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Saunders NR, Dreifuss JJ, Dziegielewska KM, Johansson PA, Habgood MD, Møllgård K, Bauer HC. The rights and wrongs of blood-brain barrier permeability studies: a walk through 100 years of history. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:404. [PMID: 25565938 PMCID: PMC4267212 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Careful examination of relevant literature shows that many of the most cherished concepts of the blood-brain barrier are incorrect. These include an almost mythological belief in its immaturity that is unfortunately often equated with absence or at least leakiness in the embryo and fetus. The original concept of a blood-brain barrier is often attributed to Ehrlich; however, he did not accept that permeability of cerebral vessels was different from other organs. Goldmann is often credited with the first experiments showing dye (trypan blue) exclusion from the brain when injected systemically, but not when injected directly into it. Rarely cited are earlier experiments of Bouffard and of Franke who showed methylene blue and trypan red stained all tissues except the brain. The term “blood-brain barrier” “Blut-Hirnschranke” is often attributed to Lewandowsky, but it does not appear in his papers. The first person to use this term seems to be Stern in the early 1920s. Studies in embryos by Stern and colleagues, Weed and Wislocki showed results similar to those in adult animals. These were well-conducted experiments made a century ago, thus the persistence of a belief in barrier immaturity is puzzling. As discussed in this review, evidence for this belief, is of poor experimental quality, often misinterpreted and often not properly cited. The functional state of blood-brain barrier mechanisms in the fetus is an important biological phenomenon with implications for normal brain development. It is also important for clinicians to have proper evidence on which to advise pregnant women who may need to take medications for serious medical conditions. Beliefs in immaturity of the blood-brain barrier have held the field back for decades. Their history illustrates the importance of taking account of all the evidence and assessing its quality, rather than selecting papers that supports a preconceived notion or intuitive belief. This review attempts to right the wrongs. Based on careful translation of original papers, some published a century ago, as well as providing discussion of studies claiming to show barrier immaturity, we hope that readers will have evidence on which to base their own conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman R Saunders
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | | | | | - Pia A Johansson
- Institute for Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich Munich, Germany
| | - Mark D Habgood
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Kjeld Møllgård
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hans-Christian Bauer
- Institute of Tendon and Bone Regeneration, Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Austria ; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Austria
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Saunders NR, Liddelow SA, Dziegielewska KM. Barrier mechanisms in the developing brain. Front Pharmacol 2012; 3:46. [PMID: 22479246 PMCID: PMC3314990 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2012.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 329] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The adult brain functions within a well-controlled stable environment, the properties of which are determined by cellular exchange mechanisms superimposed on the diffusion restraint provided by tight junctions at interfaces between blood, brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). These interfaces are referred to as “the” blood–brain barrier. It is widely believed that in embryos and newborns, this barrier is immature or “leaky,” rendering the developing brain more vulnerable to drugs or toxins entering the fetal circulation from the mother. New evidence shows that many adult mechanisms, including functionally effective tight junctions are present in embryonic brain and some transporters are more active during development than in the adult. Additionally, some mechanisms present in embryos are not present in adults, e.g., specific transport of plasma proteins across the blood–CSF barrier and embryo-specific intercellular junctions between neuroependymal cells lining the ventricles. However developing cerebral vessels appear to be more fragile than in the adult. Together these properties may render developing brains more vulnerable to drugs, toxins, and pathological conditions, contributing to cerebral damage and later neurological disorders. In addition, after birth loss of protection by efflux transporters in placenta may also render the neonatal brain more vulnerable than in the fetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman R Saunders
