Etiopathogenesis of alopecia areata: Why do our patients get it?

An Update on Alopecia and its Association With Thyroid Autoimmune Diseases

Alopecia is comorbid with several illnesses, including various autoimmune conditions such as thyroid disease. Leukocyte-mediated inflammation of hair follicles in alopecia was first described over a century ago. However, the high prevalence of the role of thyroid autoimmune disease in the pathogenesis of alopecia has only recently come to light, together with a strong association between the two. Therefore, this review focuses on articles published between 2011 and 2022 on alopecia's association with thyroid autoimmune disease, and the mechanism behind it. In addition, it highlights the link between alopecia and thyroid cancer, as patients with alopecia have increased risk of thyroid cancer. In conclusion, this comprehensive, focused, scoping review will serve as a reference highlighting recent information on alopecia, exploring its association with thyroid autoimmune diseases.

Demographic and Clinical Features of 1,641 Patients with Alopecia Areata, Alopecia Totalis, and Alopecia Universalis: A Single-Center Retrospective Study

Background/Aim

Alopecia areata (AA) is a common autoimmune hair disorder which is characterized by noncicatricial hair loss. AA commonly presents with localized patches on the scalp and face but may affect any hair-bearing region of the body leading to even more generalized involvement. AA may affect any age group, gender, and race. The current study investigates the demographic characteristics of the patients with AA and subgroups of AA including alopecia totalis (AT) and alopecia universalis (AU) and the prevalence of disease, sex, and age distribution and seasonal variation retrospectively in a tertiary dermatology clinic in Turkey.

Materials and Methods

In this retrospective, cross-sectional study, 1,641 patients diagnosed with AA, AT, and AU in the dermatology clinic of a public university hospital were included. The dermatology outpatient database was reviewed retrospectively. The diagnosis of AA was based on patient history, clinical examinations, and histopathologic findings.

Results

Fifty-four thousand one hundred sixty-eight patients were admitted to our outpatient clinic in 4 years time, and 1,641 were diagnosed as having AA, AT, and AU. One thousand three hundred ninety-two patients (84.8%) had AA, 81 (4.9%) had AT, and 168 (10.2%) had AU. Among the 1,641 patients included in the study, 877 were females (53.4%) and 764 were males (46.6%). The mean age was 29.86 ± 14.48 years in AA, 29.50 ± 16.18 in AT, and 32.81 ± 14.48 in AU; 77.4, 72.8, and 68.5% of patients were aged under 40 years in AA, AT, and AU. There was no statistically significant difference in seasonal presentation times.

Conclusion

AA is affecting approximately 2% of the general population without any sex, race, or age group predilection. In this study, we found a lower prevalence of AA in the pediatric age group in comparison with adults. This finding may support the hypothesis of the increasing prevalence of AA over time. The higher ratio of AA regarding this study may support that the frequency of AA and subtypes varies between regions.

Therapeutic implications of psychological state in patients with alopecia areata: A qualitative study

Hair loss can significantly impact an individual's psychological state, self-image, and can lead to numerous personal, social, and occupational problems. Although these impairments are well documented in primary studies and reviews, and the need for appropriate psychological help is emphasized, there is still a lack of knowledge for a broader and specific picture. The patient's perspective is vital while seeking to understand the content of the variables like "impaired body image" or "low self-esteem." This article advocates the need for studies involving methodologies allowing to explore the complexity and depth of experience. A better understanding of patients' states, reactions, and needs might contribute to the practice of healthcare professionals seeking the best possible help. This study aimed to explore the lived experience of people with alopecia areata in Lithuania using a phenomenological approach. Experiences of six patients with varying degrees of alopecia areata, four women and two men (mean age 27 years), were explored. Data were obtained using an unstructured interview and were analyzed based on Colaizzi's phenomenological approach. This article explores findings related to patient's psychological state covering two superordinate themes: (a) devastating loss of perceived self and (b) grieving and the process of acceptance. The insights for the appropriate therapeutic intervention were formulated.

The Alopecia Areata Consensus of Experts (ACE) study part II: Results of an international expert opinion on diagnosis and laboratory evaluation for alopecia areata

BACKGROUND

We previously reported the Alopecia Areata Consensus of Experts study, which presented results of an international expert opinion on treatments for alopecia areata.

OBJECTIVE

To report the results of the Alopecia Areata Consensus of Experts international expert opinion on diagnosis and laboratory evaluation for alopecia areata.

METHODS

Fifty hair experts from 5 continents were invited to participate in a 3-round Delphi process. Consensus threshold was set at greater than or equal to 66%.

