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Murphy CM, Weller DL, Bardsley CA, Ingram DT, Chen Y, Oryang D, Rideout SL, Strawn LK. Survival of Twelve Pathogenic and Generic Escherichia coli Strains in Agricultural Soils as Influenced by Strain, Soil Type, Irrigation Regimen, and Soil Amendment. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100343. [PMID: 39147099 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2024] [Revised: 07/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Biological soil amendments of animal origin (BSAAO) play an important role in agriculture but can introduce pathogens into soils. Pathogen survival in soil is widely studied, but data are needed on the impacts of strain variability and field management practices. This study monitored the population of 12 Escherichia coli strains (generic, O157, and non-O157) in soils while evaluating the interactions of soil type, irrigation regimen, and soil amendment in three independent, greenhouse-based, randomized complete block design trials. Each E. coli strain (4-5 log10 CFU/g) was homogenized in bovine manure amended or nonamended sandy-loam or clay-loam soil. E. coli was enumerated in 25 g samples on 0, 0.167 (4 h), 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 56, 84, 112, 168, 210, 252, and 336 days postinoculation (dpi). Regression analyses were developed to understand the impact of strain, soil type, irrigation regimen, and soil amendment on inactivation rates. E. coli survived for 112 to 336 dpi depending on the treatment combination. Pathogenic and generic E. coli survived 46 days [95% Confidence interval (CI) = 20.85, 64.72; p = 0.001] longer in soils irrigated weekly compared to daily and 146 days (CI = 114.50, 184.50; p < 0.001) longer in amended soils compared to unamended soils. Pathogenic E. coli strains were nondetectable 69 days (CI = 39.58, 98.66, p = 0.015) earlier than generic E. coli strains. E. coli inactivation rates demonstrated a tri-phasic pattern, with breakpoints at 26 dpi (CI = 22.3, 29.2) and 130 dpi (CI = 121.0, 138.1). The study findings demonstrate that using bovine manure as BSAAO in soil enhances E. coli survival, regardless of strain, and adequate food safety practices are needed to reduce the risk of crop contamination. The findings of this study contribute data on E. coli concentrations in amended soils to assist stakeholders and regulators in making risk-based decisions on time intervals between the application of BSAAO and the production and harvest of fruits and vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Murphy
- School of Food Science, Washington State University - Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Prosser, Washington, USA; Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Daniel L Weller
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Cameron A Bardsley
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - David T Ingram
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Yuhuan Chen
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - David Oryang
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven L Rideout
- School of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Laura K Strawn
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.
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Su Y, Shen X, Liu A, Zhu MJ. Evaluation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes during chlorine and peroxyacetic acid interventions in simulated apple dump tank water. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 414:110613. [PMID: 38341905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Sanitizers are widely incorporated in commercial apple dump tank systems to mitigate the cross-contamination of foodborne pathogens. This study validated the suitability of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes during sanitizer interventions in dump tank water systems. E. faecium NRRL B-2354 inoculated on apples exhibited statistically equivalent susceptibility to L. monocytogenes when exposed to chlorine-based sanitizers (25-100 ppm free chlorine (FC)) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA, 20-80 ppm) in simulated dump tank water (SDTW) with 1000 ppm chemical oxygen demand (COD), resulting in 0.2-0.9 and 1.1-1.7 log CFU/apple reduction, respectively. Increasing the contact time did not affect sanitizer efficacies against E. faecium NRRL B-2354 and L. monocytogenes on apples. Chlorine and PAA interventions demonstrated statistically similar efficacies against both bacteria inoculated in SDTW. Chlorine at 25 and 100 ppm FC for 0.5-5 min contact yielded ~37.68-78.25 % and > 99.85 % inactivation, respectively, in water with 1000-4000 ppm COD, while ~51.55-99.86 % and > 99.97 % inactivation was observed for PAA at 20 and 80 ppm, respectively. No statistically significant difference was observed between the transference of E. faecium NRRL B-2354 and L. monocytogenes from inoculated apples to uninoculated apples and water, and from water to uninoculated apples during chlorine- or PAA-treated SDTW exposure. The data suggest E. faecium NRRL B-2354 is a viable surrogate for L. monocytogenes in dump tank washing systems, which could be used to predict the anti-Listeria efficacy of chlorine and PAA interventions during commercial apple processing. Further investigations are recommended to assess the suitability of E. faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for L. monocytogenes, when using different sanitizers and different types of produce to ensure reliable and comprehensive results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Su
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States of America
| | - Xiaoye Shen
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States of America
| | - Andrew Liu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States of America
| | - Mei-Jun Zhu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States of America.
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3
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Wang H, Sheng L, Liu Z, Li X, Harris LJ, Wang L. Reduction Foodborne Pathogens and Surrogate Microorganism on Citrus Fruits after Lab- and Pilot-scale Finishing Wax Application. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100255. [PMID: 38423361 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
After finishing waxes are applied, citrus fruits are typically dried at 32-60°C for 2-3 min before final packing. The survival of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 was evaluated under laboratory conditions on lemons after applying one of four finishing waxes (F4, F6, F8, and F15) followed by an ambient hold or heated (50 or 60°C) drying step. The reduction of inoculated microorganisms during drying was significantly influenced by wax type and temperature, with greater reductions at higher temperatures. Greater reductions after waxing and drying at 60°C were observed with L. monocytogenes (2.84-4.44 log) than with Salmonella (1.65-3.67 log), and with Salmonella than with E. faecium (0.99-2.93 log). The survival of Salmonella inoculated at 5.8-5.9 log/fruit on lemons and oranges after applying wax F6 and drying at 60°C was evaluated during storage at 4 and 22°C. The reductions of Salmonella after waxing and drying were 1.7 log; additional reductions during storage at 4 or 22°C were 1.40-1.43 or 0.18-0.29 log, respectively, on waxed lemons, and 0.56-1.02 or 0.54-0.57 log, respectively, on waxed oranges. Under pilot-scale packinghouse conditions with wax F4, mean and minimum reductions of E. faecium ranged from 2.15 to 2.89 and 1.64 to 2.12 log, respectively. However, E. faecium was recovered by whole-fruit enrichment (limit of detection: 0.60 log CFU/lemon) but not by plating (LOD: 1.3 log CFU/lemon) from uninoculated lemons run with or after the inoculated lemons. The findings should provide useful information to establish and implement packinghouse food safety plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongye Wang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Lina Sheng
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA; School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China.
| | - Zhuosheng Liu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Xiran Li
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Linda J Harris
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Western Center for Food Safety, University of California, Davis, CA 95618, USA.
| | - Luxin Wang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Chiera S, Bosco F, Mollea C, Piscitello A, Sethi R, Nollo G, Caola I, Tessarolo F. Staphylococcus epidermidis is a safer surrogate of Staphylococcus aureus in testing bacterial filtration efficiency of face masks. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21807. [PMID: 38071253 PMCID: PMC10710463 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49005-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Face masks play a role in reducing the spread of airborne pathogens, providing that they have a good filtration performance, are correctly fitted and maintained. Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) is a key indicator for evaluating filtration performance according to both European and US standards, requiring the use of Staphylococcus aureus loaded aerosol. However, the generation and handling of a Biohazard group 2 bacterium aerosol require a careful management of the biological risk and pose limitations to the accessibility to this method. To mitigate these drawbacks, we investigated the use of S. epidermidis ATCC 12228, a Biohazard group 1 bacterium, as surrogate in BFE test. To this end, tests with the surrogate strain were performed to tune the method. Then, three face mask models, representative for both surgical and community masks, were tested according to the standard method and then using an aerosolized suspension of S. epidermidis. BFE% values were calculated for each mask model and tested microorganisms. Results showed that BFE test can be performed using the S. epidermidis instead of S. aureus, preserving results validity and turnaround time, but reducing residual risk for laboratory operators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Chiera
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Francesca Bosco
- DISAT-Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy.