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Ford DH, Rhines RK. (3H) lysine accumulation in motoneurons in rats of different age compared with the accumulation in other tissues. Acta Neurol Scand 2009; 45:41-52. [PMID: 5803590 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1969.tb01218.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Ford DH, Rhines RK. 3H-lysine accumulation in spinal cord grey matter and ventral horn motoneurons in the rat as related to age and neuronal cytoplasmic volume. Acta Neurol Scand 2009; 45:529-39. [PMID: 5366457 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1969.tb01264.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Flögel U, Willker W, Leibfritz D. Determination of de novo synthesized amino acids in cellular proteins revisited by 13C NMR spectroscopy. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 1997; 10:50-58. [PMID: 9267861 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1492(199704)10:2<50::aid-nbm450>3.0.co;2-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to determine the absolute amounts to de novo synthesized amino acids in both the perchloric acid extracts and the hydrolyzed protein fractions of F98 glioma cells incubated for 2 h with 5 mmol/l [U-13C]glucose. 13C NMR spectra of the hydrolyzed protein fraction revealed a marked incorporation of 13C-labelled alanine, aspartate and glutamate into the proteins of F98 cells within the incubation period. Additionally, small amounts of 13C-labelled glycine, proline and serine could unambiguously be identified in the protein fraction. Astonishingly, approximately equal amounts of 13C-labelled glutamate and aspartate were incorporated into the cellular proteins, although the cytosolic steady-state concentration of aspartate was below 13C NMR detectability. Hypertonic stress decreased the incorporation of 13C-labelled amino acids into the total protein, albeit their cytosolic concentrations were increased, which reflects an inhibition of protein synthesis under these conditions. On the other hand, hypotonic stress increased the amount of 13C-labelled proline incorporated into the cellular proteins even though the cytosolic concentration of 13C-labelled proline was largely decreased. Apparently, hypoosmotic conditions stimulate the synthesis of proteins or peptides with a high proline content. The results show that already after 2 h of incubation with [U-13C]glucose there is a pronounced flux of 13C label into the cellular proteins, which is usually disregarded if cytosolic fluids are examined only. This means that calculations of metabolic fluxes based on 13C NMR spectroscopic data obtained from perchloric acid extracts of cells or tissues and also from in vivo measurements consider only the labelled 'NMR visible' cytosolic metabolites, which may have to be corrected for fast label flowing off into other compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Flögel
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Bremen, Germany
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GAITONDE MK, MARCHI SA, RICHTER D. The utilization of glucose in the brain and other organs of the cat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997; 160:124-36. [PMID: 14142165 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.1964.0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
After subcutaneous injection of [
14
C]glucose in the cat the total
14
C content per gram fresh tissue was relatively high in liver, kidney, blood and brain: lower values were obtained in heart, spleen, lung, skeletal mucle and spinal cord. In all organs examined more than 95 % of the radioactivity present at 22 min after injection was contained in the acid-soluble fraction of the tissue: proteins, lipids and nucleic acids together accounted for only 0.2 to 5 % of the radioactivity. In most organs the
14
C in the acid-soluble fraction was present mainly as [
14
C]glucose, but in nervous tissues a large part (48 to 74 %) of the
14
C was contained in the free amino acid fraction. The incorporation of
14
C from [
14
C]glucose into amino acids (counts min
-1
g fresh tissue
-1
)
in vivo
was highest in the cerebral cortex and decreased in the order cerebral cortex > cerebellum > pons and medulla > spinal cord: the incorporation into amino acids was several times greater in the brain than in other organs examined. Values obtained for the heart were intermediate between those for brain and other organs. About 80 % of the
14
C incorporated into amino acids of the cerebral cortex was combined in glutamic and aspartic acids. In liver, spleen, muscle, lung and blood the basic and neutral amino acids accounted for a relatively larger proportion of the radioactivity of the amino acid fraction. The
14
C contained in tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates accounted for 20 to 32 % of the radioactivity of the acid-soluble fraction in different parts of the brain.