RESULTS

Of 148 questions, expert consensus was achieved in 82 (55%). Round 1 consensus was achieved in 10 of 148 questions (7%). Round 2 achieved consensus in 47 of 77 questions (61%). The final face-to-face achieved consensus in 25 of 32 questions (78%). Consensus was greatest for laboratory evaluation (12 of 14 questions [86%]), followed by diagnosis (11 of 14 questions [79%]) of alopecia areata. Overall, etiopathogenesis achieved the least category consensus (31 of 68 questions [46%]).

LIMITATIONS

The study had low representation from Africa, South America, and Asia.

CONCLUSION

There is expert consensus on aspects of epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, laboratory evaluation, and prognostic indicators of alopecia areata. The study also highlights areas where future clinical research could be directed to address unresolved hypotheses in alopecia areata patient care.

Association of Alopecia Areata with Vitamin D and Calcium Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Introduction

To investigate the associations of alopecia areata (AA) with serum vitamin D and calcium levels.

Methods

A systematic review of all relevant articles published up to February 2020 in PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases was conducted. Primary endpoints were serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels and vitamin D deficiency, and the secondary endpoint was serum calcium level. Odds ratio (OR) and standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95% CI across studies were analyzed.

Results

Data on 1585 patients with AA and 1114 controls from 16 case–control studies and three cross-sectional studies were included in this meta-analysis. A pooled meta-analysis was conducted using the random-effects model because of inter-study heterogeneity (vitamin D level, I² = 87.90%; vitamin D deficiency, I² = 81.10%; serum calcium level, I² = 83.80%). A combined analysis revealed that patients with AA had significantly lower mean serum 25(OH)D level compared with control (WMD − 9.08, 95% CI − 11.65, − 6.50, p < 0.001), and were more likely to have vitamin D deficiency (OR 4.14, 95% CI 2.34, 7.35, p < 0.001). However, the pooled analysis revealed that patients with AA did not have significantly lower serum calcium levels compared with control (WMD − 0.17, 95% CI − 0.40, 0.06, p = 0.143). Subgroup analysis suggested that matched control, mean age, and country might contribute to the heterogeneity of serum vitamin D level, while study design, matched control, and country might contribute to the heterogeneity of vitamin D deficiency.

Conclusion

Deficiency of serum 25(OH)D level, rather than calcium level, was present in patients with AA. Screening for vitamin D deficiency and vitamin D supplementation may be beneficial in the treatment of patients with AA.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s13555-020-00433-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cyclosporine With and Without Systemic Corticosteroids in Treatment of Alopecia Areata: A Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

Cyclosporine is commonly used in treatment for alopecia areata. It can be administered as a monotherapy or in combination with systemic corticosteroids, with various outcomes.

METHODS

Efficacy of cyclosporine with and without systemic corticosteroids for alopecia areata was evaluated by a systematic review. Cochrane, EBSCOhost, Pubmed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched. Only studies published before January 2020 were included.

RESULTS

A total of 2104 studies were initially examined, of which 14 were eligible for the systematic review. Among 340 reported cases, 213 had focal, multifocal or ophiasis form of alopecia areata, 60 were diagnosed with alopecia totalis and 67 with alopecia universalis. The mean response rate in the whole group of patients at the end of treatment was 65.00% (221/340; range 25-100%). Hair regrowth rate was higher in the group with cases of alopecia areata limited to scalp (124/165; mean 75.15%; range 40-100%) than in the cases with alopecia totalis (30/46; mean 65.22%; range 25-100%) or alopecia universalis (24/52; mean 46.15%; range 25-100%). The combined therapy with systemic corticosteroids was superior to the monotherapy (152/219; mean 69.41%; 0-80% vs. 69/121; mean 57.02%; range 6.67-100%) and had a lower recurrence rate (39/108; mean 36.11% vs. 34/46; mean 73.91%, respectively). The combined treatment with methylprednisolone was significantly more effective when compared to the cyclosporine monotherapy (124/183; mean 67.76%; range 0-80% vs. 69/121; mean 57.02%; range 6.67-100%). The mean time of treatment was 6.75 months (range 2-36).

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of our study were the retrospective character of included studies, differences in doses of prescribed drugs, and duration of the treatment and follow-up times.

CONCLUSION

Cyclosporine in combination with oral systemic corticosteroids is more effective than in monotherapy for severe alopecia areata.

Different freezing time of superficial liquid nitrogen cryotherapy in treatment of recalcitrant alopecia areata: Randomized clinical trial

Recalcitrant alopecia areata is not uncommon in clinical practice and some patients experienced either treatment failure or recurrence with most of the conventional therapies. Several studies have evaluated the efficacy of cryotherapy in the treatment of alopecia areata with controversial results. This study aimed to optimize the ideal timing of liquid nitrogen cryospraying to achieve the most favorable results. A total of 75 patients with recalcitrant alopecia areata were treated with superficial cryotherapy, two freeze-thaw cycles, each consisted of 3 to 5, 8 to 10, and 13 to 15 seconds in group A, B, and C, respectively. Good to moderate improvement was achieved in 65.2%, 76%, and 76.2% in groups A, B, and C, respectively, with no statistically significant difference. However, the mean percentage of improvement was significantly higher in group B and C compared to group A (P-value < .05 for each). Superficial liquid nitrogen cryotherapy is an effective therapeutic modality for recalcitrant alopecia areata. Moreover, using 8 to 10 seconds dual freeze-thaw cycles is the optimum timing.