| | - Chiara Mollea
- DISAT-Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Amelia Piscitello
- DIATI-Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Rajandrea Sethi
- DIATI-Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Giandomenico Nollo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Iole Caola
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari di Trento, Trento, Italy
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Liu S, Qiu Y, Su G, Sheng L, Qin W, Ye Q, Wu Q. Enhanced heat tolerance of freeze-dried Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as valid Salmonella surrogate in low-moisture foods. Food Res Int 2023; 173:113232. [PMID: 37803547 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
In microbial studies of low-moisture foods (LMFs, water activity less than 0.85), freeze-dried bacteria benefit us to inoculate LMFs without introducing extra water or altering food physiochemical properties. However, the freeze-drying process would bring unavoidable damage to bacterial cells and results in less-resistant inoculum that are unlikely to be qualified in microbial studies. Herein, we enhanced bacterial heat tolerance by subjecting the cells to mild heat (42-50 °C) to counteract the reduced heat tolerance and survivability of freeze-dried bacteria. Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 (E. faecium), a Salmonella surrogate in LMFs, was used as the target microorganism because it was widely accepted in microbial validation of thermal pasteurizing LMFs. Three types of LMFs (peanut powder, protein powder, and onion powder) were used as LMFs models to validate the freeze-dried E. faecium in comparison with Salmonella enterica Enteritidis PT 30 (S. Enteritidis) prepared by the traditional aqueous method. The heat tolerance (D65℃ value) of E. faecium increased at all treatments and peaked (+31.48 ± 0.13%) at temperature-time combinations of 45 °C-60 min and 50 °C-5 min. Survivability of freeze-dried inoculum and its heat tolerance retained well within 50 d storage. The freeze-dried E. faecium was prepared in this study brought equal or higher heat tolerance (D85℃ or D75℃) than S. Enteritidis in tested LMFs models. For instance, the D85℃ of freeze-dried E. faecium (heat-treated at 50 °C for 5 min) and S. Enteritidis in whole egg powder are 35.56 ± 1.52 min and 28.41 ± 0.41 min, respectively. The freeze-dried E. faecium with enhanced heat tolerance appears to be a suitable Salmonella surrogate for dry-inoculating LMFs. Our protocol also enables industry-scale production of freeze-dried inoculum by broth-cultivation method combined with mild-heat treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxiang Liu
- College of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China; State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou 510070, China.
| | - Yan Qiu
- College of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Gehong Su
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Lina Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Wen Qin
- College of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Qinghua Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Qingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou 510070, China.
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Murphy CM, Hamilton AM, Waterman K, Rock C, Schaffner DW, Strawn LK. Efficacy of Peracetic Acid and Chlorine on the Reduction of Shiga Toxin-producing Escherichia coli and a Nonpathogenic E. coli Strain in Preharvest Agricultural Water. J Food Prot 2023; 86:100172. [PMID: 37783289 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Produce-borne outbreaks of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) linked to preharvest water emphasize the need for efficacious water treatment options. This study quantified reductions of STEC and generic E. coli in preharvest agricultural water using commercially available sanitizers. Water was collected from two sources in Virginia (pond, river) and inoculated with either a seven-strain STEC panel or environmental generic E. coli strain TVS 353 (∼9 log10 CFU/100 mL). Triplicate inoculated water samples were equilibrated to 12 or 32°C and treated with peracetic acid (PAA) or chlorine (Cl) [low (PAA:6ppm, Cl:2-4 ppm) or high (PAA:10 ppm, Cl:10-12 ppm) residual concentrations] for an allotted contact time (1, 5, or 10 min). Strains were enumerated, and a log-linear model was used to characterize how treatment combinations influenced reductions. All Cl treatment combinations achieved a ≥3 log10 CFU/100 mL reduction, regardless of strain (3.43 ± 0.25 to 7.05 ± 0.00 log10 CFU/100 mL). Approximately 80% (19/24) and 67% (16/24) of PAA treatment combinations achieved a ≥3 log10 CFU/100 mL for STEC and E. coli TVS 353, respectively. The log-linear model showed contact time (10 > 5 > 1 min) and sanitizer type (Cl > PAA) had the greatest impact on STEC and E. coli TVS 353 reductions (p < 0.001). E. coli TVS 353 in water samples was more resistant to sanitizer treatment (p < 0.001) indicating applicability as a good surrogate. Results demonstrated Cl and PAA can be effective agricultural water treatment strategies when sanitizer chemistry is managed. These data will assist with the development of in-field validation studies and may identify suitable candidates for the registration of antimicrobial pesticide products for use against foodborne pathogens in preharvest agricultural water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Murphy
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; School of Food Science, Washington State University - Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - Alexis M Hamilton
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Kim Waterman
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Channah Rock
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona - Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, AZ, USA
| | - Donald W Schaffner
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Laura K Strawn
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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7
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Efficacy of triple-wash using a peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide solution at reducing populations and cross-contamination of Salmonella Typhimurium and the surrogate Enterococcus faecium on tomatoes. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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8
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Ahmad NH, Marks BP, Ryser ET. Effect of Lactose and Milk Protein on Thermal Resistance of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 and Salmonella in Dairy Powders. J Food Prot 2022; 85:1865-1874. [PMID: 36173901 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-22-111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Microbial challenge studies using nonpathogenic surrogates provide a practical means for validating thermally based pathogen controls for low-moisture foods. Because the relative thermal resistance, or kill ratio, of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 (a nonpathogenic surrogate) to Salmonella is greatly influenced by food composition, this study assessed relative thermal resistance of a five-strain Salmonella cocktail and E. faecium in skim milk powder (SMP), lactose-free skim milk powder (LSMP), 90% milk protein isolate (MPI), and lactose powder (LP). The impact of sugar composition (lactose versus glucose-galactose) on resuscitation of bacterial survivors, by using SMP and LSMP, was also determined. Dairy powders were inoculated with agar-grown cultures, mixed, preequilibrated at 0.25 water activity (aw), ground to achieve homogeneity, reequilibrated, and subjected to isothermal treatment. After enumeration on nonselective differential media, log-linear and Bigelow models were fit to the survivor data via one-step global regression. The aw changes and glass transition temperature were assessed at elevated temperatures by using uninoculated, equilibrated powder samples. Estimated D90°C-values were approximately two times higher for E. faecium (P < 0.05) than for Salmonella in SMP, LP, and MPI, but statistically similar (P > 0.05) in LSMP. Addition of sugars to recovery media did not influence survivor resuscitation from heat-treated SMP and LSMP, confirming that microbial inactivation was impacted primarily by the thermal treatment, not the recovery step. Thermally induced changes in aw were seen only for LP and MPI, with the glass transition temperature observed only for SMP and MPI. In conclusion, rather than always requiring greater lethality of E. faecium than Salmonella, these findings suggest that sufficient pathogen controls for low-moisture foods can also be validated by thoroughly documenting the appropriate kill ratios of E. faecium to Salmonella. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Hawa Ahmad
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
| | - Bradley P Marks
- Department of Biosystem and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
| | - Elliot T Ryser
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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9
