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Terada K, Furumoto C, Nishimura T, Hirayama A, Takami Y. The development of extremely large male genitalia under spatial limitation. Evol Dev 2024; 26:e12488. [PMID: 38927009 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Extensive research in evolutionary biology has focused on the exaggeration of sexual traits; however, the developmental basis of exaggerated sexual traits has only been determined in a few cases. The evolution of exaggerated sexual traits may involve the relaxation of constraints or developmental processes mitigating constraints. Ground beetles in the subgenus Ohomopterus (genus Carabus) have species-specific genitalia that show coevolutionary divergence between the sexes. Here, we examined the morphogenesis of the remarkably enlarged male and female genitalia of Carabus uenoi by X-ray microcomputed tomography. The morphogenetic processes generating the male and female genitalia at the pupal stage were qualitatively similar to those in closely related species with standard genital sizes. Higher growth rates contributed to the exaggeration of both the male and female genital parts of C. uenoi, possibly related to a gene network commonly upregulated in both sexes. Additionally, the length of the copulatory piece (CP), the enlarged male genital part stored in the aedeagus (AD), reached close to that of the AD at the later developmental stages and thereafter decelerated to grow in parallel with the AD, suggesting a structural constraint on the CP by the outer AD. Then, unlike related species, the lengths of the CP and AD increased at eclosion, suggesting a mechanism leading to further elongation of the male genitalia. These observations suggest that a developmental process allows continuous growth of the male genitalia even under the spatial limitation. These results revealed the spatio-temporal dynamics of the development of exaggerated genital structures under structural constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Terada
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe, Japan
| | - Chinami Furumoto
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe, Japan
| | - Taira Nishimura
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe, Japan
| | | | - Yasuoki Takami
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe, Japan
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2
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Ballén-Guapacha AV, Ospina-Garcés SM, Guevara R, Sánchez-Guillén RA. Reproductive character displacement: insights from genital morphometrics in damselfly hybrid zones. Heredity (Edinb) 2024:10.1038/s41437-024-00719-9. [PMID: 39155287 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-024-00719-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 08/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Reproductive Character Displacement (RCD) refers to the phenomenon of greater differences in reproductive characters between two species when they occur in sympatry compared to when they occur in allopatry to prevent maladaptive hybridization. We explored whether reinforcement of a mechanical barrier involved in the first contact point between male and female genital traits during copulation in the cross between Ischnura graellsii males and Ischnura elegans females has led to RCD, and whether it supports the lock-and-key hypothesis of genital evolution. We employed geometric morphometrics to analyze the shape and size of male and female genital traits, controlling for environmental and geographic factors. Consistent with an increase in mechanical isolation via reinforcement, we detected larger divergence in genital traits between the species in sympatry than in allopatry, and also stronger signal in females than in males. In the Northwest (NW) hybrid zone, we detected RCD in I. graellsii males and I. elegans females, while in the Northcentral (NC) hybrid zone we detected RCD only in I. elegans females and I. elegans males. The detection of RCD in both sexes of I. elegans was consistent with the lock-and-key hypothesis of genital evolution via female choice for conspecific males in this species. Our study highlights the importance of using geometric morphometrics to deal with the complexity of female reproductive structures while controlling for environmental and geographic factors to investigate RCD. This study contributes valuable insights into the dynamics of reproductive isolation mechanisms and genital coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra Milena Ospina-Garcés
- Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Conservación, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Avenida Universidad 1001, Col. Chamilpa, CP 62209, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Roger Guevara
- Instituto de Ecología A. C. (INECOL), Red de Biología Evolutiva, 91093, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Rosa Ana Sánchez-Guillén
- Instituto de Ecología A. C. (INECOL), Red de Biología Evolutiva, 91093, Xalapa, Veracruz, México.