Functional complexity of hair follicle stem cell niche and therapeutic targeting of niche dysfunction for hair regeneration

Stem cell activity is subject to non-cell-autonomous regulation from the local microenvironment, or niche. In adaption to varying physiological conditions and the ever-changing external environment, the stem cell niche has evolved with multifunctionality that enables stem cells to detect these changes and to communicate with remote cells/tissues to tailor their activity for organismal needs. The cyclic growth of hair follicles is powered by hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs). Using HFSCs as a model, we categorize niche cells into 3 functional modules, including signaling, sensing and message-relaying. Signaling modules, such as dermal papilla cells, immune cells and adipocytes, regulate HFSC activity through short-range cell-cell contact or paracrine effects. Macrophages capacitate the HFSC niche to sense tissue injury and mechanical cues and adipocytes seem to modulate HFSC activity in response to systemic nutritional states. Sympathetic nerves implement the message-relaying function by transmitting external light signals through an ipRGC-SCN-sympathetic circuit to facilitate hair regeneration. Hair growth can be disrupted by niche pathology, e.g. dysfunction of dermal papilla cells in androgenetic alopecia and influx of auto-reacting T cells in alopecia areata and lichen planopilaris. Understanding the functions and pathological changes of the HFSC niche can provide new insight for the treatment of hair loss.

Impact of Psychosocial Profile on Alopecia Areata in Pediatric Patients: A Case Control Study from A Tertiary Care Hospital in Eastern Uttar Pradesh

Background:

Alopecia areata (AA) is a common form of nonscarring alopecia characterized by patchy loss of hair from the scalp and body. It is a complex outcome of factors such as autoimmunity, genetic factors, infectious diseases, as well as psychological factors, such as stress, personality type, familial conditions. Around 20% of patients are in the pediatric age group, and 60% of the patients develop AA before the age of 20 years.

Aim:

The present study looked into the impact of psychosocial factors in AA.

Materials and Methods:

This was a case-control study conducted over a period of 1 year. One hundred and two patients and age and gender-matched control group between the ages of 2 and 14 years were included. A questionnaire was administered to identify the stress arising due to personal or familial conditions, school-related issues, psychotrauma or illness, and accidents prior to developing AA. Age and gender-matched patients with other dermatoses with low psychosomatic component to it and unlikely to be influenced by stress were selected as control.

Result:

Fifty-three patients (52 %) were male and 49 were female (48 %). Fifty-five (53.9%) patients were in the age group of 10 to 14 years. Forty (39.2%) children had multiple patches. Onset was <5 months in 30 patients (29.4%). Forty-nine (48%) children reported stress due to school-related issues compared to 13 (12.7%) in the control group. Eighteen (17.6%) children had familial issues compared to 6 (0.05%) in the control group. Nineteen children (18.6%) had multiple stressors. Sixty-nine (67.6%) patients related their disease to a stress component compared to 33 (32.3%) who could not relate to any stress. A significant association was noted between examination pressure and academic performance with onset of AA compared to control (P < 0.05%), which was stronger among female compared to male.

Conclusion:

The psychological profile and comorbidities have a significant impact on the onset or recidivism of AA. Impact of a stressful personal or family life, parental pressure to perform better in school, and psychological vulnerability can significantly contribute to the onset or exacerbation of AA.

Nanotechnology advances for hair loss

Alopecia is the partial or total reduction of hair in a specific area of the skin that affects millions of men and women worldwide. Most common approved treatments present inconvenient therapeutic regimes and serious adverse effects. In this scenario, nanoencapsulation has emerged as a relatively simple technology for improving the therapeutic outcome of this pathology, promoting a targeted drug delivery with enhanced local bioavailability, which could reduce the adverse effects. Herein, we present some recent studies involving the nanosystems developed for the pharmacological treatment of alopecia, highlighting how each system represents an improvement in relation to conventional drug products and the future perspectives of these new technologies in reaching the market.

Effects of anxiety and depression symptoms on oxidative stress in patients with alopecia areata

Introduction

Increased oxidative stress (OXS) and a high prevalence of psychiatric disorders are seen in alopecia areata (AA). However, OXS and psychiatric disorders have been studied separately in AA patients.

Aim

To determine the effects of anxiety and depression symptoms on OXS in AA patients.