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Using E. coli population to predict foodborne pathogens in pastured poultry farms. Food Microbiol 2022; 108:104092. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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10
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Microbiological Testing by Industry of Ready-to-Eat Foods under FDA's Jurisdiction for Pathogens (or Appropriate Indicator Organisms): Verification of Preventive Controls. J Food Prot 2022; 85:1646-1666. [PMID: 36099067 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-22-143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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11
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Recent development in low-moisture foods: Microbial safety and thermal process. Food Res Int 2022; 155:111072. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Leonard SR, Simko I, Mammel MK, Richter TKS, Brandl MT. Seasonality, shelf life and storage atmosphere are main drivers of the microbiome and E. coli O157:H7 colonization of post-harvest lettuce cultivated in a major production area in California. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOME 2021; 16:25. [PMID: 34930479 PMCID: PMC8686551 DOI: 10.1186/s40793-021-00393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lettuce is linked to recurrent outbreaks of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infections, the seasonality of which remains unresolved. Infections have occurred largely from processed lettuce, which undergoes substantial physiological changes during storage. We investigated the microbiome and STEC O157:H7 (EcO157) colonization of fresh-cut lettuce of two cultivars with long and short shelf life harvested in the spring and fall in California and stored in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) at cold and warm temperatures. RESULTS Inoculated EcO157 declined significantly less on the cold-stored cultivar with short shelf life, while multiplying rapidly at 24 °C independently of cultivar. Metagenomic sequencing of the lettuce microbiome revealed that the pre-storage bacterial community was variable but dominated by species in the Erwiniaceae and Pseudomonadaceae. After cold storage, the microbiome composition differed between cultivars, with a greater relative abundance (RA) of Erwiniaceae and Yersiniaceae on the cultivar with short shelf life. Storage at 24 °C shifted the microbiome to higher RAs of Erwiniaceae and Enterobacteriaceae and lower RA of Pseudomonadaceae compared with 6 °C. Fall harvest followed by lettuce deterioration were identified by recursive partitioning as important factors associated with high EcO157 survival at 6 °C, whereas elevated package CO2 levels correlated with high EcO157 multiplication at 24 °C. EcO157 population change correlated with the lettuce microbiome during 6 °C storage, with fall microbiomes supporting the greatest EcO157 survival on both cultivars. Fall and spring microbiomes differed before and during storage at both temperatures. High representation of Pantoea agglomerans was a predictor of fall microbiomes, lettuce deterioration, and enhanced EcO157 survival at 6 °C. In contrast, higher RAs of Erwinia persicina, Rahnella aquatilis, and Serratia liquefaciens were biomarkers of spring microbiomes and lower EcO157 survival. CONCLUSIONS The microbiome of processed MAP lettuce evolves extensively during storage. Under temperature abuse, high CO2 promotes a lettuce microbiome enriched in taxa with anaerobic capability and EcO157 multiplication. In cold storage, our results strongly support a role for season and lettuce deterioration in EcO157 survival and microbiome composition, suggesting that the physiology and microbiomes of fall- and spring-harvested lettuce may contribute to the seasonality of STEC outbreaks associated with lettuce grown in coastal California.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Leonard
- Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Ivan Simko
- Crop Improvement and Protection Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Salinas, CA, USA
| | - Mark K Mammel
- Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Taylor K S Richter
- Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Maria T Brandl
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Albany, CA, USA.
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13
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Liu S, Wei X, Tang J, Qin W, Wu Q. Recent developments in low-moisture foods: microbial validation studies of thermal pasteurization processes. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021:1-16. [PMID: 34927484 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.2016601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks associated with low-moisture foods (e.g., wheat flour, nuts, and cereals) have urged the development of novel technologies and re-validation of legacy pasteurization process. For various thermal pasteurization processes, they share same scientific facts (e.g., bacterial heat resistance increased at reduced water activity) and guidelines. However, they also face specific challenges because of their different heat transfer mechanisms, processing conditions, or associated low-moisture foods' formulations. In this article, we first introduced the general structural for validating a thermal process and the shared basic information that would support our understanding of the key elements of each thermal process. Then, we reviewed the current progress of validation studies of 7 individual heating technologies (drying roasting, radiofrequency-assisted pasteurization, superheated steam, etc.) and the combined treatments (e.g., infrared and hot air). Last, we discussed knowledge gaps that require more scientific data in the future studies. We aimed to provide a process-centric view point of thermal pasteurization studies of low-moisture foods. The information could provide detailed protocol for process developers, operators, and managers to enhance low-moisture foods safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Food Processing and Safety, School of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinyao Wei
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Juming Tang
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Wen Qin
- Institute of Food Processing and Safety, School of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Sichuan, China
| | - Qingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou, China
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14
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Boix E, Couvert O, André S, Coroller L. The synergic interaction between environmental factors (pH and NaCl) and the physiological state (vegetative cells and spores) provides new possibilities for optimizing processes to manage risk of C. sporogenes spoilage. Food Microbiol 2021; 100:103832. [PMID: 34416948 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium sporogenes has been widely used as a surrogate for proteolytic C. botulinum for validating thermal processes in low-acid cans. To limit the intensity of heat treatments, industrials must use other ways of control as an association of acidic and saline environment after a low heat treatment. The probability of growth of pH (7-4.4), sodium chloride concentration (0-11%) and heat treatment (80°C-10 min; 100°C-1.5 min and 5.2 min) were studied on C. sporogenes PA 3679 spores and vegetative cells. Vegetative cells or heat-treated spores were inoculated in PYGm broth at 30 °C for 48 days in anaerobic conditions. Vegetative cells growth (pH 4.6-pH 4.5; 7%-8% NaCl) range is larger than the spore one (pH 5.2-pH 5.0; 6%-7% NaCl). Spores germination and outgrowth rage is decreased if the spores are heat-treated at 100 °C for 1.5 min (pH 5.5-5.3; 4%-5% NaCl) and 5.2 min (pH 5.7-5.3; 4%-5% NaCl). The C. sporogenes PA 3679 spores germination and outgrowth is impacted by their physiological state. The synergic interaction between environmental factors (pH and NaCl) and the physiological state (vegetative cells and spores) opening new possibilities for optimizing food formulation processes to manage the risks of C. sporogenes spoilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Boix
- Centre Technique pour la Conservation des Produits Agricoles, Unité Expertise dans la Maîtrise du Risque Industriel en Thermorésistants Sporulés (EMaiRITS), UMT Qualiveg 2, 449 avenue Clément-Ader, 84911, Avignon, France; Université de Brest, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, UMT19.03 ALTER'iX, 6 Rue de l'Université, 29000, Quimper, France
| | - Olivier Couvert
- Université de Brest, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, UMT19.03 ALTER'iX, 6 Rue de l'Université, 29000, Quimper, France
| | - Stéphane André
- Centre Technique pour la Conservation des Produits Agricoles, Unité Expertise dans la Maîtrise du Risque Industriel en Thermorésistants Sporulés (EMaiRITS), UMT Qualiveg 2, 449 avenue Clément-Ader, 84911, Avignon, France.
| | - Louis Coroller
- Université de Brest, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, UMT19.03 ALTER'iX, 6 Rue de l'Université, 29000, Quimper, France.
