect: Social Context Shapes the Form and Extent of Emotional Contagion. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:531. [PMID: 37503978 PMCID: PMC10376848 DOI: 10.3390/bs13070531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotional contagion refers to the transmission and interaction of emotions among people. Researchers have mainly focused on its process and mechanism, often simplifying its social background due to its complexity. Therefore, in this study, we attempt to explore whether the presence and clarity of social context affect emotional contagion and the related neural mechanisms. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to report their subjective experiences after being exposed to the facial expressions of emotional expressers, with or without the corresponding social context being presented. The results revealed that positive or negative expressions from the expressers elicited corresponding emotional experiences in the receivers, regardless of the presence of social context. However, when the social context was absent, the degree of emotional contagion was greater. In Experiment 2, we further investigated the effect of the clarity of social contexts on emotional contagion and its neural mechanisms. The results showed an effect consistent with those in Experiment 1 and highlighted the special role of N1, N2, P3, and LPP components in this process. According to the emotions as social information theory, individuals may rely more on social appraisal when they lack sufficient contextual information. By referencing the expressions of others and maintaining emotional convergence with them, individuals can adapt more appropriately to their current environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Yanqiu Wei
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Jie Leng
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Chao Kong
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Ping Hu
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, No. 59 of Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100872, China
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Unkelbach C, Alves H, Baldwin M, Crusius J, Diel K, Galinsky AD, Gast A, Hofmann W, Imhoff R, Genschow O, Lammers J, Pauels E, Schneider I, Topolinski S, Westfal M, Mussweiler T. Relativity in Social Cognition: Basic processes and novel applications of social comparisons. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2022.2161043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Hans Alves
- Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bocham, Germany
| | - Matthew Baldwin
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainsville, FL, USA
| | - Jan Crusius
- School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Kathi Diel
- Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bocham, Germany
| | | | - Anne Gast
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Hofmann
- Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bocham, Germany
| | - Roland Imhoff
- Department of Psychology, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Oliver Genschow
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Joris Lammers
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Eileen Pauels
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Iris Schneider
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sascha Topolinski
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Mareike Westfal
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Andreatta M, Winkler MH, Collins P, Gromer D, Gall D, Pauli P, Gamer M. VR for Studying the Neuroscience of Emotional Responses. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 65:161-187. [PMID: 36592276 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Emotions are frequently considered as the driving force of behavior, and psychopathology is often characterized by aberrant emotional responding. Emotional states are reflected on a cognitive-verbal, physiological-humoral, and motor-behavioral level but to date, human research lacks an experimental protocol for a comprehensive and ecologically valid characterization of such emotional states. Virtual reality (VR) might help to overcome this situation by allowing researchers to study mental processes and behavior in highly controlled but reality-like laboratory settings. In this chapter, we first elucidate the role of presence and immersion as requirements for eliciting emotional states in a virtual environment and discuss different VR methods for emotion induction. We then consider the organization of emotional states on a valence continuum (i.e., from negative to positive) and on this basis discuss the use of VR to study threat processing and avoidance as well as reward processing and approach behavior. Although the potential of VR has not been fully realized in laboratory and clinical settings yet, this technological tool can open up new avenues to better understand the neurobiological mechanisms of emotional responding in healthy and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Markus H Winkler
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Collins
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Gromer
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Dominik Gall
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Gamer
- Department of Psychology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
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8
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Kroczek LO, Mühlberger A. Returning a smile: Initiating a social interaction with a facial emotional expression influences the evaluation of the expression received in return. Biol Psychol 2022; 175:108453. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Mauersberger H, Kastendieck T, Hess U. I looked at you, you looked at me, I smiled at you, you smiled at me—The impact of eye contact on emotional mimicry. Front Psychol 2022; 13:970954. [PMID: 36248540 PMCID: PMC9556997 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.970954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye contact is an essential element of human interaction and direct eye gaze has been shown to have effects on a range of attentional and cognitive processes. Specifically, direct eye contact evokes a positive affective reaction. As such, it has been proposed that obstructed eye contact reduces emotional mimicry (i.e., the imitation of our counterpart’s emotions). So far, emotional mimicry research has used averted-gaze faces or unnaturally covered eyes (with black censor bars) to analyze the effect of eye contact on emotional mimicry. However, averted gaze can also signal disinterest/ disengagement and censor bars obscure eye-adjacent areas as well and hence impede emotion recognition. In the present study (N = 44), we used a more ecological valid approach by showing photos of actors who expressed either happiness, sadness, anger, or disgust while either wearing mirroring sunglasses that obstruct eye contact or clear glasses. The glasses covered only the direct eye region but not the brows, nose ridge, and cheeks. Our results confirm that participants were equally accurate in recognizing the emotions of their counterparts in both conditions (sunglasses vs. glasses). Further, in line with our hypotheses, participants felt closer to the targets and mimicked affiliative emotions more intensely when their counterparts wore glasses instead of sunglasses. For antagonistic emotions, we found the opposite pattern: Disgust mimicry, which was interpreted as an affective reaction rather than genuine mimicry, could be only found in the sunglasses condition. It may be that obstructed eye contact increased the negative impression of disgusted facial expressions and hence the negative feelings disgust faces evoked. The present study provides further evidence for the notion that eye contact is an important prerequisite for emotional mimicry and hence for smooth and satisfying social interactions.