Material and methods

The anxiety and depression levels of 33 AA patients and 33 normal controls (NC) were determined using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. The oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated by measuring serum total antioxidant status (TAS) and total oxidant status (TOS) levels in AA patients and NC.

Results

The AA patients had higher anxiety and depression scores than NC (p < 0.001 for both). Total oxidant status (p = 0.002) and OSI (p < 0.001) values were higher, and TAS (p < 0.001) levels were lower, in patients with AA compared to NC. However, patients’ anxiety and depression scores were not correlated with the TAS, TOS, or OSI values (p > 0.05). There was no significant difference in TAS, TOS, or OSI values between patients with high and low anxiety or depression scores (p > 0.05).

Conclusions

These results show that OXS, anxiety, and depression scores were higher in patients with AA compared to NC. However, anxiety and depression scores were not associated with OXS in AA patients. More extensive studies should be performed to investigate the relationship between psychological status and OXS in patients with AA.

Serum Vitamin D Levels and Alopecia Areata- A Hospital Based Case-Control Study from North-India

Background:

Alopecia areata (AA) is an autoimmune disease which is characterized by hair loss and affects any hair-bearing area. Low levels of Vitamin D have been implicated in a variety of autoimmune diseases. This study was conducted to assess the levels of Vitamin D in patients with AA and its correlation with severity, pattern, and extent of the disease.

Materials and Methods:

This hospital-based study included 135 cases with AA and 135 age- and sex-matched controls. AA cases were grouped according to the severity, pattern, and extent of the disease. The levels of Vitamin D were assessed and compared between cases and controls and among different groups of cases. The data were analyzed, and the correlation was derived.

Results:

The more number of patients from the case group had deficient and insufficient levels of Vitamin D as compared to controls, the difference being statistically significant (P = 0.01). A highly significant difference was found in mean Vitamin D levels between cases and controls (P = 0.0004). A negative correlation was found between Vitamin D levels and severity of AA as accessed by SALT score. A negative correlation was also found between Vitamin D levels with pattern and extent of the disease.

Conclusion:

Vitamin D deficiency may be one of the factors having a role either in etiopathogenesis or exacerbation of AA. Supplementation of Vitamin D as a treatment modality may improve the clinical outcome of AA.

Alopecia areata: a review of disease pathogenesis

BACKGROUND

Alopecia areata is a disorder that results in nonscarring hair loss. The psychological impact can be significant, leading to feelings of depression and social isolation. Objectives In this article, we seek to review the pathophysiological mechanisms proposed in recent years in a narrative fashion.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE and Scopus for articles related to alopecia areata, with a particular emphasis on its pathogenesis.

RESULTS

The main theory of alopecia areata pathogenesis is that it is an autoimmune phenomenon resulting from a disruption in hair follicle immune privilege. What causes this breakdown is an issue of debate. Some believe that a stressed hair follicle environment triggers antigen presentation, while others blame a dysregulation in the central immune system entangling the follicles. Evidence for the latter theory is provided by animal studies, as well investigations around the AIRE gene. Different immune-cell lines including plasmacytoid dendritic cells, natural killer cells and T cells, along with key molecules such as interferon-γ, interleukin-15, MICA and NKG2D, have been identified as contributing to the autoimmune process.

CONCLUSIONS

Alopecia areata remains incurable, although it has been studied for years. Available treatment options at best are beneficial for milder cases, and the rate of relapse is high. Understanding the exact mechanisms of hair loss in alopecia areata is therefore of utmost importance to help identify potential therapeutic targets.

Fibroblast cell-based therapy prevents induction of alopecia areata in an experimental model

Alopecia areata (AA) is an autoimmune hair loss disease with infiltration of proinflammatory cells into hair follicles. Current therapeutic regimens are unsatisfactory mainly because of the potential for side effects and/or limited efficacy. Here we report that cultured, transduced fibroblasts, which express the immunomodulatory molecule indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), can be applied to prevent hair loss in an experimental AA model. A single intraperitoneal (IP) injection of IDO-expressing primary dermal fibroblasts was given to C3H/HeJ mice at the time of AA induction. While 60–70% of mice that received either control fibroblasts or vehicle injections developed extensive AA, none of the IDO-expressing fibroblast-treated mice showed new hair loss up to 20 weeks post injection. IDO cell therapy significantly reduced infiltration of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells into hair follicles and resulted in decreased expression of TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-17 in the skin. Skin draining lymph nodes of IDO fibroblast-treated mice were significantly smaller, with more CD4⁺ CD25⁺ FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells and fewer Th17 cells than those of control fibroblast and vehicle-injected mice. These findings indicate that IP injected IDO-expressing dermal fibroblasts can control inflammation and thereby prevent AA hair loss.