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15
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Bolten S, Gu G, Gulbronson C, Kramer M, Luo Y, Zografos A, Nou X. Evaluation of DNA barcode abiotic surrogate as a predictor for inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 during spinach washing. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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16
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Ballom K, Dhowlaghar N, Tsai HC, Yang R, Tang J, Zhu MJ. Radiofrequency pasteurization against Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes in cocoa powder. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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17
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Kothe CI, Laroche B, da Silva Malheiros P, Tondo EC. Modelling the growth of Staphylococcus aureus on cooked broccoli under isothermal conditions. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:1565-1571. [PMID: 34031846 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00482-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we developed predictive models describing the growth of Staphylococcus aureus on cooked broccoli florets. A pool of 3.5 log CFU/g of five S. aureus strains were inoculated on 10 g broccoli portions. The samples were then stored at 10, 20, 30 and 37 °C, and colonies were enumerated at different time intervals. Baranyi and Roberts model was fitted to the data using a Bayesian Adaptive Markov Chain Monte Carlo for estimation of the growth parameters. S. aureus showed low growth at 10 °C on broccoli samples and at 20-37 °C interval, Baranyi and Roberts model fitted well to the experimental data (R2>0.97). Estimated growth parameters were correlated with the possibility of toxin production and indicate the potential presence of these biological hazards on contaminated broccoli after heat treatment. Additionally, linear regression was performed for growth rate as storage temperature function. This secondary model followed a linear tendency with R2=0.997 and was compared with two tertiary models (ComBase Predictor and Pathogen Modeling Program) and literature data, demonstrating similar growth rate values of both. These results can be helpful for food services and managers to establish food safety standards for S. aureus growth on cooked broccoli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Isabel Kothe
- Department of Food Sciences, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. .,MICALIS-INRAE, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Béatrice Laroche
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, MaIAGE, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.,INRIA, Centre INRIA Saclay, Île-de-France, 91120, Palaiseau, France
| | - Patrícia da Silva Malheiros
- Department of Food Sciences, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Cesar Tondo
- Department of Food Sciences, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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18
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Parker E, Albers A, Mollenkopf D, Korec D, Mathys D, Stuever D, Wittum T. AmpC- and Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae Detected in Fresh Produce in Central Ohio. J Food Prot 2021; 84:920-925. [PMID: 33428740 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-20-347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Salad vegetables purchased from farmer's markets and grocery stores in central Ohio during the summers of 2015 and 2016 were tested for the presence of Enterobacteriaceae resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporins and carbapenems, Salmonella contamination, and coliform bacterial counts. A total of 364 samples were collected from 36 farmers' markets and 33 grocery stores. Using selective media, we found 23 (6.3%) samples that produced Enterobacteriaceae expressing an AmpC β-lactamase phenotype, with 11 (3.0%) confirmed to contain blaCMY and 6 (1.6%) that produced Enterobacteriaceae with an extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) phenotype, 1 (0.3%) of which was confirmed to contain blaCTX-M. All blaCMY and blaCTX-M strains were isolated from leafy greens. No Salmonella spp. or carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae were recovered from fresh produce samples. Adjusting for year, the geometric mean coliform count differed (P < 0.05) between produce types, with the count in tomatoes (15 CFU/mL) being lower than those in cucumbers (77.4 CFU/mL) and leafy greens (75.0 CFU/mL). The coliform counts also differed (P < 0.05) between years, with 19.6 CFU/mL in 2015 and 96.0 CFU/mL in 2016. There was no difference in coliform counts or the prevalences of Enterobacteriaceae expressing AmpC or ESBL phenotypes in produce purchased from farmers' markets and grocery stores. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Parker
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Amy Albers
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Dixie Mollenkopf
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Daniela Korec
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Dimitria Mathys
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - David Stuever
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Thomas Wittum
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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19
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Dhowlaghar N, Zhu MJ. Control of Salmonella in low-moisture foods: Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for thermal and non-thermal validation. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5886-5902. [PMID: 33798006 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1895055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella has been implicated in multiple foodborne outbreaks and recalls associated with low water activity foods (LawF). To verify the effectiveness of a process against Salmonella in LawF, validation using a nonpathogenic surrogate strain is essential. Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 strain has been used as a potential surrogate of Salmonella in different processing of LawF. However, the survival of Salmonella and E. faecium in LawF during food processing is a dynamic function of aw, food composition and structure, processing techniques, and other factors. This review assessed pertinent literature on the thermal and non-thermal inactivation of Salmonella and its presumable surrogate E. faecium in various LawF and provided an overview of its suitibility in different LawF. Overall, based on the D-values, survival/reduction, temperature/time to obtain 4 or 5-log reductions, most studies concluded that E. faecium is a suitable surrogate of Salmonella during LawF processing as its magnitude of resistance was slightly greater or equal (i.e., statistical similar) as compared to Salmonella. Studies also showed its unsuitability which either does not provide a proper margin of safety or being overly resistant and may compromise the quality and organoleptic properties of food. This review provides useful information and guidance for future validation studies of LawF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitin Dhowlaghar
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Mei-Jun Zhu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
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20
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Harrand AS, Guariglia-Oropeza V, Skeens J, Kent D, Wiedmann M. Nature versus Nurture: Assessing the Impact of Strain Diversity and Pregrowth Conditions on Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, and Listeria Species Growth and Survival on Selected Produce Items. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e01925-20. [PMID: 33397695 PMCID: PMC8105001 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01925-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Inoculation studies are important when assessing microbial survival and growth in food products. These studies typically involve the pregrowth of multiple strains of a target pathogen under a single condition; this emphasizes strain diversity. To gain a better understanding of the impacts of strain diversity ("nature") and pregrowth conditions ("nurture") on subsequent bacterial growth in foods, we assessed the growth and survival of Salmonella enterica (n = 5), Escherichia coli (n = 6), and Listeria (n = 5) inoculated onto tomatoes, precut lettuce, and cantaloupe rind, respectively. Pregrowth conditions included (i) 37°C to stationary phase (baseline), (ii) low pH, (iii) high salt, (iv) reduced water activity, (v) log phase, (vi) minimal medium, and (vii) 21°C. Inoculated tomatoes were incubated at 21°C; lettuce and cantaloupe were incubated at 7°C. Bacterial counts were assessed over three phases, including initial reduction (phase 1), change in bacterial numbers over the first 24 h of incubation (phase 2), and change over the 7-day incubation (phase 3). E. coli showed overall decline in counts (<1 log) over the 7-day period, except for a <1-log increase after pregrowth in high salt and to mid-log phase. In contrast, S. enterica and Listeria showed regrowth after an initial reduction. Pregrowth conditions had a substantial and significant effect on all three phases of S. enterica and E. coli population dynamics on inoculated produce, whereas strain did not show a significant effect. For Listeria, both pregrowth conditions and strain affected changes in phase 2 but not phases 1 and 3.IMPORTANCE Our findings suggest that inclusion of multiple pregrowth conditions in inoculation studies can best capture the range of growth and survival patterns expected for Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli present on produce. This is particularly important for fresh and fresh-cut produce, where stress conditions encountered by pathogens prior to contamination can vary widely, making selection of a typical pregrowth condition virtually impossible. Pathogen growth and survival data generated using multiple pregrowth conditions will allow for more robust microbial risk assessments that account more accurately for uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jordan Skeens
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - David Kent
- Department of Statistical Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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21
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Plant-Scale Validation of Physical Heat Treatment of Poultry Litter Composts Using Surrogate and Indicator Microorganisms for Salmonella. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.02234-20. [PMID: 33355103 PMCID: PMC8090882 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02234-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study selected and used indicator and surrogate microorganisms for Salmonella to validate the processes for physically heat-treated poultry litter compost in litter processing plants. Initially laboratory validation studies indicated that 1.2- to 2.7-log or more reductions of desiccation-adapted Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 were equivalent to > 5-log reductions of desiccation-adapted Salmonella Senftenberg 775/W in poultry litter compost, depending on treatment conditions and compost types. Plant validation studies were performed in one turkey litter compost processor and one laying hen litter compost processor. E. faecium was inoculated at ca.7 log CFU g-1 into the turkey litter compost and at ca. 5 log CFU g-1 into laying hen litter compost with respectively targeted moisture contents. The thermal processes in the two plants yielded 2.8 - > 6.4 log CFU g-1 (> 99.86%) reductions E. faecium of the inoculated. Similarly, for the processing control samples, reductions of presumptive indigenous enterococci were in the order of 1.8-3.7 log CFU g-1 (98.22% to 99.98%) of the total naturally present. In contrast, there were less reductions of indigenous mesophiles (1.7-2.9 log CFU) and thermophiles (0.4-3.2 log CFU g-1). More indigenous enterococci were inactivated in the presence of higher moisture in the poultry litter compost. Based on the data collected under the laboratory conditions, the processing conditions in both plants were adequate to reduce any potential Salmonella contamination of processed poultry litter compost by at least 5 logs, even though the processing conditions varied among trials and plants.IMPORTANCE Poultry litter compost, commonly used as a biological soil amendment, is subjected to a physical heat-treatment in industry setting to reduce pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and produce a dry product. According to the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) Produce Safety Rule, the thermal process for poultry litter compost should be scientifically validated to satisfy the microbial standard requirement. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first validation study in commercial poultry litter compost processing plants, and our results indicated that Salmonella levels, if present, could be reduced by at least 5 logs based on the reductions of surrogate and indicator microorganisms, even though the processing conditions in these commercial plants varied greatly. Furthermore, both indicator and surrogate microorganisms along with the custom-designed sampler can serve as practical tools for poultry litter compost processors to routinely monitor or validate their thermal processes without introducing pathogens into the industrial environments.