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GAITONDE MK, DAHL DR, ELLIOTT KA. ENTRY OF GLUCOSE CARBON INTO AMINO ACIDS OF RAT BRAIN AND LIVER IN VIVO AFTER INJECTION OF UNIFORMLY 14-C-LABELLED GLUCOSE. Biochem J 1996; 94:345-52. [PMID: 14348195 PMCID: PMC1206516 DOI: 10.1042/bj0940345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
1. Measurements were made of the rate of incorporation of (14)C from uniformly (14)C-labelled glucose into individual amino acids of rat brain and liver. 2. At 2.5 min. after intravenous injection of uniformly (14)C-labelled glucose, about 30% of the total radioactivity in the brain was present in the five amino acids studied. At 30 min. after subcutaneous injection the distribution of (14)C in amino acids was: in brain, alanine 2%, gamma-aminobutyrate 4%, aspartate 9%, glutamine 9% and glutamate 37% (total 69%); in liver, alanine 3%, aspartate 2.6%, glutamine 5.3% and glutamate 5.2% (total 18%). About 1% of the total radioactivity was in serine and glycine. 3. In both organs the specific radioactivity of alanine was initially higher than that of the other amino acids examined. The specific radioactivity of gamma-aminobutyrate in the brain was about the same as or higher than that of glutamate. 4. Amino acids of the rat brain were separated into ;free' and ;bound' fractions from brain dispersions in saline (or sucrose) media. Definite differences in the specific activities of the ;bound' and ;free' forms were not apparent.
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Abstract
1. Experiments were performed to throw light on why the incorporation of (14)C from labelled carbohydrate precursors into glutamate has been found to be more marked in brain than in other tissues. 2. Rapid isotope exchange between labelled glutamate and unlabelled alpha-oxoglutarate was demonstrated in brain and liver mitochondrial preparations. In the presence but not in the absence of alpha-oxoglutarate the yield of (14)CO(2) from [1-(14)C]glutamate exceeded the net glutamate removal, and the final relative specific activities of the two substrates indicated that complete isotopic equilibration had occurred. Also, when in a brain preparation net glutamate removal was inhibited by malonate, isotope exchange between [1-(14)C]glutamate and alpha-oxoglutarate and the formation of (14)CO(2) were unaffected. 3. The time-course of isotope exchange between labelled glutamate and unlabelled alpha-oxoglutarate was followed in uncoupled brain and liver mitochondrial fractions, and the rate of exchange calculated by a computer was found to be 3-8 times more rapid than the maximal rate of utilization of the two substrates. 4. The physiological situation was imitated by the continuous infusion of small amounts of alpha-oxo[1-(14)C]glutarate into brain homogenate containing added glutamate. The fraction of (14)C infused that was retained in the glutamate pool depended on the size of the latter, and the final relative specific activities of the two substrates indicated almost complete isotope exchange. Isotopic equilibration also occurred when alpha-oxoglutarate was generated from pyruvate through the tricarboxylic acid cycle in a brain mitochondrial preparation containing [1-(14)C]glutamate. 5. The differences in the incorporation of (14)C from labelled glucose into the glutamate of brain and liver are discussed in terms of the rates of isotope exchange, the glutamate pool sizes and the rates of formation of labelled alpha-oxoglutarate in the two tissues. It is concluded that the differences between tissues in the incorporation of glucose carbon into glutamate reflect features of their metabolism largely unrelated to that of glutamate.
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Nehlig A, Pereira de Vasconcelos A. Glucose and ketone body utilization by the brain of neonatal rats. Prog Neurobiol 1993; 40:163-221. [PMID: 8430212 DOI: 10.1016/0301-0082(93)90022-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A Nehlig
- INSERM U 272, Pathologie et Biologie du Développement Humain, Université de Nancy I, France
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Hara T, Yokoi F. Difference of 14C turnovers in brain and in transplanted glioma after intravenous injection of 14C-1-pyruvate into rats. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE 1986; 12:249-51. [PMID: 3490980 DOI: 10.1007/bf00251979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Carbon 14 from 14C-1-pyruvate injected intravenously into glioma-transplanted rats was incorporated into various compounds in the brain and in the tumor. In the brain the majority of activity was found in CO2 (60%), and minor activities were found in alanine, lactate (15%), glutamate, and aspartate, with decreasing order, 5 min after injection. In the tumor, at 5 min, the largest activity was in lactate (56%), and lower activities were found in CO2 (24%), alanine, glutamate, and aspartate. The total 14C concentration in the tumor was twice that in the brain at 5 min and 15 min. The result was in accordance with the prediction that in brain, where the mitochondrial function is active, 14C-1-pyruvate will be oxidized completely into 14CO2, and that in tumor, where the mitochondrial function is insufficient, 14C-1-pyruvate will be converted only into 14C-lactate and prevent further degradation. It may be assumed that this difference in the turnover of 14C of 14C-1-pyruvate between brain and tumor could constitute a basis for the 'hot' visualization of human brain tumor using cyclotron-produced 11C-1-pyruvate and positron-emission tomography.