An investigation of vitamin D status in alopecia areata

Alopecia areata (AA) is a type of non-scarring, recurrent patchy loss of hair in hair-bearing areas and is mostly of autoimmune origin. Previous studies have suggested that some autoimmune diseases were found to be associated with vitamin D deficiency. The current study was designed to assess the levels of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D and C-reactive protein in AA, as compared with controls and to further identify the association between vitamin D levels and disease severity in patients with AA. This cross-sectional study included 45 patients with AA and 45 healthy volunteers. Clinical and anthropometric parameters were recorded, according to a pre-designed proforma. Serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein were estimated using ELISA kits. The severity of AA was determined using Severity of Alopecia Tool (SALT) score. We observed a significant rise in systemic inflammation as seen by elevated high-sensitive C-reactive protein levels and lowered 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels in patients with alopecia areata, compared to controls (p = 0.001). The levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D showed a significant negative correlation with disease severity, while hs-CRP levels showed a significant positive correlation with disease severity (ρ = - 0.714, p = 0.001 and ρ = 0.818, p = 0.001). Our results suggest significant systemic inflammation and vitamin D deficiency in alopecia areata, more so with increasing disease severity. This gains particular importance in the treatment of alopecia areata in future, as supplementing vitamin D to AA patients would result in reducing the disease severity and inducing remission.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CHRONOTHERAPY AND TRADITIONAL METHOD OF ALOPECIA AREATA TREATMENT

Alopecia areata – is the one of widespread baldness forms, difficultly subjected to treatment. The method of chronotherapy that gains an essential circulation in Ukraine and throughout the world may play the important role in its solution. Aim: to study the clinical effectiveness of chronotherapy for alopecia areata treatment. Materials and methods. For attaining the set aim 108 persons with the diagnosis alopecia areata were examined and treated. Patients were divided in two groups. The main group included 45 persons – treated using the method of chronotherapy. The control group consisted of 67 persons, who received the traditional treatment of alopecia areata. The series of clinical, biochemical and immunological studies, directed on the assessment of the treatment effectiveness, were realized. Results. The treatment of patients with alopecia areata by the method of chronotherapy is statistically reliably more effective than the traditional treatment of this pathology and provides the renewal of hair growth in 53,3 % of patients that is accompanied by normalization of alexin, sulfhydryl groups content, acid phosphatase activity, serine, asparagine acid, valine, threonine, alanine, cystine, leucine, isoleucine concentrations. The offered chronotherapy method has the expressed anabolic effect on patients’ organism. The menstrual cycle is normalized, pre-menstrual syndrome symptoms and aldodysmenorrhea disappear, patients’ working ability and state of health improve. Conclusions. The obtained data deepen knowledge about the pathogenesis of alopecia areata at the biochemical and immunological levels and favor the rise of the effectiveness of diagnostics and treatment of this pathology. At the study the high chronotherapy effectiveness at treating alopecia areata was revealed and the possibility of its use for the effective treatment of a series of other pathologies was proved.

Double-stranded RNA induces inflammation via the NF-κB pathway and inflammasome activation in the outer root sheath cells of hair follicles

Alopecia areata (AA), a chronic, relapsing, hair-loss disorder, is considered to be a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease. It affects approximately 1.7% of the population, but its precise pathogenesis remains to be elucidated. Despite the recent attention focused on the roles of inflammasomes in the pathogenesis of autoinflammatory diseases, little is known about inflammasome activation in AA. Thus, in this study, we investigated the pattern of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the outer root sheath (ORS) cells of hair follicles. We found that interleukin (IL)-1β and caspase-1 expression was increased in hair follicle remnants and inflammatory cells of AA tissue specimens. After stimulation of ORS cells with the double-stranded (ds)RNA mimic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly[I:C]), the activation of caspase-1 and secretion of IL-1β were enhanced. Moreover, NLRP3 knockdown decreased this poly(I:C)-induced IL-1β production. Finally, we found that high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) translocated from the nucleus to the cytosol and was secreted into the extracellular space by inflammasome activation. Taken together, these findings suggest that ORS cells are important immunocompetent cells that induce NLRP3 inflammasomes. In addition, dsRNA-induced IL-1β and HMGB1 secretion from ORS cells may contribute to clarifying the pathogenesis and therapeutic targets of AA.