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22
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Mohamed RM, Ali MR, Smuda SS, Abedelmaksoud TG. Utilization of sugarcane bagasse aqueous extract as a natural preservative to extend the shelf life of refrigerated fresh meat. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1981-6723.16720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract This study aimed to investigate the extraction of total phenolic compounds of sugarcane bagasse using various solvents. In addition, the Sugarcane Bagasse Water Extract (SBWE) was used in refrigerated fresh meat as natural preservative. The fresh meat was dipped into water solutions containing various phenolic compounds concentrations (T1:125, T2:250 and T3:500 ppm). During 10 days of storage at 4 °C for all the treated samples were compared with untreated one. The results revealed that SBWE showed relevant values of total phenolic compounds (17.90 mg/g) and total flavonoids content (4.50 mg/g), as well as 45.90% of antioxidant content. On the other hand, microbiological examination and sensory evaluation have turned out to be the best treatment for T3:500 ppm. The SBWE showed an antibacterial impact on Staphylococcus sp. and a reduction in the Total Plate Count and in the group of Psychrotrophs. The shelf-life of refrigerated fresh meat treated with SBWE by dipping it into water solutions was also extended to more than 10 days.
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23
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Zhu MJ, Shen X, Sheng L, Mendoza M, Hanrahan I. Validation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes on fresh apples during pilot spray-bar peroxyacetic acid intervention. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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24
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Weller DL, Love TMT, Belias A, Wiedmann M. Predictive Models May Complement or Provide an Alternative to Existing Strategies for Assessing the Enteric Pathogen Contamination Status of Northeastern Streams Used to Provide Water for Produce Production. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2020; 4. [PMID: 33791594 PMCID: PMC8009603 DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.561517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
While the Food Safety Modernization Act established standards for the use of surface water for produce production, water quality is known to vary over space and time. Targeted approaches for identifying hazards in water that account for this variation may improve growers’ ability to address pre-harvest food safety risks. Models that utilize publicly-available data (e.g., land-use, real-time weather) may be useful for developing these approaches. The objective of this study was to use pre-existing datasets collected in 2017 (N = 181 samples) and 2018 (N = 191 samples) to train and test models that predict the likelihood of detecting Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli markers (eaeA, stx) in agricultural water. Four types of features were used to train the models: microbial, physicochemical, spatial and weather. “Full models” were built using all four features types, while “nested models” were built using between one and three types. Twenty learners were used to develop separate full models for each pathogen. Separately, to assess information gain associated with using different feature types, six learners were randomly selected and used to develop nine, nested models each. Performance measures for each model were then calculated and compared against baseline models where E. coli concentration was the sole covariate. In the methods, we outline the advantages and disadvantages of each learner. Overall, full models built using ensemble (e.g., Node Harvest) and “black-box” (e.g., SVMs) learners out-performed full models built using more interpretable learners (e.g., tree- and rule-based learners) for both outcomes. However, nested eaeA-stx models built using interpretable learners and microbial data performed almost as well as these full models. While none of the nested Salmonella models performed as well as the full models, nested models built using spatial data consistently out-performed models that excluded spatial data. These findings demonstrate that machine learning approaches can be used to predict when and where pathogens are likely to be present in agricultural water. This study serves as a proof-of-concept that can be built upon once larger datasets become available and provides guidance on the learner-data combinations that should be the foci of future efforts (e.g., tree-based microbial models for pathogenic E. coli).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Weller
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States.,Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Tanzy M T Love
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Alexandra Belias
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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25
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Screening of non-pathogenic surrogates of Listeria monocytogenes applicable for chemical antimicrobial interventions of fresh apples. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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26
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Zhou Z, Zuber S, Campagnoli M, Moser M, Devlieghere F, Uyttendaele M. Decontamination effect of hot-air drying against bacterial pathogen and surrogate strains on basil leaves, from laboratory to pilot scale settings. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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27
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Weller D, Brassill N, Rock C, Ivanek R, Mudrak E, Roof S, Ganda E, Wiedmann M. Complex Interactions Between Weather, and Microbial and Physicochemical Water Quality Impact the Likelihood of Detecting Foodborne Pathogens in Agricultural Water. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:134. [PMID: 32117154 PMCID: PMC7015975 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Agricultural water is an important source of foodborne pathogens on produce farms. Managing water-associated risks does not lend itself to one-size-fits-all approaches due to the heterogeneous nature of freshwater environments. To improve our ability to develop location-specific risk management practices, a study was conducted in two produce-growing regions to (i) characterize the relationship between Escherichia coli levels and pathogen presence in agricultural water, and (ii) identify environmental factors associated with pathogen detection. Three AZ and six NY waterways were sampled longitudinally using 10-L grab samples (GS) and 24-h Moore swabs (MS). Regression showed that the likelihood of Salmonella detection (Odds Ratio [OR] = 2.18), and eaeA-stx codetection (OR = 6.49) was significantly greater for MS compared to GS, while the likelihood of detecting L. monocytogenes was not. Regression also showed that eaeA-stx codetection in AZ (OR = 50.2) and NY (OR = 18.4), and Salmonella detection in AZ (OR = 4.4) were significantly associated with E. coli levels, while Salmonella detection in NY was not. Random forest analysis indicated that interactions between environmental factors (e.g., rainfall, temperature, turbidity) (i) were associated with likelihood of pathogen detection and (ii) mediated the relationship between E. coli levels and likelihood of pathogen detection. Our findings suggest that (i) environmental heterogeneity, including interactions between factors, affects microbial water quality, and (ii) E. coli levels alone may not be a suitable indicator of food safety risks. Instead, targeted methods that utilize environmental and microbial data (e.g., models that use turbidity and E. coli levels to predict when there is a high or low risk of surface water being contaminated by pathogens) are needed to assess and mitigate the food safety risks associated with preharvest water use. By identifying environmental factors associated with an increased likelihood of detecting pathogens in agricultural water, this study provides information that (i) can be used to assess when pathogen contamination of agricultural water is likely to occur, and (ii) facilitate development of targeted interventions for individual water sources, providing an alternative to existing one-size-fits-all approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Weller
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Natalie Brassill
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Maricopa, AZ, United States
| | - Channah Rock
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Maricopa, AZ, United States
| | - Renata Ivanek
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Erika Mudrak
- Cornell Statistical Consulting Unit, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Sherry Roof
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Erika Ganda
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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28
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Inactivation of parasite transmission stages: Efficacy of treatments on foods of non-animal origin. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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Cernicchiaro N, Oliveira ARS, Hoehn A, Cull CA, Noll LW, Shridhar PB, Nagaraja TG, Ives SE, Renter DG, Sanderson MW. Quantification of Bacteria Indicative of Fecal and Environmental Contamination from Hides to Carcasses. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2019; 16:844-855. [PMID: 31381377 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2019.2656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fecal bacteria, which reside in the gastrointestinal tract of cattle, can contaminate beef carcasses during processing. In beef cattle slaughter plants, the presence and concentrations of generic Escherichia coli, coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae (EB), and total aerobic bacteria are monitored as indicator organisms of fecal and environmental contamination. The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to determine the concentrations of generic E. coli, coliforms, EB, and aerobic bacteria on beef carcasses at different processing points in Midwestern commercial beef slaughter plants during the summer, spring, and fall seasons; and (2) to estimate bacterial transfer on carcasses during the hide removal and evisceration processes. Hide and carcass surface sample swabs were collected from slaughtered cattle at four large commercial processing plants. At each plant visit (3 visits to each of the 4 plants) and during 3 seasons, 20 samples were collected at 5 points: hide-on (hide of animal near exsanguination pit), hide-off carcass, pre-evisceration carcass, postevisceration carcass, and postintervention carcass, for a total of 3600 samples. Bacterial concentrations were determined using 3M™ Petrifilm™ plates. Associations between season and processing plant with concentrations of E. coli, coliforms, EB, and total aerobic bacteria, overall, between hide-on and hide-off, and between pre- and post-evisceration, were evaluated using multilevel mixed-effects linear regression models. Bacterial concentrations on beef carcasses significantly decreased throughout processing. Moreover, hide removal was an important source of carcass contamination, given bacterial concentrations detected on hide-off carcass samples were the highest, and bearing in mind that carcass muscle surfaces should be sterile. Results from this study indicate that the interventions applied by the processing plants were effective, as they probably contributed to the significant reduction of bacterial concentrations of carcasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Cernicchiaro
- Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Ana R S Oliveira
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Allison Hoehn