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10
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Nonverbal Synchrony in Technology-Mediated Interviews: A Cross-Cultural Study. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 46:547-567. [PMID: 36124313 PMCID: PMC9476419 DOI: 10.1007/s10919-022-00416-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Technology-mediated communication has changed the way we interact. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, this trend became even more pronounced. Media interviews are no exception. Yet, studies on nonverbal behaviors, especially nonverbal synchrony during such mediated settings, have been scarce. To fill the research gap, this study investigated synchronized patterns between interview hosts’ and guests’ facial emotional displays and upper body movement during mediated interviews recorded in the countries in Western (mainly the US, with the addition of the UK) and Eastern cultures (Japan). The interviews were categorized into information- or entertainment-driven interviews, depending on the social attributes of the guest. The time series of the valence in facial displays and upper body movement was automatedly measured using FaceReader and Motion Energy Analysis software, respectively, which was analyzed in terms of simultaneous movements, a primary component of synchrony. As predicted, facial synchrony was more prevalent in information-driven interviews, supporting the motivational and strategic account of synchrony. In addition, female-hosted interviews had a higher degree of synchrony, especially in information-driven interviews. Similar patterns were seen in movement synchrony, although not significant. This study is the first evidence of synchrony in technology-mediated interviews in which a host and a guest appear on split-screen to inform or entertain audiences. However, no cultural differences in synchrony were observed. Situational demands in front of the interactants and the goal-driven nature of communication seemed to play a more prominent role than cultural differences in nonverbal synchrony.
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11
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Hess U, Rychlowska M, Storz T, Blaison C, Fischer A, Krumhuber EG. Bridging the empathy gap: or not? Reactions to ingroup and outgroup facial expressions. JOURNAL OF CULTURAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s41809-022-00097-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPrior research suggests that group membership impacts behavioral and self-reported responses to others’ facial expressions of emotion. In this paper, we examine how the mere labelling of a face as an ingroup or outgroup member affects facial mimicry (Study 1) and judgments of genuineness (Study 2). In addition, we test whether the effects of group membership on facial mimicry and perceived genuineness are moderated by the presence of tears (Study 1) and the motivation to cooperate (Study 2). Results from both studies revealed group-specific biases in facial mimicry and judgments of genuineness. However, introducing cooperative goals abolished differences in judgments of genuineness of facial expressions displayed by ingroup and outgroup members. Together, the findings provide insights into how intergroup biases in emotion perception operate and how they can be reduced by introducing cooperative goals.
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Abstract
AbstractSocial resemblance, like group membership or similar attitudes, increases the mimicry of the observed emotional facial display. In this study, we investigate whether facial self-resemblance (manipulated by computer morphing) modulates emotional mimicry in a similar manner. Participants watched dynamic expressions of faces that either did or did not resemble their own, while their facial muscle activity was measured using EMG. Additionally, after each presentation, respondents completed social evaluations of the faces they saw. The results show that self-resemblance evokes convergent facial reactions. More specifically, participants mimicked the happiness and, to a lesser extent, the anger of self-resembling faces. In turn, the happiness of non-resembling faces was less likely mimicked than in the case of self-resembling faces, while anger evoked a more divergent, smile-like response. Finally, we found that social evaluations were in general increased by happiness displays, but not influenced by resemblance. Overall, the study demonstrates an interesting and novel phenomenon, particularly that mimicry can be modified by relatively subtle cues of physical resemblance.
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Franz M, Müller T, Hahn S, Lundqvist D, Rampoldt D, Westermann JF, Nordmann MA, Schäfer R. Creation and validation of the Picture-Set of Young Children's Affective Facial Expressions (PSYCAFE). PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260871. [PMID: 34874965 PMCID: PMC8651117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The immediate detection and correct processing of affective facial expressions are one of the most important competences in social interaction and thus a main subject in emotion and affect research. Generally, studies in these research domains, use pictures of adults who display affective facial expressions as experimental stimuli. However, for studies investigating developmental psychology and attachment behaviour it is necessary to use age-matched stimuli, where it is children that display affective expressions. PSYCAFE represents a newly developed picture-set of children’s faces. It includes reference portraits of girls and boys aged 4 to 6 years averaged digitally from different individual pictures, that were categorized to six basic affects (fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, anger and surprise) plus a neutral facial expression by cluster analysis. This procedure led to deindividualized and affect prototypical portraits. Individual affect expressive portraits of adults from an already validated picture-set (KDEF) were used in a similar way to create affect prototypical images also of adults. The stimulus set has been validated on human observers and entail emotion recognition accuracy rates and scores for intensity, authenticity and likeability ratings of the specific affect displayed. Moreover, the stimuli have also been characterized by the iMotions Facial Expression Analysis Module, providing additional data on probability values representing the likelihood that the stimuli depict the expected affect. Finally, the validation data from human observers and iMotions are compared to data on facial mimicry of healthy adults in response to these portraits, measured by facial EMG (m. zygomaticus major and m. corrugator supercilii).