Efficacy and safety of topical calcipotriol in management of alopecia areata: A pilot study

Reports have highlighted serum vitamin D deficiency and reduced 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) receptors(VDR) expression on hair follicles of alopecia areata(AA) patients. Very few studies have demonstrated efficacy of topical calcipotriol (vitamin D analogue) in AA. We intended to study the efficacy of calcipotriol lotion 0.005% in AA and correlate its outcome with serum vitamin D levels. We conducted a prospective study, in which 22 patients with AA were treated with calcipotriol lotion 0.005% twice daily for 3 months. Clinico-epidemiological parameters including severity of AA and SALT score were calculated at baseline and at 12 weeks. Hair regrowth was assessed monthly at 4, 8, 12 weeks. Serum vitamin D levels were measured at baseline. After 12 weeks of treatment, hair regrowth was observed in 13 (59.1%) patients. Mean period for onset of disease stabilization and hair regrowth was 4 weeks and 4.21± 2.13 weeks, respectively. Among these 13 patients, SALT₅₀ and SALT₁₀₀ was observed in 6(46.2%) and 2(9%) patients, respectively. Response to treatment was better in patients with lower vitamin D levels (p < .009). Topical calcipotriol can be an alternative treatment in AA and it could prove to be more useful in patients who are vitamin D deficient.

Vitamin D Level in Alopecia Areata

Background:

Alopecia areata (AA) is an immune-mediated disease in which autoantigens play an important part in activating T-lymphocytes. Vitamin D has been associated with various autoimmune diseases, and Vitamin D receptors are strongly expressed in hair follicles and their expression in keratinocytes is necessary for the maintenance of the normal hair cycle.

Aim:

The aim of this study was to find the association between Vitamin D level and AA.

Materials and Methods:

This was a hospital-based cross-sectional study in which 50 patients with clinically and trichoscopically diagnosed AA cases, and 35 healthy age- and sex-matched controls were studied in summer months. Blood samples were taken from both cases as well as controls and samples were immediately processed by centrifugation (4000 rpm) at room temperature. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) was analyzed by chemiluminescence method. A deficiency in Vitamin D was defined as serum 25(OH)D concentrations <30 ng/ml.

Results:

The mean body mass index in cases was 20.96 ± 1.91, whereas in controls, it was 21.37 ± 1.70 (P = 0.31). The mean serum 25(OH)D levels of AA patients was 16.6 ± 5.9 ng/ml, whereas in control group, the mean level was 40.5 ± 5.7, the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.001). A significant negative correlation was found between severity of alopecia tool score and Vitamin D level (P < 0.001; r = −0.730) and also between the number of patches and Vitamin D level (P < 0.001, r = −0.670).

Conclusion:

In our study, we found that the levels of 25(OH)D were low in AA patients when compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, there was a significant negative correlation between the levels of serum Vitamin D and severity of AA. Thus, the study suggests the role of Vitamin D in pathogenesis of AA and hence a possible role of Vitamin D supplementation in treatment of same.

Limitations:

Our study was limited by the lesser number of patients and lack of therapeutic trial of Vitamin D for these patients.

Identification of Autoantigen Epitopes in Alopecia Areata

Alopecia areata (AA) is believed to be a cell-mediated autoimmune hair loss disease. Both CD4 and cytotoxic CD8 T cells (CTLs) are important for the onset and progression of AA. Hair follicle (HF) keratinocyte and/or melanocyte antigen epitopes are suspected potential targets of autoreactive CTLs, but the specific epitopes have not yet been identified. We investigated the potential for a panel of known epitopes, expressed by HF keratinocytes and melanocytes, to induce activation of CTL populations in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Specific synthetic epitopes derived from HF antigens trichohyalin and tyrosinase-related protein-2 induced significantly higher frequencies of response in AA CTLs compared with healthy controls (IFN-gamma secretion). Apoptosis assays revealed conditioned media from AA peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with trichohyalin peptides elevated the expression of apoptosis markers in primary HF keratinocytes. A cytokine array revealed higher expression of IL-13 and chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5, RANTES) from AA peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with trichohyalin peptides compared with controls. The data indicate that AA affected subjects present with an increased frequency of CTLs responsive to epitopes originating from keratinocytes and melanocytes; the activated CTLs secreted soluble factors that induced apoptosis in HF keratinocytes. Potentially, CTL response to self-antigen epitopes, particularly trichohyalin epitopes, could be a prognostic marker for human AA.

Vitamin D deficiency in alopecia areata

BACKGROUND

Alopecia areata (AA) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease that causes inflammation around anagen-stage hair follicles. Insufficient levels of vitamin D have been implicated in a variety of autoimmune diseases. Previous reports have described the effects of vitamin D on hair follicles.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the status of vitamin D in patients with AA, and the relationship between vitamin D levels and disease severity.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of 86 patients with AA, 44 patients with vitiligo and 58 healthy controls was conducted. The serum vitamin D levels of the study group were determined by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels in patients with AA were significantly lower than those of the patients with vitiligo and the healthy controls (P = 0·001 and P < 0·001, respectively). The prevalence of 25(OH)D deficiency was significantly higher in patients with AA (91%) compared with patients with vitiligo (71%) and healthy controls (33%) (P = 0·003 and P < 0·001, respectively). Furthermore, a significant inverse correlation was found between disease severity and serum 25(OH)D level in patients with AA (r = -0·409; P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

Deficient serum 25(OH)D levels are present in patients with AA and inversely correlate with disease severity. Accordingly, screening patients with AA for vitamin D deficiencies seems to be of value for the possibility of supplementing these patients with vitamin D.