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Gaitonde MK, Churchill RD, Evans G. Fate of [G-3H]glutamate and [U-14C]glucose in the rat liver in vivo. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1980; 12:655-7. [PMID: 7428999 DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(80)90022-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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12
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Tyce GM, Owen CA. Cerebral metabolism of glucose in adrenalectomized rats: effect of treatment with L-DOPA and a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Brain Res 1978; 158:466-9. [PMID: 709377 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(78)90691-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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13
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Gaitonde MK, Harms V, Evans G. Labelling of brain proteins at early periods after subcutaneous injection of a mixture of [U-14C] glucose and [3H] glutamate. J Neurochem 1978; 31:637-45. [PMID: 681945 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1978.tb07835.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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15
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Adinolfi M. Neurological handicap and permeability of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier during fetal life to maternal antibodies and hormones. Dev Med Child Neurol 1976; 18:243-6. [PMID: 132385 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1976.tb03637.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Dainat J. [The incorporation in vivo of l-(3H)leucine into cerebellar proteins, in the young normal, underfed, hyperthyroid and hypothyroid rat (author's transl)]. J Neurochem 1974; 23:713-9. [PMID: 4430913 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1974.tb04395.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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17
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Siesjö BK, Folbergrová J, Messeter K. Acid-Base and Energy Metabolism of the Brain in Hypercapnia and Hypocapnia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1974. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4612-9831-1_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
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19
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Tyce GM, Owen CA. The effect of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine administration on glucose metabolism in brain. J Neurochem 1973; 20:1563-73. [PMID: 4719312 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1973.tb00274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Bessman SP. Genetic failure of fetal amino acid "justification": a common basis for many forms of metabolic, nutritional, and "nonspecific" mental retardation. J Pediatr 1972; 81:834-42. [PMID: 5074365 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(72)80117-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Oja SS. Incorporation of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan into protein of homogenates from developing rat brain: kinetics of incorporation and reciprocal inhibition. J Neurochem 1972; 19:2057-69. [PMID: 5072383 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1972.tb05116.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Stone WE, Tews JK, Whisler KE, Brown DJ. Incorporation of carbon from glucose into cerebral amino acids, proteins and lipids, and alterations during recovery from hypoglycaemia. J Neurochem 1972; 19:321-32. [PMID: 5010079 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1972.tb01342.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Strang RH, Bachelard HS. Effect of insulin on levels and turnover of intermediates of brain carbohydrate metabolism in vivo. J Neurochem 1971; 18:1799-807. [PMID: 5118334 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1971.tb09585.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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24
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Tyce GM. Effect of dihydroxyphenylalanine administered with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor on glucose metabolism in rat brain. Biochem Pharmacol 1971; 20:2371-84. [PMID: 5163149 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(71)90237-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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25
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Piccoli F, Grynbaum A, Lajtha A. Developmental changes in Na + , K + and ATP and in the levels and transport of amino acids in incubated slices of rat brain. J Neurochem 1971; 18:1135-48. [PMID: 5105923 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1971.tb12042.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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26
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Szijan I, Kalbermann LE, Gómez CJ. Hormonal regulation of brain development. IV. Effect of neonatal thyroidectomy upon incorporation in vivo of L-[3H]phenylalanine into proteins of developing rat cerebral tissues and pituitary gland. Brain Res 1971; 27:309-18. [PMID: 5552174 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(71)90256-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Mourek J, Agrawal HC, Davis JM, Himwich WA. The effects of short-term starvation on amino acid content in rat brain during ontogeny. Brain Res 1970; 19:229-37. [PMID: 5432209 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(70)90436-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Abstract
Learning and memory are important elements of our daily lives, familiar to all through introspection. Yet the mechanisms underlying these processes are still for the most part unknown. Here are problems which combine a maximum of intrinsic and practical interest with a minimum of actual knowledge and understanding. Years of our lives are dedicated to the formation of certain long-term memories and behaviour patterns, yet we have only rudimentary notions of how such ‘schooling’ is best accomplished. There is no certainty in any aspect of the process. We are not sure whether relatively few cells or millions participate in a memory trace; whether these cells change as a whole, or whether the changes are limited to synaptic regions. In fact, we cannot be certain whether the changes are confined to the neurones or whether the glia also participate.