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Franz
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Tobias Müller
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sina Hahn
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Daniel Lundqvist
- Karolinska Institute, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, NatMEG, Solna, Sweden
| | - Dirk Rampoldt
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jan-Frederik Westermann
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marc A. Nordmann
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ralf Schäfer
- Medical Faculty, Clinical Institute for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy (15.16), University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Hodges BH, Rączaszek-Leonardi J. Ecological Values Theory: Beyond Conformity, Goal-Seeking, and Rule-Following in Action and Interaction. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/10892680211048174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Values have long been considered important for psychology but are frequently characterized as beliefs, goals, rules, or norms. Ecological values theory locates them, not in people or in objects, but in ecosystem relationships and the demands those relationships place on fields of action within the system. To test the worth of this approach, we consider skilled coordination tasks in social psychology (e.g., negotiating disagreements, synchrony and asynchrony in interactions, and selectivity in social learning) and perception-action (e.g., driving vehicles and carrying a child). Evidence suggests that a diverse array of values (e.g., truth, social solidarity, justice, flexibility, safety, and comfort) work in a cooperative tension to guide actions. Values emerge as critical constraints on action that differ from goals, rules, and natural laws, and yet provide the larger context in which they can function effectively. Prospects and challenges for understanding values and their role in action, including theoretical and methodological issues, are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert H. Hodges
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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15
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Cohen D, Landau DH, Friedman D, Hasler BS, Levit-Binnun N, Golland Y. Exposure to social suffering in virtual reality boosts compassion and facial synchrony. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.106781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Wróbel M, Piórkowska M, Rzeczkowska M, Troszczyńska A, Tołopiło A, Olszanowski M. The “Big Two” and socially induced emotions: Agency and communion jointly influence emotional contagion and emotional mimicry. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-021-09897-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThree studies investigated the effects of two fundamental dimensions of social perception on emotional contagion (i.e., the transfer of emotions between people). Rooting our hypotheses in the Dual Perspective Model of Agency and Communion (Abele and Wojciszke in Adv Exp Soc Psychol 50:198–255, 10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00004-7, 2014), we predicted that agency would strengthen the effects of communion on emotional contagion and emotional mimicry (a process often considered a key mechanism behind emotional contagion). To test this hypothesis, we exposed participants to happy, sad, and angry senders characterized by low vs. high communion and agency. Our results demonstrated that, as expected, the effects of the two dimensions on socially induced emotions were interactive. The strength and direction of these effects, however, were consistent with our predictions only when the senders expressed happiness. When the senders expressed sadness, we found no effects of agency or communion on participants’ emotional responses, whereas for anger a mixed pattern emerged. Overall, our results align with the notion that emotional contagion and mimicry are modulated not only by the senders’ traits but also by the social meaning of the expressed emotion.
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Giesen CG, Frings C. Not so social after all: Video-based acquisition of observational stimulus-response bindings. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 217:103330. [PMID: 33991796 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Merely observing how another person responds to a stimulus results in incidental stimulus-response (SR) bindings in memory. These observationally acquired SR bindings can be retrieved on a later occasion. Retrieval will bias current behavioral response tendencies towards re-execution of the observed response. Previous demonstrations of this effect endorsed a dyadic interaction paradigm in which two co-actors respond in alternating fashion. The present paper investigates a video-based version of the observational SR binding task in which videotaped responses are observed on screen. Whereas findings from the dyadic paradigm indicate that retrieval of observationally acquired SR bindings is modulated by social relevance, the video-based paradigm is not influenced by social moderators. Data of four experiments show that manipulations of visual perspective, natural and artificial group membership had no modulatory effect on retrieval of observationally acquired SR bindings in the video-based paradigm. The absence of any socially modulated effect in the video-based paradigm is supported by Bayesian statistics in favor of the null hypothesis. Data from a fifth experiment suggests that observational SR binding and retrieval effects in the video-based paradigm reflect the influence of spatial attention allocated towards response keys of observed responses. Implications for the suitability of both paradigms to study observational learning and joint action phenomena are discussed.
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Mitschke V, Eder AB. Facing the enemy: Spontaneous facial reactions towards suffering opponents. Psychophysiology 2021; 58:e13835. [PMID: 33934377 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The suffering of an opponent is an important social affective cue that modulates how aggressive interactions progress. To investigate the affective consequences of opponent suffering on a revenge seeking individual, two experiments (total N = 82) recorded facial muscle activity while participants observed the reaction of a provoking opponent to a (retaliatory) sound punishment in a laboratory aggression task. Opponents reacted via prerecorded videos either with facial displays of pain, sadness, or neutrality. Results indicate that participants enjoyed seeing the provocateur suffer: indexed by a coordinated muscle response featuring an increase in zygomaticus major (and orbicularis oculi muscle) activation accompanied by a decrease in corrugator supercilii activation. This positive facial reaction was only shown while a provoking opponent expressed pain. Expressions of sadness, and administration of sound blasts to nonprovoking opponents, did not modulate facial activity. Overall, the results suggest that revenge-seeking individuals enjoy observing the offender suffer, which could represent schadenfreude or satisfaction of having succeeded in the retaliation goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Mitschke
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas B Eder
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Kastendieck T, Mauersberger H, Blaison C, Ghalib J, Hess U. Laughing at funerals and frowning at weddings: Top-down influences of context-driven social judgments on emotional mimicry. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 212:103195. [PMID: 33137612 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This research aimed to assess top-down effects of social judgments on (facial) emotional mimicry. Based on the mimicry as social regulator model (Hess & Fischer, 2013) and the notion that people can use emotion expressions as cues to an expresser's traits (Hareli & Hess, 2010), we predicted that participants judge expressers who show affectively deviant expressions more negatively, feel less close to them and, thus, show reduced mimicry. Participants saw smiles and sad expressions embedded in either a wedding or funeral scene (or neutral control). In Study 1, affectively deviant expressions were rated as inappropriate and led to less self-reported interpersonal closeness to the expresser. In Study 2, both happiness and sadness mimicry were affected by the normativeness of the expression. However, the specific effect varied. Participants mimicked both deviant and normative happy expressions only when they felt close to the expresser. However, in the case of deviant expressions, closeness was lower. When participants did not feel close to the expresser, their expression was neutral, that is, they did not mimic. Sadness was only mimicked when appropriate to the context, that is, when deemed a legitimate response and a valid appeal for help, regardless of closeness. In this sense, facial mimicry of sadness expression can be considered an empathic reaction. In sum, the present research shows strong evidence for a top-down effect of social judgments on mimicry. It further suggests that this effect differed as a function of emotion expression and the meaning and social appeal conveyed by that expression.