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3
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Somjee U, Marting P, Anzaldo S, Simmons LW, Painting CJ. Extreme range in adult body size reveals hidden trade-offs among sexually selected traits. Evolution 2024; 78:1382-1395. [PMID: 38900629 DOI: 10.1093/evolut/qpae084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Sexually selected weapons used to monopolize mating opportunities are predicted to trade-off with traits used in competition for fertilization. Yet, the limited size range typically found among adults of a species often precludes clear comparisons between population-level and individual-level relative trait investment. The jousting weevil, Brentus anchorago (Coleoptera: Brentidae), varies more than 26-fold in body mass, which is among the most extreme adult body size ranges of any solitary terrestrial species. We reveal a trade-off at a population level: hypermetric scaling in male weapons (slope = 1.59) and a closely mirrored reversal in allocation to postcopulatory traits (slope = 0.54). Yet, at the individual level, we find the opposite pattern; males that invest relatively more in weapons for their size class also invest more in postcopulatory traits. Across 36 dung beetle and 41 brentine weevil species, we find the allometric slope explains more trait variation at larger body size ranges; in brentines, population-level scaling patterns become more detectable in species with a larger range in adult body size. Our findings reveal that population-level allometries and individual-level trade-offs can both be important in shaping relative trait allocation; we highlight that the adult body size range is rarely examined but may be integral to gaining a deeper understanding of trade-offs in reproductive allocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ummat Somjee
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
| | - Peter Marting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Salvatore Anzaldo
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Leigh W Simmons
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
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4
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Hu Y, Crabtree JR, Macagno ALM, Moczek AP. Histone deacetylases regulate organ-specific growth in a horned beetle. EvoDevo 2024; 15:4. [PMID: 38575982 PMCID: PMC10996171 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-024-00223-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nutrient availability is among the most widespread means by which environmental variability affects developmental outcomes. Because almost all cells within an individual organism share the same genome, structure-specific growth responses must result from changes in gene regulation. Earlier work suggested that histone deacetylases (HDACs) may serve as epigenetic regulators linking nutritional conditions to trait-specific development. Here we expand on this work by assessing the function of diverse HDACs in the structure-specific growth of both sex-shared and sex-specific traits including evolutionarily novel structures in the horned dung beetle Onthophagus taurus. RESULTS We identified five HDAC members whose downregulation yielded highly variable mortality depending on which HDAC member was targeted. We then show that HDAC1, 3, and 4 operate in both a gene- and trait-specific manner in the regulation of nutrition-responsiveness of appendage size and shape. Specifically, HDAC 1, 3, or 4 knockdown diminished wing size similarly while leg development was differentially affected by RNAi targeting HDAC3 and HDAC4. In addition, depletion of HDAC3 transcript resulted in a more rounded shape of genitalia at the pupal stage and decreased the length of adult aedeagus across all body sizes. Most importantly, we find that HDAC3 and HDAC4 pattern the morphology and regulate the scaling of evolutionarily novel head and thoracic horns as a function of nutritional variation. CONCLUSION Collectively, our results suggest that both functional overlap and division of labor among HDAC members contribute to morphological diversification of both conventional and recently evolved appendages. More generally, our work raises the possibility that HDAC-mediated scaling relationships and their evolution may underpin morphological diversification within and across insect species broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonggang Hu
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, 915 East 3rd Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Sericulture and Systems Biology, Southwest University, No.2 Tiansheng Road, Beibei District, Chongqing, 400715, China.
| | - Jordan R Crabtree
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, 915 East 3rd Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Anna L M Macagno
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, 915 East 3rd Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
- Biostatistics Consulting Center, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health Bloomington, Indiana University, 2719 E. 10th Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Armin P Moczek
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, 915 East 3rd Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
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Dharmarathne C, McLean DJ, Herberstein ME, Schneider JM. Intraspecific body size variation and allometry of genitalia in the orb-web spider- Argiope lobata. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16413. [PMID: 38047024 PMCID: PMC10691382 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The current consensus is that sexual selection is responsible for the rapid and diverse evolution of genitalia, with several mutually exclusive mechanisms under debate, including non-antagonistic, antagonistic and stabilizing mechanisms. We used the orb-web spider, Argiope lobata (Araneidae), as a study model to quantify the allometric relationship between body size and genitalia, and to test for any impact of genital structures on male mating success or outcome in terms of copulation duration, leg loss or cannibalism. Our data do not support the 'one-size-fits-all' hypothesis that predicts a negative allometric slope between genitalia and body size. Importantly, we measured both male and female genitalia, and there was no sex specific pattern in allometric slopes. Unexpectedly, we found no predictor for reproductive success as indicated by copulation duration, cannibalism, and leg loss.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Donald James McLean
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marie E. Herberstein
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
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Garita-Alvarado CA. Courtship behavior in the knife livebearer Alfaro cultratus (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2023; 103:1221-1225. [PMID: 37415430 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
The mating behavior of the knife livebearer Alfaro cultratus is described in detail. During "rubbing," the male swims to a position above the female and gently moves down repeatedly touching the dorsal part of female head with the pelvic fin tips. This courtship behavior constitutes the first report of a pelvic fin male-female contact during mating in poecilids. Based on preliminary evidence, I propose that a sensory bias mechanism could mediate the evolution of signal design/mate choice in this species, which should be tested in further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Garita-Alvarado
- Museo de Zoología, Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Unidad Multidisciplinaria de Docencia e Investigación, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico
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7