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Charley A Cull
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Lance W Noll
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Pragathi Belagola Shridhar
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Tiruvoor G Nagaraja
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Samuel E Ives
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, West Texas A&M University, Canyon, Texas
| | - David G Renter
- Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Michael W Sanderson
- Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
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Ozturk S, Liu S, Xu J, Tang J, Chen J, Singh RK, Kong F. Inactivation of Salmonella Enteritidis and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 in corn flour by radio frequency heating with subsequent freezing. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.04.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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31
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Reduction of Escherichia coli, as a surrogate for Salmonella spp., on the surface of grapefruit during various packingline processes. Food Microbiol 2019; 78:188-193. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Huvarova V, Kralik P, Vasickova P, Kubankova M, Verbikova V, Slany M, Babak V, Moravkova M. Tracing of Selected Viral, Bacterial, and Parasitic Agents on Vegetables and Herbs Originating from Farms and Markets. J Food Sci 2018; 83:3044-3053. [PMID: 30462845 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.14385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Fresh vegetables and herbs are usually prepared and eaten raw without cooking or heating, which leads to a high risk of foodborne infection. The aim of the present study was to assess the contamination of raw vegetables, herbs, and the environment of food chains. Vegetable and herb samples originating both from the Czech Republic as well as from other countries were examined. The work was focused on the detection of commonly found, but also less frequently monitored foodborne pathogens, including viruses of the genus Norovirus (NoVs), hepatitis A virus (HAV), Listeria monocytogenes and Cronobacter spp. bacteria, and the parasites Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis. All samples were analyzed using individual RT-qPCR/qPCR assays; bacterial pathogens were also simultaneously detected using culture methods. The prevalence of the studied microorganisms in 623 samples ranged from 0.6% to 44.3% for individual pathogens. None of the samples were positive for the presence of HAV. Analysis of 157 environmental samples from 12 farms revealed the presence of NoVs in the environment of four farms. NoVs were detected in water samples as well as on the hands and gloves of workers. Escherichia coli was detected in all farms in the environmental samples and in eight farms in water samples. However, no sample of water exceeded the level of 100 CFU/mL for E. coli. None of the samples of water were positive for the presence of the studied parasites. Vegetables and herbs available from Czech markets and farms may pose a certain risk of foodborne disease, especially in the case of NoVs and parasites. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study provides valuable information on the microbiological quality of raw vegetables and herbs available from Czech markets and farms. Good hygienic practices aimed at reducing the incidence of pathogenic agents on fresh produce should not be neglected. Emphasis should be placed on the control of irrigation water, especially with respect to norovirus contamination. It is appropriate to combine culture methods and qPCR methods for the detection of bacterial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Huvarova
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,Dept. of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk Univ. Brno, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00, Brno Bohunice, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kralik
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Vasickova
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Kubankova
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Verbikova
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Slany
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Babak
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Moravkova
- Dept. of Food and Feed Safety, Veterinary Research Inst., Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
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34
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Ghadirzad S, Yavarmanesh M, Habibi Najafi MB. Survival of male-specific coliphage (MS2) as a surrogate for enteric viruses in the production process of traditional ice cream. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Ghadirzad
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
| | - Masoud Yavarmanesh
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
| | - Mohammad B. Habibi Najafi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
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35
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Redemann MA, Brar J, Niebuhr SE, Lucia LM, Acuff GR, Dickson JS, Singh M. Evaluation of thermal process lethality for non-pathogenic Escherichia coli as a surrogate for Salmonella in ground beef. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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36
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Partyka ML, Bond RF, Chase JA, Atwill ER. Spatial and temporal variability of bacterial indicators and pathogens in six California reservoirs during extreme drought. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 129:436-446. [PMID: 29179123 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
California has one of the largest systems of surface water reservoirs in the world, providing irrigation water to California's agriculturally productive Central Valley. Irrigation water is recognized as a vehicle for the microbial contamination of raw produce and must be monitored according to new federal regulation. The purpose of this study was to further understanding of the variability of fecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and fecal coliforms) and pathogens (E. coli O157:H7 (O157), non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and Salmonella) along both horizontal and vertical profiles within California reservoirs. Monthly sampling was conducted in six reservoirs located in the foothills of the Western Sierra Nevada during the summer irrigation season and extreme drought conditions of 2014 (n = 257). Concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria were highly variable between reservoirs (p < 0.05) and along the horizontal profile (p < 0.001) from upstream to downstream, with higher concentrations typically found outside of the reservoirs than within. Though many of the reservoirs were thermally stratified, bacterial concentrations were not associated with water temperature (p > 0.05) or any one particular depth strata (p < 0.05). However, prevalence of Salmonella and STEC (16/70 and 9/70 respectively) was higher in the deep strata than in mid or surface layers. We found no statistical association between samples collected downstream of reservoirs and those from the reservoirs themselves. Continued monitoring and modeling of both bacterial indicators and enteric pathogens are critical to our ability to estimate the risk of surface irrigation water supplies and make appropriate management decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Partyka
- Western Center for Food Safety, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA.
| | - Ronald F Bond
- Western Center for Food Safety, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Jennifer A Chase
- Western Center for Food Safety, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Edward R Atwill
- Western Center for Food Safety, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
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37
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Menéndez RA, Rendueles E, Sanz JJ, Santos JA, García-Fernández MC. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of diverse Spanish cured meat products. CYTA - JOURNAL OF FOOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2017.1379560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosa A. Menéndez
- ICTAL, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (Institute of Food Science and Technology), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Eugenia Rendueles
- ICTAL, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (Institute of Food Science and Technology), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - José J. Sanz
- ICTAL, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (Institute of Food Science and Technology), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Jesús A. Santos
- Departamento de Higiene y Tecnología de los Alimentos (Department of Hygiene and Food Technology), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - María C. García-Fernández
- ICTAL, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (Institute of Food Science and Technology), Universidad de León, León, Spain
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38
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Ricci A, Allende A, Bolton D, Chemaly M, Davies R, Fernández Escámez PS, Girones R, Herman L, Koutsoumanis K, Lindqvist R, Robertson L, Ru G, Sanaa M, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Snary E, Speybroeck N, Ter Kuile B, Threlfall J, Wahlström H, Andersen JK, Uyttendaele M, Valero A, Da Silva Felício MT, Messens W, Nørrung B. Guidance on the requirements for the development of microbiological criteria. EFSA J 2017; 15:e05052. [PMID: 32625345 PMCID: PMC7010099 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.5052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Food Safety Authority asked the Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ) to deliver a scientific opinion providing: (i) a review of the approaches used by the BIOHAZ Panel to address requests from risk managers to suggest the establishment of microbiological criteria; (ii) guidance on the required scientific evidence, data and methods/tools necessary for considering the development of microbiological criteria for pathogenic microorganisms and indicator microorganisms; (iii) recommendations on methods/tools to design microbiological criteria and (iv) guidelines for the requirements and tasks of risk assessors, compared to risk managers, in relation to microbiological criteria. This document provides guidance on approaches when: (i) a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is available, (ii) prevalence and concentration data are available, but not a QMRA model, and (iii) neither a QMRA nor prevalence and/or concentration data are available. The role of risk assessors should be focused on assessing the impact of different microbiological criteria on public health and on product compliance. It is the task of the risk managers to: (1) formulate unambiguous questions, preferably in consultation with risk assessors, (2) decide on the establishment of a microbiological criterion, or target in primary production sectors, and to formulate the specific intended purpose for using such criteria, (3) consider the uncertainties in impact assessments on public health and on product compliance and (4) decide the point in the food chain where the microbiological criteria are intended to be applied and decide on the actions which should be taken in case of non‐compliance. It is the task of the risk assessors to support risk managers to ensure that questions are formulated in a way that a precise answer can be given, if sufficient information is available, and to ensure clear and unambiguous answers, including the assessment of uncertainties, based on available scientific evidence.