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Electromyographic evidence of reduced emotion mimicry in individuals with a history of non-suicidal self-injury. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243860. [PMID: 33370320 PMCID: PMC7769269 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Engaging in facial emotion mimicry during social interactions encourages empathy and functions as a catalyst for interpersonal bonding. Decreased reflexive mirroring of facial expressions has been observed in individuals with different non-psychotic disorders, relative to healthy controls. Given reports of interpersonal relationship difficulties experienced by those who engage in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), it is of interest to explore facial emotion mimicry in individuals with a history of this behaviour (HNSSI). Among other things, this will enable us to better understand their emotion regulation and social interaction challenges. Surface facial electromyography (fEMG) was used to record the reflexive facial mimicry of 30 HNSSI and 30 controls while they passively observed a series of dynamic facial stimuli showing various facial expressions of emotion. Beginning with a neutral expression, the stimuli quickly morphed to one of 6 prototypic emotional expressions (anger, fear, surprise, disgust, happiness, or sadness). Mimicry was assessed by affixing surface electrodes to facial muscles known to exhibit a high degree of electrical activity in response to positive and negative emotions: the corrugator supercilii and the zygomaticus major. HNSSI participants, relative to controls, exhibited significantly less electrical activity in the corrugator muscle in response to viewing angry stimuli, and significantly less of an expected relaxation in muscle activity in response to viewing happy stimuli. Mirroring these results, greater endorsement of social influence as a motivator for engaging in NSSI was associated with less mimicry, and greater endorsement of emotion regulation as a motivator was associated with greater incongruent muscle response when viewing happy faces. These findings lend support to the theory that social interaction difficulties in HNSSI might be related to implicit violations of expected social rules exhibited through facial mimicry nonconformity.
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Vergallito A, Mattavelli G, Gerfo EL, Anzani S, Rovagnati V, Speciale M, Vinai P, Vinai P, Vinai L, Lauro LJR. Explicit and Implicit Responses of Seeing Own vs. Others' Emotions: An Electromyographic Study on the Neurophysiological and Cognitive Basis of the Self-Mirroring Technique. Front Psychol 2020; 11:433. [PMID: 32296363 PMCID: PMC7136519 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Facial mimicry is described by embodied cognition theories as a human mirror system-based neural mechanism underpinning emotion recognition. This could play a critical role in the Self-Mirroring Technique (SMT), a method used in psychotherapy to foster patients’ emotion recognition by showing them a video of their own face recorded during an emotionally salient moment. However, dissociation in facial mimicry during the perception of own and others’ emotions has not been investigated so far. In the present study, we measured electromyographic (EMG) activity from three facial muscles, namely, the zygomaticus major (ZM), the corrugator supercilii (CS), and the levator labii superioris (LLS) while participants were presented with video clips depicting their own face or other unknown faces expressing anger, happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, or a neutral emotion. The results showed that processing self vs. other expressions differently modulated emotion perception at the explicit and implicit muscular levels. Participants were significantly less accurate in recognizing their own vs. others’ neutral expressions and rated fearful, disgusted, and neutral expressions as more arousing in the self condition than in the other condition. Even facial EMG evidenced different activations for self vs. other facial expressions. Increased activation of the ZM muscle was found in the self condition compared to the other condition for anger and disgust. Activation of the CS muscle was lower for self than for others’ expressions during processing a happy, sad, fearful, or neutral emotion. Finally, the LLS muscle showed increased activation in the self condition compared to the other condition for sad and fearful expressions but increased activation in the other condition compared to the self condition for happy and neutral expressions. Taken together, our complex pattern of results suggests a dissociation at both the explicit and implicit levels in emotional processing of self vs. other emotions that, in the light of the Emotion in Context view, suggests that STM effectiveness is primarily due to a contextual–interpretative process that occurs before that facial mimicry takes place.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Emanuele Lo Gerfo
- Clinical Psychology Service of Mediterranean Institute for Transplantation and Advanced Specialized Therapies (IRCSS IsMeTT), Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefano Anzani
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Viola Rovagnati
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Piergiuseppe Vinai
- "GNOSIS" Research and Psychotherapy Group, Mondovì, Italy.,Studi Cognitivi, Cognitive Psychotherapy School and Research Center, Milan, Italy.,Psicologia Scientifica - Centro di Ricerca e Promozione Sociale, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Vinai
- "GNOSIS" Research and Psychotherapy Group, Mondovì, Italy
| | - Luisa Vinai
- Pôle de Psychiatrie et Psychothérapie du Centre Hospitalier du Valais Romand, Monthey, Switzerland
| | - Leonor J Romero Lauro
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,Studi Cognitivi, Cognitive Psychotherapy School and Research Center, Milan, Italy
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Emotional appraisal processing of computer-generated facial expressions: an functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuroreport 2020; 31:437-441. [PMID: 32168120 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The current study aims to investigate whether computer generated (CG) expressions of emotion evoke similar emotional appraisal processing in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (lOFC) compared to real human expressions, as well as how speech cues would influence the processing. METHODS Functional near-infrared spectroscopy was used to measure the neural activations in the prefrontal cortex during emotion recognition task. Thirty normal participants were asked to view videos of dynamic facial expressions and selected the emotions that were best matches with the expressions. RESULTS CG expressions evoked less activation in the lOFC comparing to real human expressions. Furthermore, speech cues increased the activation in the lOFC for CG expressions but not real expressions. CONCLUSION Comparing to real expressions, CG expressions evoked less appraisal processing related to motivational values although this disadvantage can be compensated to some extent by presenting the expressions with speech cues.