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Jakoubek B, Gutmann E, Fischer J, Babický A. Rate of protein renewal in spinal motoneurons of adolescent and old rats. J Neurochem 1968; 15:633-41. [PMID: 5675588 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1968.tb08962.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Maker HS, Lehrer GM, Weiss C, Silides DJ, Scheinberg LC. The quantitative histochemistry of a chemically induced ependymoblastoma. II. The effect of ischaemia on substrates of carbohydrate metabolism. J Neurochem 1966; 13:1207-12. [PMID: 5924668 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1966.tb04278.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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36
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37
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Lindsay JR, Bachelard HS. Incorporation of 14C from glucose into alpha-keto acids and amino acids in rat brain and liver in vivo. Biochem Pharmacol 1966; 15:1045-52. [PMID: 5973154 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(66)90269-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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38
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Levin E, Nogueira GJ, Garcia Argiz CA. Ventriculo-cisternal perfusion of amino acids in cat brain. I. Rates of disappearance from the perfusate. J Neurochem 1966; 13:761-7. [PMID: 5950057 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1966.tb09883.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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39
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Bachelard HS, Gaitonde MK, Vrba R. The effect of psychotropic drugs on the utilization of glucose carbon atoms in the brain, heart and liver of the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 1966; 15:1039-43. [PMID: 5973153 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(66)90268-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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40
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41
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Vrba R. Effects of insulin-induced hypoglycaemia on the fate of glucose carbon atoms in the mouse. Biochem J 1966; 99:367-80. [PMID: 5944244 PMCID: PMC1265005 DOI: 10.1042/bj0990367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
1. [U-(14)C]Glucose was injected into mice and the distribution of (14)C in various chemical fractions of the whole body was determined at times from 15min. to 8hr. after injection. 2. At 1hr. after injection 31.8% of the recovered (14)C was found in the expired air and 26.7% was found in the isolated glycogen, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and in other acid-insoluble carbon compounds (;residual (14)C'). The rest (41.5%) was combined in acid-soluble substances. 3. When insulin was injected 5min. or 1hr. before injection of [U-(14)C]glucose, and the mouse was killed 1hr. later, the (14)C content of expired air, glycogen, protein and ;residual (14)C' was not significantly affected; but the incorporation of (14)C into lipids was increased two- to three-fold. 4. Chromatography of the lipids on silicic acid columns and by thin-layer chromatography showed that the main effect of insulin injection was to increase the incorporation of (14)C into fatty acids. 5. A significant increase of (14)C after insulin injection was also found in a glyceride in which the (14)C was combined in glycerol.
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Oja SS, Piha RS. Changes in the concentration of free amino acids in the rat brain during postnatal development. Life Sci 1966; 5:865-70. [PMID: 5961711 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(66)90193-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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43
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Leaf RC, Carlton PL, Hess SM. Behavioural deficit in the rat induced by feeding phenylalanine. Nature 1965; 208:1021-2. [PMID: 5868852 DOI: 10.1038/2081021a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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