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Shazer A, Stewart D, Deng K, Tortorello M. Approaches toward Identification of Surrogates To Validate Antimicrobial Washes as Preventive Controls for Fresh-Cut Leafy Greens. J Food Prot 2017; 80:1600-1604. [PMID: 28853631 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In fresh-cut produce production, antimicrobials may be used during washing to control the risk of cross-contamination by microbial hazards. Surrogate microorganisms have long been used to validate processes, but none have been identified for validating the efficacy of antimicrobial washing of fresh-cut produce. The objective of this study was to develop procedures by which surrogates may be identified for use in validating the control of cross-contamination for fresh-cut lettuce operations. Four microbial characteristics, which may be important factors in cross-contamination events, were quantitatively evaluated in potential surrogate microorganisms for comparison to a reasonably foreseeable hazard, Escherichia coli O157:H7: sensitivity to chlorine in solution, sensitivity to chlorine on lettuce leaf surfaces, shedding from contaminated lettuce leaves into the water during washing, and cross-contamination from inoculated to uninoculated lettuce leaves during chorine washing. A procedure of practical quantitative experiments for comparing the characteristics reduced the original pool of 80 potential strains, which consisted of lactic acid bacteria, probiotics, and isolates obtained from lettuce enrichment cultures, to five strains: Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus, probiotic 22C, and two lettuce enrichment isolates. These strains may be evaluated in additional studies involving comparisons to other reasonably foreseeable hazards and including other potential process variables that should be understood and controlled to prevent cross-contamination in fresh-cut lettuce operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Shazer
- 1 U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, Illinois Institute of Technology, 6502 South Archer Road, Bedford Park, Illinois 60501, USA
| | - D Stewart
- 1 U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, Illinois Institute of Technology, 6502 South Archer Road, Bedford Park, Illinois 60501, USA
| | - K Deng
- 2 Institute for Food Safety and Health, Illinois Institute of Technology, 6502 South Archer Road, Bedford Park, Illinois 60501, USA
| | - M Tortorello
- 1 U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, Illinois Institute of Technology, 6502 South Archer Road, Bedford Park, Illinois 60501, USA
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40
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Hu M, Gurtler JB. Selection of Surrogate Bacteria for Use in Food Safety Challenge Studies: A Review. J Food Prot 2017; 80:1506-1536. [PMID: 28805457 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Nonpathogenic surrogate bacteria are prevalently used in a variety of food challenge studies in place of foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Clostridium botulinum because of safety and sanitary concerns. Surrogate bacteria should have growth characteristics and/or inactivation kinetics similar to those of target pathogens under given conditions in challenge studies. It is of great importance to carefully select and validate potential surrogate bacteria when verifying microbial inactivation processes. A validated surrogate responds similar to the targeted pathogen when tested for inactivation kinetics, growth parameters, or survivability under given conditions in agreement with appropriate statistical analyses. However, a considerable number of food studies involving putative surrogate bacteria lack convincing validation sources or adequate validation processes. Most of the validation information for surrogates in these studies is anecdotal and has been collected from previous publications but may not be sufficient for given conditions in the study at hand. This review is limited to an overview of select studies and discussion of the general criteria and approaches for selecting potential surrogate bacteria under given conditions. The review also includes a list of documented bacterial pathogen surrogates and their corresponding food products and treatments to provide guidance for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyi Hu
- 1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 19038-8551.,2 Department of Culinary Arts and Food Science, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-30, USA
| | - Joshua B Gurtler
- 1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 19038-8551
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41
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Emmoth E, Rovira J, Rajkovic A, Corcuera E, Wilches Pérez D, Dergel I, Ottoson JR, Widén F. Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteriophages as Models for Swine Hepatitis E Virus in Food Matrices. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:20-34. [PMID: 27783334 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9268-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus has been recognised as a food-borne virus hazard in pork products, due to its zoonotic properties. This risk can be reduced by adequate treatment of the food to inactivate food-borne viruses. We used a spectrum of viruses and bacteriophages to evaluate the effect of three food treatments: high pressure processing (HPP), lactic acid (LA) and intense light pulse (ILP) treatments. On swine liver at 400 MPa for 10 min, HPP gave log10 reductions of ≥4.2, ≥5.0 and 3.4 for feline calicivirus (FCV) 2280, FCV wildtype (wt) and murine norovirus 1 (MNV 1), respectively. Escherichia coli coliphage ϕX174 displayed a lower reduction of 1.1, while Escherichia coli coliphage MS2 was unaffected. For ham at 600 MPa, the corresponding reductions were 4.1, 4.4, 2.9, 1.7 and 1.3 log10. LA treatment at 2.2 M gave log10 reductions in the viral spectrum of 0.29-2.1 for swine liver and 0.87-3.1 for ham, with ϕX174 and MNV 1, respectively, as the most stable microorganisms. The ILP treatment gave log10 reductions of 1.6-2.8 for swine liver, 0.97-2.2 for ham and 1.3-2.3 for sausage, at 15-60 J cm-2, with MS2 as the most stable microorganism. The HPP treatment gave significantly (p < 0.05) greater virus reduction on swine liver than ham for the viruses at equivalent pressure/time combinations. For ILP treatment, reductions on swine liver were significantly (p < 0.05) greater than on ham for all microorganisms. The results presented here could be used in assessments of different strategies to protect consumers against virus contamination and in advice to food producers. Conservative model indicators for the pathogenic viruses could be suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Emmoth
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89, Uppsala, Sweden.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Jordi Rovira
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Pza. Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001, Burgos, Spain
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Food2Know, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Food Safety and Quality Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade University, Nemanjina 6, Zemun-Belgrade, 11080, Serbia
| | - Elena Corcuera
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Pza. Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001, Burgos, Spain
| | - Diego Wilches Pérez
- Hiperbaric España Polígono Industrial Villalonquéjar, C/Condado de Treviño, 6, 09001, Burgos, Spain
| | - Irene Dergel
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jakob R Ottoson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Risk-Benefit Analysis, National Food Agency, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Frederik Widén
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Choi J, Park SY, Hong J, Kim S, Kim YG. Detection of Surrogate Cells Presenting Vaccinia Virus Protein by DNA Aptamers. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.11038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jinhyuk Choi
- Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon 440-746 Korea
| | - So-Young Park
- Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon 440-746 Korea
| | - Jipyo Hong
- Nanobiotechnology Lab; Dongguk University; Goyang-si 10362 Korea
| | - Soyoun Kim
- Nanobiotechnology Lab; Dongguk University; Goyang-si 10362 Korea
| | - Yang-Gyun Kim
- Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon 440-746 Korea
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43
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Villarreal-Silva M, Genho DP, Ilhak I, Lucia LM, Dickson JS, Gehring KB, Savell JW, Castillo A. Tracing Surrogates for Enteric Pathogens Inoculated on Hide through the Beef Harvesting Process. J Food Prot 2016; 79:1860-1867. [PMID: 28221906 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Multiple antimicrobial interventions have been validated for use during the beef postharvesting process. However, little has been done to determine the impact of the postharvest environment on pathogen contamination. In this study, surrogate microorganisms were used to simulate pathogen cross-contamination through the postharvest environment at three different abattoirs. At each abattoir, the brisket areas of 13 hide-on carcasses were inoculated after stunning, with a gelatin slurry containing a cocktail (~7 log CFU/ml) of fluorescent Escherichia coli biotype I. These microorganisms are approved as surrogates for E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella . From these carcasses, samples (300 cm2) were taken at different stages during the harvesting process: after hide opening, prior to evisceration, after evisceration, after splitting, and after final intervention. The carcass (noninoculated) immediately following (adjacent to) each hide-inoculated carcass was also tested to determine cross-contamination. Environmental (floor, walls, air) and personal garment (gloves, boots, aprons) samples were collected. Other sampled equipment included knives, meat hooks, hide pullers, and splitting saws. Results demonstrated that cross-contamination occurred between the inoculated hide and the carcass and also by transfer of microorganisms to the adjacent, noninoculated carcasses. Microbial transfer also occurred from hides or carcasses to the environment, personal garments, and equipment. Counts of the surrogate bacteria used were higher in equipment samples (15%) than in environment samples (10%). Personal garments had the lowest occurrence of cross-contamination (7%). For all abattoirs, surrogates were undetected on the carcass (<1.4 log CFU/300cm2) after the final intervention stage. This study confirms the importance of following adequate procedures for carcass dressing and highlights an adequate hide opening procedure as a crucial step to prevent carcass contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Villarreal-Silva