Altered expression of intracellular Toll-like receptors in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with alopecia areata

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern-recognition-receptors that sense a variety of pathogens and initiation of innate and adaptive immune responses. This study was undertaken to investigate the expression of TLRs in peripheral blood-mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of AA patients and to determine whether TLR-mediated inflammatory signals are important for the perspective of AA management.

METHODS

Gene expression of TLRs and T-helper (Th) type-1, Th-2, Th-17 and regulatory T-cell cytokines in PBMCs was quantified by TaqMan Assays. Production of these cytokines in serum samples was determined by sandwich ELISAs.

RESULTS

All TLRs (TLRs 1-10) were expressed in PBMCs of AA patients. Importantly intracellular TLRs (TLRs 3, 7, 8 and 9) were significantly up-regulated in AA patients as compared with controls (p < 0.05). Interleukin (IL)-2, TNF-α, and IL-17A gene expression in patients' PBMCs and their secretion in patients' sera were significantly higher as compared with their respective controls (p < 0.05). Whereas, TGF-β gene expression in patients' PBMCs and TGF-β protein level in patients' sera were significantly lower as compared with their controls (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This is the first report that shows the comprehensive expression profile of TLRs in AA patients. We conclude that up-regulated expression of intracellular TLRs in PBMCs of AA patients may play an active role in abnormal regulation of Th-1, Th-17 and regulatory T-cell cytokines in alopecia areata.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Targeting of TLRs and their associated inflammatory signaling will open new areas of research; this may lead to the development of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of AA or other skin disorders.

B cell activating factor and T-helper 17 cells: possible synergistic culprits in the pathogenesis of Alopecia Areata

The role of T-helper 17 cells (Th17) and regulatory T-cells (Tregs) in the pathogenesis of alopecia areata (AA) has not been clearly elucidated. B cell activating factor (BAFF) being a regulator of T cell activation could be involved in this pathologic process as well. The current study evaluated the expression of IL-17, IL-22, Foxp3 and BAFF in tissue and sera of AA patients. Forty AA patients and 40 age and sex matched healthy controls were included. Tissue and serum levels of IL-17, IL-22, BAFF as well as serum level of Foxp3 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Immunohistochemical staining was used for assessment of tissue level of Foxp3. Tissue and serum levels of IL-17, tissue levels of IL-22 and BAFF were significantly higher in patients. Serum levels of IL-22, Foxp3 and BAFF were non-significantly higher in patients. Foxp3 immunostaining showed negativity in tissue of patients and controls. A significant positive correlation was found between both tissue levels of IL-17 and BAFF (r = 0.474, P = 0.035) and tissue level of IL-22 and disease duration (r = 0.766, P < 0.001) in AA patients. Th17 cells and BAFF are synergistically involved in the pathogenesis of AA. BAFF represents a promising therapeutic target for such a challenging disease. Defective Tregs number and/or function in AA warrants further studies.

The role of lymphocytes in the development and treatment of alopecia areata

Alopecia areata (AA) development is associated with both innate and adaptive immune cell activation, migration to peri- and intra-follicular regions, and hair follicle disruption. Both CD4(+) and CD8(+) lymphocytes are abundant in AA lesions; however, CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes are more likely to enter inside hair follicles, circumstantially suggesting that they have a significant role to play in AA development. Several rodent models recapitulate important features of the human autoimmune disease and demonstrate that CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes are fundamentally required for AA induction and perpetuation. However, the initiating events, the self-antigens involved, and the molecular signaling pathways, all need further exploration. Studying CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes and their fate decisions in AA development may reveal new and improved treatment approaches.

The role of selectins in alopecia areata

Introduction

One of the main histopathological features of alopecia areata (AA) is a lymphocytic infiltration that surrounds hair follicles. Soluble forms of E, L, P-selectins are known indicators of ongoing inflammation. There are no studies regarding the assessment of their contribution in AA.

Aim

To assess serum concentrations of selectins (E-selectin, L-selectin and P-selectin) in patients with AA in relation to selected clinical parameters, including disease severity and activity.

Material and methods

Sixty-four patients with AA were involved in the study. The diagnosis was based on physical examination and photodermoscopy. The control group consisted of 40 healthy subjects. The serum concentrations of soluble E-selectin, L-selectin and P-selectin were detected with ELISA method.

Results

Statistically significantly higher levels of E, P, L-selectins were found in AA patients as compared with the healthy group. Serum concentrations of soluble forms of E- and L-selectins correlated with the severity of the disease, while E-selectin with activity of AA.