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Palagi E, Celeghin A, Tamietto M, Winkielman P, Norscia I. The neuroethology of spontaneous mimicry and emotional contagion in human and non-human animals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 111:149-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Barabanschikov V, Korolkova O. Perception of “Live” Facial Expressions. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (RUSSIA) 2020. [DOI: 10.17759/exppsy.2020130305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The article provides a review of experimental studies of interpersonal perception on the material of static and dynamic facial expressions as a unique source of information about the person’s inner world. The focus is on the patterns of perception of a moving face, included in the processes of communication and joint activities (an alternative to the most commonly studied perception of static images of a person outside of a behavioral context). The review includes four interrelated topics: face statics and dynamics in the recognition of emotional expressions; specificity of perception of moving face expressions; multimodal integration of emotional cues; generation and perception of facial expressions in communication processes. The analysis identifies the most promising areas of research of face in motion. We show that the static and dynamic modes of facial perception complement each other, and describe the role of qualitative features of the facial expression dynamics in assessing the emotional state of a person. Facial expression is considered as part of a holistic multimodal manifestation of emotions. The importance of facial movements as an instrument of social interaction is emphasized.
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The Mimicry Among Us: Intra- and Inter-Personal Mechanisms of Spontaneous Mimicry. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10919-019-00324-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
This review explores spontaneous mimicry in the context of three questions. The first question concerns the role of spontaneous mimicry in processing conceptual information. The second question concerns the debate whether spontaneous mimicry is driven by simple associative processes or reflects higher-order processes such as goals, intentions, and social context. The third question addresses the implications of these debates for understanding atypical individuals and states. We review relevant literature and argue for a dynamic, context-sensitive role of spontaneous mimicry in social cognition and behavior. We highlight how the modulation of mimicry is often adaptive but also point out some cases of maladaptive modulations that impair an individuals’ engagement in social life.
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Fino E, Menegatti M, Avenanti A, Rubini M. Unfolding political attitudes through the face: facial expressions when reading emotion language of left- and right-wing political leaders. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15689. [PMID: 31666575 PMCID: PMC6821753 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51858-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous emotionally congruent facial responses (ECFR) to others’ emotional expressions can occur by simply observing others’ faces (i.e., smiling) or by reading emotion related words (i.e., to smile). The goal of the present study was to examine whether language describing political leaders’ emotions affects voters by inducing emotionally congruent facial reactions as a function of readers’ and politicians’ shared political orientation. Participants read sentences describing politicians’ emotional expressions, while their facial muscle activation was measured by means of electromyography (EMG). Results showed that reading sentences describing left and right-wing politicians “smiling” or “frowning” elicits ECFR for ingroup but not outgroup members. Remarkably, ECFR were sensitive to attitudes toward individual leaders beyond the ingroup vs. outgroup political divide. Through integrating behavioral and physiological methods we were able to consistently tap on a ‘favored political leader effect’ thus capturing political attitudes towards an individual politician at a given moment of time, at multiple levels (explicit responses and automatic ECFR) and across political party membership lines. Our findings highlight the role of verbal behavior of politicians in affecting voters’ facial expressions with important implications for social judgment and behavioral outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edita Fino
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. .,Department of Department of Sociology, Psychology and Education, University Marin Barleti, Tirana, Albania.
| | - Michela Menegatti
- Department of Psychology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessio Avenanti
- Department of Psychology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, Italy.,Centro de Investigación en Neuropsicología y Neurociencias Cognitivas, Universidad Católica del Maule, 3460000, Talca, Chile
| | - Monica Rubini
- Department of Psychology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, Italy
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The effect of being watched on facial EMG and autonomic activity in response to another individual's facial expressions. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14759. [PMID: 31611576 PMCID: PMC6791861 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We tested if facial reactions to another person's facial expressions depend on the self-relevance of the observed expressions. In the present study (n = 44), we measured facial electromyographic (zygomatic and corrugator) activity and autonomic arousal (skin conductance) responses to a live model's smiling and neutral faces. In one condition, the participant and the model were able to see each other normally, whereas in the other condition, the participant was led to believe that the model could not see the participant. The results showed that the increment of zygomatic activity in response to smiling faces versus neutral faces was greater when the participants believed they were being watched than it was when the participants believed they were not being watched. However, zygomatic responses to smiles did not differ between the conditions, while the results suggested that the participants' zygomatic responses to neutral faces seemed to attenuate in the condition of believing they were being watched. Autonomic responses to smiling faces were greater in the belief of being watched than in the belief of not being watched condition. The results suggest that the self-relevance of another individual's facial expression modulates autonomic arousal responses and to a lesser extent facial EMG responses.
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Wróbel M, Imbir KK. Broadening the Perspective on Emotional Contagion and Emotional Mimicry: The Correction Hypothesis. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019; 14:437-451. [PMID: 30844340 DOI: 10.1177/1745691618808523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Emotional contagion has long been conceptualized as the automatic transfer of affective states between people, similar to the spread of diseases. New evidence, however, has challenged this view by demonstrating that emotions, contrary to diseases, spread selectively rather than blindly because their transfer is controlled by social factors. Here, we take a closer look at this top-down social control of emotional contagion. We review literature on the moderating role of social factors in emotional contagion and emotional mimicry, a process often considered a basic mechanism of emotional contagion. We argue that top-down social processes controlling emotional mimicry may be explained by the correction hypothesis formulated to account for contrast effects in priming research. We also analyze whether similar corrective processes may be involved in less automatic mechanisms of emotional contagion, such as social appraisal. Finally, we propose that the modulating effects of social factors on emotional contagion and its mechanisms, similar to priming effects, may be interpreted within the framework of dual-process theories.