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - Daniel P Genho
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - Irfan Ilhak
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - Lisa M Lucia
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - James S Dickson
- 215F Meat Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-3150, USA
| | - Kerri B Gehring
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - Jeffrey W Savell
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
| | - Alejandro Castillo
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Animal Science, Texas Agrilife Research, Texas A&M University, 2471 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-2471
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Martin NH, Trmčić A, Hsieh TH, Boor KJ, Wiedmann M. The Evolving Role of Coliforms As Indicators of Unhygienic Processing Conditions in Dairy Foods. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1549. [PMID: 27746769 PMCID: PMC5043024 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Testing for coliforms has a long history in the dairy industry and has helped to identify raw milk and dairy products that may have been exposed to unsanitary conditions. Coliform standards are included in a number of regulatory documents (e.g., the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance). As a consequence, detection above a threshold of members of this method-defined, but diverse, group of bacteria can result in a wide range of regulatory outcomes. Coliforms are defined as aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, Gram negative, non-sporeforming rods capable of fermenting lactose to produce gas and acid within 48 h at 32-35°C; 19 genera currently include at least some strains that represent coliforms. Most bacterial genera that comprise the coliform group (e.g., Escherichia, Klebsiella, and Serratia) are within the family Enterobacteriaceae, while at least one genus with strains recognized as coliforms, Aeromonas, is in the family Aeromonadaceae. The presence of coliforms has long been thought to indicate fecal contamination, however, recent discoveries regarding this diverse group of bacteria indicates that only a fraction are fecal in origin, while the majority are environmental contaminants. In the US dairy industry in particular, testing for coliforms as indicators of unsanitary conditions and post-processing contamination is widespread. While coliforms are easily and rapidly detected, and are not found in pasteurized dairy products that have not been exposed to post-processing contamination, advances in knowledge of bacterial populations most commonly associated with post-processing contamination in dairy foods has led to questions regarding the utility of coliforms as indicators of unsanitary conditions for dairy products. For example, Pseudomonas spp. frequently contaminate dairy products after pasteurization, yet they are not detected by coliform tests. This review will address the role that coliforms play in raw and finished dairy products, their sources and the future of this diverse group as indicator organisms in dairy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole H. Martin
- Milk Quality Improvement Program, Department of Food Science, Cornell UniversityIthaca, NY, USA
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Development of an Avirulent Salmonella Surrogate for Modeling Pathogen Behavior in Pre- and Postharvest Environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:4100-4111. [PMID: 27129962 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00898-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Recurrent outbreaks of bacterial gastroenteritis linked to the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables highlight the paucity of understanding of the ecology of Salmonella enterica under crop production and postharvest conditions. These gaps in knowledge are due, at least in part, to the lack of suitable surrogate organisms for studies for which biosafety level 2 is problematic. Therefore, we constructed and validated an avirulent strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The strain lacks major Salmonella pathogenicity islands SPI-1, SPI-2, SPI-3, SPI-4, and SPI-5 as well as the virulence plasmid pSLT. Deletions and the absence of genomic rearrangements were confirmed by genomic sequencing, and the surrogate behaved like the parental wild-type strain on selective media. A loss-of-function (phoN) selective marker allowed the differentiation of this strain from wild-type strains on a medium containing a chromogenic substrate for alkaline phosphatase. Lack of virulence was confirmed by oral infection of female BALB/c mice. The strain persisted in tomatoes, cantaloupes, leafy greens, and soil with the same kinetics as the parental wild-type and selected outbreak strains, and it reached similar final population levels. The responses of this strain to heat treatment and disinfectants were similar to those of the wild type, supporting its potential as a surrogate for future studies on the ecology and survival of Salmonella in production and processing environments. IMPORTANCE There is significant interest in understanding the ecology of human pathogens in environments outside of their animal hosts, including the crop production environment. However, manipulative field experiments with virulent human pathogens are unlikely to receive regulatory approval due to the obvious risks. Therefore, we constructed an avirulent strain of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium and characterized it extensively.
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Effect of market channel, farm scale, and years in production on mid-Atlantic vegetable producers' knowledge and implementation of Good Agricultural Practices. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Bozkurt H, D'Souza DH, Davidson PM. Thermal Inactivation of Foodborne Enteric Viruses and Their Viral Surrogates in Foods. J Food Prot 2015; 78:1597-617. [PMID: 26219377 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne viruses, in particular human norovirus and hepatitis A virus, are the most common causes of food-associated infections and foodborne illness outbreaks around the world. Since it is currently not possible to cultivate human noroviruses and the wild-type strain of hepatitis A virus in vitro, the use of a variety of viral surrogates is essential to determine appropriate thermal processing conditions to reduce the risk associated with their contamination of food. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to (i) present pertinent characteristics of enteric foodborne viruses and their viral surrogates, (ii) discuss the viral surrogates currently used in thermal inactivation studies and their significance and value, (iii) summarize available data on thermal inactivation kinetics of enteric viruses, (iv) discuss factors affecting the efficacy of thermal treatment, (v) discuss suggested mechanisms of thermal inactivation, and (vi) provide insights on foodborne enteric viruses and viral surrogates for future studies and industrial applications. The overall goal of this review is to contribute to the development of appropriate thermal processing protocols to ensure safe food for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayriye Bozkurt
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA
| | - Doris H D'Souza
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA
| | - P Michael Davidson
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA.
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Surrogate organisms for pathogenic O157:H7 and non-O157 Escherichia coli strains for apple juice treatments by UV-C light at three monochromatic wavelengths. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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49
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Characterisation of non-toxigenic Clostridium spp. strains, to use as surrogates for non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum in chilled food challenge testing. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 108:83-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2014.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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50
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Ahn J, Balasubramaniam BVM. Inactivation kinetics and injury recovery of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens spores in low-acid foods during pressure-assisted thermal processing. Food Sci Biotechnol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10068-014-0253-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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