Conclusions

This study shows that selectins may play an important role in the pathogenesis of AA and may be a target of future therapies in this disease.

Functionally stable plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in a family with cardiovascular disease and vitiligo

Vitiligo is a common skin condition with a complex pathophysiology characterized by the lack of pigmentation due to melanocyte degeneration. In this study, we investigated PAI-1 antigen (Ag) and activity levels in a 34 year old male with extensive vascular disease, alopecia areata and vitiligo. Fasting PAI-1 Ag and activity levels were measured at 9 a.m. in the subject and family members. Both PAI-1 Ag (67 ± 38 vs. 18.6 ± 6.5 ng/ml, P < 0.001) and specific activity (15.8 ± 10.0 vs. 7.6 ± 6.0 IU/pmol, P < 0.04) levels of PAI-1 were moderately elevated in subjects compared to the controls. PAI-1 kinetic studies demonstrated a markedly enhanced stability of plasma PAI-1 activity in the family members. Specific activity at 16 h was significantly higher than expected activity levels (0.078 ± 0.072 vs. 0.001 ± 0.001 IU/ng/ml, P < 0.001). While the exact mechanism of increased stability of PAI-1 activity in vitiligo is not known, it is likely due to post-translational modifications or increased binding affinity for a stabilizing cofactor. In conclusion, enhanced stability of PAI-1 may contribute to the pathophysiology of vascular disease and associated melanocyte degeneration. Systemic or local treatment with PAI-1 inhibitors may offer a potential treatment alternative to the near orphan status for vitiligo drug development.

What causes alopecia areata?

The pathobiology of alopecia areata (AA), one of the most frequent autoimmune diseases and a major unsolved clinical problem, has intrigued dermatologists, hair biologists and immunologists for decades. Simultaneously, both affected patients and the physicians who take care of them are increasingly frustrated that there is still no fully satisfactory treatment. Much of this frustration results from the fact that the pathobiology of AA remains unclear, and no single AA pathogenesis concept can claim to be universally accepted. In fact, some investigators still harbour doubts whether this even is an autoimmune disease, and the relative importance of CD8(+) T cells, CD4(+) T cells and NKGD2(+) NK or NKT cells and the exact role of genetic factors in AA pathogenesis remain bones of contention. Also, is AA one disease, a spectrum of distinct disease entities or only a response pattern of normal hair follicles to immunologically mediated damage? During the past decade, substantial progress has been made in basic AA-related research, in the development of new models for translationally relevant AA research and in the identification of new therapeutic agents and targets for future AA management. This calls for a re-evaluation and public debate of currently prevalent AA pathobiology concepts. The present Controversies feature takes on this challenge, hoping to attract more skin biologists, immunologists and professional autoimmunity experts to this biologically fascinating and clinically important model disease.

Development of autoimmune hair loss disease alopecia areata is associated with cardiac dysfunction in C3H/HeJ mice

Alopecia areata (AA) is a chronic autoimmune hair loss disease that affects several million men, women and children worldwide. Previous studies have suggested a link between autoimmunity, stress hormones, and increased cardiovascular disease risk. In the current study, histology, immunohistology, quantitative PCR (qPCR) and ELISAs were used to assess heart health in the C3H/HeJ mouse model for AA and heart tissue response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) exposure. Mice with AA exhibited both atrial and ventricular hypertrophy, and increased collagen deposition compared to normal-haired littermates. QPCR revealed significant increases in Il18 (4.6-fold), IL18 receptor-1 (Il18r1; 2.8-fold) and IL18 binding protein (Il18bp; 5.2-fold) in AA hearts. Time course studies revealed a trend towards decreased Il18 in acute AA compared to controls while Il18r1, Il18bp and Casp1 showed similar trends to those of chronic AA affected mice. Immunohistochemistry showed localization of IL18 in chronic AA mouse atria. ELISA indicated cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) was elevated in the serum and significantly increased in AA heart tissue. Cultures of heart atria revealed differential gene expression between AA and control mice in response to ACTH. ACTH treatment induced significant increase in cTnI release into the culture medium in a dose-dependent manner for both AA and control mice. In conclusion, murine AA is associated with structural, biochemical, and gene expression changes consistent with cardiac hypertrophy in response to ACTH exposure.

The basic science of hair biology: what are the causal mechanisms for the disordered hair follicle?

A hair disorder can be difficult to define, but patients are typically motivated to seek treatment when their hair growth patterns are significantly different from their cultural group or when growth patterns change significantly. The causes of hair disorders are many and varied, but fundamentally the disorder is a consequence of aberrant alterations of normal hair biology. The potential trigger factors for hair disorders can be attributed to inflammation, genetics, the environment, or hormones, of which the relative contributions vary for different diagnoses, between individuals, and over time. This article discusses the causal mechanisms for the disordered hair follicle.