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30
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When smiling back helps and scowling back hurts: individual differences in emotional mimicry are associated with self-reported interaction quality during conflict interactions. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-018-9743-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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31
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Hortensius R, Hekele F, Cross ES. The Perception of Emotion in Artificial Agents. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 2018. [DOI: 10.1109/tcds.2018.2826921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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32
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Küster D, Krumhuber EG, Hess U. You are What You Wear: Unless You Moved—Effects of Attire and Posture on Person Perception. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10919-018-0286-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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33
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Philip L, Martin JC, Clavel C. Suppression of Facial Mimicry of Negative Facial Expressions in an Incongruent Context. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1027/0269-8803/a000191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. People react with Rapid Facial Reactions (RFRs) when presented with human facial emotional expressions. Recent studies show that RFRs are not always congruent with emotional cues. The processes underlying RFRs are still being debated. In our study described herein, we manipulate the context of perception and its influence on RFRs. We use a subliminal affective priming task with emotional labels. Facial electromyography (EMG) (frontalis, corrugator, zygomaticus, and depressor) was recorded while participants observed static facial expressions (joy, fear, anger, sadness, and neutral expression) preceded/not preceded by a subliminal word (JOY, FEAR, ANGER, SADNESS, or NEUTRAL). For the negative facial expressions, when the priming word was congruent with the facial expression, participants displayed congruent RFRs (mimicry). When the priming word was incongruent, we observed a suppression of mimicry. Happiness was not affected by the priming word. RFRs thus appear to be modulated by the context and type of emotion that is presented via facial expressions.
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Philip L, Martin JC, Clavel C. Rapid Facial Reactions in Response to Facial Expressions of Emotion Displayed by Real Versus Virtual Faces. Iperception 2018; 9:2041669518786527. [PMID: 30023041 PMCID: PMC6047257 DOI: 10.1177/2041669518786527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Facial expressions of emotion provide relevant cues for understanding social interactions and the affective processes involved in emotion perception. Virtual human faces are useful for conducting controlled experiments. However, little is known regarding the possible differences between physiological responses elicited by virtual versus real human facial expressions. The aim of the current study was to determine if virtual and real emotional faces elicit the same rapid facial reactions for the perception of facial expressions of joy, anger, and sadness. Facial electromyography (corrugator supercilii, zygomaticus major, and depressor anguli) was recorded in 30 participants during the presentation of dynamic or static and virtual or real faces. For the perception of dynamic facial expressions of joy and anger, analyses of electromyography data revealed that rapid facial reactions were stronger when participants were presented with real faces compared with virtual faces. These results suggest that the processes underlying the perception of virtual versus real emotional faces might differ.
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Cattaneo L, Veroni V, Boria S, Tassinari G, Turella L. Sex Differences in Affective Facial Reactions Are Present in Childhood. Front Integr Neurosci 2018; 12:19. [PMID: 29875642 PMCID: PMC5974214 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2018.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adults exposed to affective facial displays produce specific rapid facial reactions (RFRs) which are of lower intensity in males compared to females. We investigated such sex difference in a population of 60 primary school children (30 F; 30 M), aged 7–10 years. We recorded the surface electromyographic (EMG) signal from the corrugator supercilii and the zygomatici muscles, while children watched affective facial displays. Results showed the expected smiling RFR to smiling faces and the expected frowning RFR to sad faces. A systematic difference between male and female participants was observed, with boys showing less ample EMG responses than age-matched girls. We demonstrate that sex differences in the somatic component of affective motor patterns are present also in childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Cattaneo
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Biomedicina e Movimento, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Vania Veroni
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Sonia Boria
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Tassinari
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Biomedicina e Movimento, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Luca Turella
- Center for Mid/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
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36
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Kordsachia CC, Labuschagne I, Andrews SC, Stout JC. Diminished facial EMG responses to disgusting scenes and happy and fearful faces in Huntington's disease. Cortex 2018; 106:185-199. [PMID: 30005370 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with impaired facial emotion recognition and altered subjective experience of emotion. These impairments likely result from the effects of the disease on underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Studies using self-report to examine emotional experiences have been ambiguous regarding whether experiences are diminished or exaggerated, possibly due to cognitive impairment and lack of insight in HD. To infer affective states more objectively and overcome the limitations of self-report, we used facial EMG to measure muscle responses to emotionally-evocative scenes. Further, we examined muscle responses to emotionally-expressive faces, because facial mimicry is thought to facilitate emotion recognition and social affiliation. Twenty-three HD participants (late pre-manifest and early symptomatic) were compared to twenty-five healthy controls in a scene condition and a face condition. EMG activity was measured from facial muscles associated with expressing particular emotions: 1) corrugator supercilii for anger, 2) frontalis for fear, 3) levator labii for disgust, and 4) both zygomaticus major and orbicularis oculi for happiness. Compared to controls, HD participants showed diminished responses to disgusting scenes, and to happy and fearful faces. Our findings provide evidence for a loss of disgust experience in HD. Further, consistent with the alleged affiliative function of facial mimicry, diminished mimicry responses may be relevant to social-emotional changes in HD. Our findings help understand the neural mechanisms underlying emotion processing impairments in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina C Kordsachia
- Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Izelle Labuschagne
- Cognition and Emotion Research Centre, School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, Fitzroy, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sophie C Andrews
- Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Julie C Stout
- Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Hofree G, Ruvolo P, Reinert A, Bartlett MS, Winkielman P. Behind the Robot's Smiles and Frowns: In Social Context, People Do Not Mirror Android's Expressions But React to Their Informational Value. Front Neurorobot 2018; 12:14. [PMID: 29740307 PMCID: PMC5928139 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2018.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Facial actions are key elements of non-verbal behavior. Perceivers' reactions to others' facial expressions often represent a match or mirroring (e.g., they smile to a smile). However, the information conveyed by an expression depends on context. Thus, when shown by an opponent, a smile conveys bad news and evokes frowning. The availability of anthropomorphic agents capable of facial actions raises the question of how people respond to such agents in social context. We explored this issue in a study where participants played a strategic game with or against a facially expressive android. Electromyography (EMG) recorded participants' reactions over zygomaticus muscle (smiling) and corrugator muscle (frowning). We found that participants' facial responses to android's expressions reflect their informational value, rather than a direct match. Overall, participants smiled more, and frowned less, when winning than losing. Critically, participants' responses to the game outcome were similar regardless of whether it was conveyed via the android's smile or frown. Furthermore, the outcome had greater impact on people's facial reactions when it was conveyed through android's face than a computer screen. These findings demonstrate that facial actions of artificial agents impact human facial responding. They also suggest a sophistication in human-robot communication that highlights the signaling value of facial expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galit Hofree
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Paul Ruvolo
- Department of Engineering, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA, United States
| | - Audrey Reinert
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Marian S Bartlett
- Institute for Neural Computation, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Piotr Winkielman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States.,Department of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
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Künecke J, Mokros A, Olderbak S, Wilhelm O. Facial responsiveness of psychopaths to the emotional expressions of others. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190714. [PMID: 29324826 PMCID: PMC5764293 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychopathic individuals show selfish, manipulative, and antisocial behavior in addition to emotional detachment and reduced empathy. Their empathic deficits are thought to be associated with a reduced responsiveness to emotional stimuli. Immediate facial muscle responses to the emotional expressions of others reflect the expressive part of emotional responsiveness and are positively related to trait empathy. Empirical evidence for reduced facial muscle responses in adult psychopathic individuals to the emotional expressions of others is rare. In the present study, 261 male criminal offenders and non-offenders categorized dynamically presented facial emotion expressions (angry, happy, sad, and neutral) during facial electromyography recording of their corrugator muscle activity. We replicated a measurement model of facial muscle activity, which controls for general facial responsiveness to face stimuli, and modeled three correlated emotion-specific factors (i.e., anger, happiness, and sadness) representing emotion specific activity. In a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis, we compared the means of the anger, happiness, and sadness latent factors between three groups: 1) non-offenders, 2) low, and 3) high psychopathic offenders. There were no significant mean differences between groups. Our results challenge current theories that focus on deficits in emotional responsiveness as leading to the development of psychopathy and encourage further theoretical development on deviant emotional processes in psychopathic individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Künecke
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Psychologische Hochschule, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Andreas Mokros
- University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, Department for Forensic Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
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Blocker HS, McIntosh DN. Not All Outgroups Are Equal: Group Type May Influence Group Effect on Matching Behavior. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10919-017-0258-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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40
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Kraaijenvanger EJ, Hofman D, Bos PA. A neuroendocrine account of facial mimicry and its dynamic modulation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 77:98-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Vartanian LR, Trewartha T, Beames JR, Azevedo SM, Vanman EJ. Physiological and self-reported disgust reactions to obesity. Cogn Emot 2017; 32:579-592. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2017.1325728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tara Trewartha
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | - Eric J. Vanman
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
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Rymarczyk K, Żurawski Ł, Jankowiak-Siuda K, Szatkowska I. Emotional Empathy and Facial Mimicry for Static and Dynamic Facial Expressions of Fear and Disgust. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1853. [PMID: 27933022 PMCID: PMC5120108 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Facial mimicry is the tendency to imitate the emotional facial expressions of others. Increasing evidence suggests that the perception of dynamic displays leads to enhanced facial mimicry, especially for happiness and anger. However, little is known about the impact of dynamic stimuli on facial mimicry for fear and disgust. To investigate this issue, facial EMG responses were recorded in the corrugator supercilii, levator labii, and lateral frontalis muscles, while participants viewed static (photos) and dynamic (videos) facial emotional expressions. Moreover, we tested whether emotional empathy modulated facial mimicry for emotional facial expressions. In accordance with our predictions, the highly empathic group responded with larger activity in the corrugator supercilii and levator labii muscles. Moreover, dynamic compared to static facial expressions of fear revealed enhanced mimicry in the high-empathic group in the frontalis and corrugator supercilii muscles. In the low-empathic group the facial reactions were not differentiated between fear and disgust for both dynamic and static facial expressions. We conclude that highly empathic subjects are more sensitive in their facial reactions to the facial expressions of fear and disgust compared to low empathetic counterparts. Our data confirms that personal characteristics, i.e., empathy traits as well as modality of the presented stimuli, modulate the strength of facial mimicry. In addition, measures of EMG activity of the levator labii and frontalis muscles may be a useful index of empathic responses of fear and disgust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna Rymarczyk
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsaw, Poland; Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Cognitive and Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Social Sciences and HumanitiesWarsaw, Poland
| | - Łukasz Żurawski
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Cognitive and Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Social Sciences and Humanities Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kamila Jankowiak-Siuda
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Cognitive and Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Social Sciences and Humanities Warsaw, Poland
| | - Iwona Szatkowska
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences Warsaw, Poland
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Blocker HS, McIntosh DN. Automaticity of the interpersonal attitude effect on facial mimicry: It takes effort to smile at neutral others but not those we like. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-016-9581-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Balliet D, Tybur JM, Van Lange PAM. Functional Interdependence Theory: An Evolutionary Account of Social Situations. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2016; 21:361-388. [PMID: 27466269 DOI: 10.1177/1088868316657965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Social interactions are characterized by distinct forms of interdependence, each of which has unique effects on how behavior unfolds within the interaction. Despite this, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that allow people to detect and respond to the nature of interdependence in any given interaction. We propose that interdependence theory provides clues regarding the structure of interdependence in the human ancestral past. In turn, evolutionary psychology offers a framework for understanding the types of information processing mechanisms that could have been shaped under these recurring conditions. We synthesize and extend these two perspectives to introduce a new theory: functional interdependence theory (FIT). FIT can generate testable hypotheses about the function and structure of the psychological mechanisms for inferring interdependence. This new perspective offers insight into how people initiate and maintain cooperative relationships, select social partners and allies, and identify opportunities to signal social motives.
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Hodges BH, Fowler CA. Cooperativity and Selectivity in Conversation. ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/10407413.2015.1086221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Seibt B, Mühlberger A, Likowski KU, Weyers P. Facial mimicry in its social setting. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1122. [PMID: 26321970 PMCID: PMC4531238 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In interpersonal encounters, individuals often exhibit changes in their own facial expressions in response to emotional expressions of another person. Such changes are often called facial mimicry. While this tendency first appeared to be an automatic tendency of the perceiver to show the same emotional expression as the sender, evidence is now accumulating that situation, person, and relationship jointly determine whether and for which emotions such congruent facial behavior is shown. We review the evidence regarding the moderating influence of such factors on facial mimicry with a focus on understanding the meaning of facial responses to emotional expressions in a particular constellation. From this, we derive recommendations for a research agenda with a stronger focus on the most common forms of encounters, actual interactions with known others, and on assessing potential mediators of facial mimicry. We conclude that facial mimicry is modulated by many factors: attention deployment and sensitivity, detection of valence, emotional feelings, and social motivations. We posit that these are the more proximal causes of changes in facial mimicry due to changes in its social setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate Seibt
- Department of Psychology, University of OsloOslo, Norway
- Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Social, ISCTE - Instituto Universitário de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | - Andreas Mühlberger
- Department of Psychology, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of RegensburgRegensburg, Germany
| | | | - Peter Weyers
- Department of Psychology, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
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Cheetham M, Wu L, Pauli P, Jancke L. Arousal, valence, and the uncanny valley: psychophysiological and self-report findings. Front Psychol 2015; 6:981. [PMID: 26236260 PMCID: PMC4502535 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The main prediction of the Uncanny Valley Hypothesis (UVH) is that observation of humanlike characters that are difficult to distinguish from the human counterpart will evoke a state of negative affect. Well-established electrophysiological [late positive potential (LPP) and facial electromyography (EMG)] and self-report [Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)] indices of valence and arousal, i.e., the primary orthogonal dimensions of affective experience, were used to test this prediction by examining affective experience in response to categorically ambiguous compared with unambiguous avatar and human faces (N = 30). LPP and EMG provided direct psychophysiological indices of affective state during passive observation and the SAM provided self-reported indices of affective state during explicit cognitive evaluation of static facial stimuli. The faces were drawn from well-controlled morph continua representing the UVH’ dimension of human likeness (DHL). The results provide no support for the notion that category ambiguity along the DHL is specifically associated with enhanced experience of negative affect. On the contrary, the LPP and SAM-based measures of arousal and valence indicated a general increase in negative affective state (i.e., enhanced arousal and negative valence) with greater morph distance from the human end of the DHL. A second sample (N = 30) produced the same finding, using an ad hoc self-rating scale of feelings of familiarity, i.e., an oft-used measure of affective experience along the UVH’ familiarity dimension. In conclusion, this multi-method approach using well-validated psychophysiological and self-rating indices of arousal and valence rejects – for passive observation and for explicit affective evaluation of static faces – the main prediction of the UVH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Cheetham
- Department of Neuropsychology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, Nungin University Seoul, South Korea
| | - Lingdan Wu
- Swiss Centre for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, University of Wurzburg Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology, University of Wurzburg Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Lutz Jancke
- Department of Neuropsychology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
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de Borst AW, de Gelder B. Is it the real deal? Perception of virtual characters versus humans: an affective cognitive neuroscience perspective. Front Psychol 2015; 6:576. [PMID: 26029133 PMCID: PMC4428060 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent developments in neuroimaging research support the increased use of naturalistic stimulus material such as film, avatars, or androids. These stimuli allow for a better understanding of how the brain processes information in complex situations while maintaining experimental control. While avatars and androids are well suited to study human cognition, they should not be equated to human stimuli. For example, the uncanny valley hypothesis theorizes that artificial agents with high human-likeness may evoke feelings of eeriness in the human observer. Here we review if, when, and how the perception of human-like avatars and androids differs from the perception of humans and consider how this influences their utilization as stimulus material in social and affective neuroimaging studies. First, we discuss how the appearance of virtual characters affects perception. When stimuli are morphed across categories from non-human to human, the most ambiguous stimuli, rather than the most human-like stimuli, show prolonged classification times and increased eeriness. Human-like to human stimuli show a positive linear relationship with familiarity. Secondly, we show that expressions of emotions in human-like avatars can be perceived similarly to human emotions, with corresponding behavioral, physiological and neuronal activations, with exception of physical dissimilarities. Subsequently, we consider if and when one perceives differences in action representation by artificial agents versus humans. Motor resonance and predictive coding models may account for empirical findings, such as an interference effect on action for observed human-like, natural moving characters. However, the expansion of these models to explain more complex behavior, such as empathy, still needs to be investigated in more detail. Finally, we broaden our outlook to social interaction, where virtual reality stimuli can be utilized to imitate complex social situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline W de Borst
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University , Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Beatrice de Gelder
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University , Maastricht, Netherlands
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