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Kelly CD. Can Patterns of Static Allometry be Inferred from Regimes of Sexual Selection in the Japanese Beetle? Evol Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-022-09577-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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A Revision of the Traditional Analysis Method of Allometry to Allow Extension of the Normality-Borne Complexity of Error Structure: Examining the Adequacy of a Normal-Mixture Distribution-Driven Error Term. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:8310213. [PMID: 36172489 PMCID: PMC9512611 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8310213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Huxley’s model of simple allometry provides a parsimonious scheme for examining scaling relationships in scientific research, resource management, and species conservation endeavors. Factors including biological error, analysis method, sample size, and overall data quality can undermine the reliability of a fit of Huxley’s model. Customary amendments enhance the complexity of the power function-conveyed systematic term while keeping the usual normality-borne error structure. The resulting protocols bear multiple-parameter complex allometry forms that could pose interpretative shortcomings and parameter estimation difficulties, and even being empirically pertinent, they could potentially bear overfitting. A subsequent heavy-tailed Q-Q normal spread often remains undetected since the adequacy of a normally distributed error term remains unexplored. Previously, we promoted the advantages of keeping Huxley’s model-driven systematic part while switching to a logistically distributed error term to improve fit quality. Here, we analyzed eelgrass leaf biomass and area data exhibiting a marked size-related heterogeneity, perhaps explaining a lack of systematization at data gathering. Overdispersion precluded adequacy of the logistically adapted protocol, thereby suggesting processing data through a median absolute deviation scheme aimed to remove unduly replicates. Nevertheless, achieving regularity to Huxley’s power function-like trend required the removal of many replicates, thereby questioning the integrity of a data cleaning approach. But, we managed to adapt the complexity of the error term to reliably identify Huxley’s model-like systematic part masked by variability in data. Achieving this relied on an error term conforming to a normal mixture distribution which successfully managed overdispersion in data. Compared to normal-complex allometry and data cleaning composites present arrangement delivered a coherent Q-Q normal mixture spread and a remarkable reproducibility strength of derived proxies. By keeping the analysis within Huxley’s original theory, the present approach enables substantiating nondestructive allometric proxies aimed at eelgrass conservation. The viewpoint endorsed here could also make data cleaning unnecessary.
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9
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The morphological allometry of four closely related and coexisting insect species reveals adaptation to the mean and variability of the resource size. Oecologia 2022; 200:159-168. [PMID: 36053351 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-022-05249-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The size of organisms may result from various, sometimes antagonistic forces operating on distinct traits, within an evolutionary framework that may also be constraining. Morphological allometry, referring to the way trait size scales with body size, has been shown to reflect ecological adaptation to the mean size of the resource exploited. We examined the allometric relationships between rostrum and body size among four insect (Curculio spp.) specialists of oak acorns. In all four species, weevil females drill a hole with their rostrum prior depositing one or a few eggs inside the seed. The four weevil species, that coexist on the same individual trees, displayed partitioned egg-laying periods in the year, thereby encountering acorns of different size and maturation stage. We found marked differences in the allometric slope among females: species laying eggs late in the season had a steeper slope, leading to increasingly longer rostrum relative to body length, along with the mean size of the growing acorns. Females of the smallest species had the longest oviposition period and also had the steepest slope, which provided them with the most variable rostrum length, thereby matching the variable size of the resource through time. Our work highlights the need to consider not only the average size but also the degree of variability in resource size to understand the adaptive value of allometric relationships.
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10
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Abstract
Despite their evolutionary and biomedical importance, studies of the morphology and function of female genitalia have continued to lag behind those of male genitalia. While studying female genitalia can be difficult because of their soft, deformable and internal nature, recent advances in imaging, geometric analyses of shape and mechanical testing have been made, allowing for a much greater understanding of the incredible diversity of form and function of female genitalia. Here we summarize some of these methods, as well as discuss some big questions in the field that are beginning to be examined now, and will continue to benefit from further work, especially a comparative approach. Topics of further research include examination of the morphology of female genitalia in situ, in-depth anatomical work in many more species, studies of the interplay between natural and sexual selection in influencing features of vaginal morphology, how these diverse functions influence the mechanical properties of tissues, and studies of clitoris morphology and function across amniotes. Many other research topics related to female genitalia remain largely unexplored, and we hope that the papers in this issue will continue to inspire further research on female genitalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L R Brennan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA 01075, USA
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11
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Orr TJ, Lukitsch T, Eiting TP, Brennan PLR. Testing Morphological Relationships Between Female and Male Copulatory Structures in Bats. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac040. [PMID: 35661885 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The lower reproductive tract of female mammals has several competing functions including mating, tract health maintenance, and parturition. Diverse vaginal anatomy suggests interactions between natural and sexual selection, yet despite its importance, female copulatory morphology remains under-studied. We undertook a comparative study across the species-rich mammalian order Chiroptera (bats) with a focus on the suborder Yangochiroptera (Vespertilioniformes) to examine how female vaginal features may have coevolved with male penis morphology to minimize mechanical damage to their tissues during copulation. The penis morphology is diverse, presenting great potential for post-copulatory sexual selection and coevolution with the female morphology, but vaginas have not been carefully examined. Here we test the hypotheses that vaginal thickness and collagen density have coevolved with features of the male penis including the presence of spines and a baculum. We present histological data from females of 24 species from 7 families of bats, and corresponding data on male penis anatomy. We also examine the role of phylogenetic history in the morphological patterns we observe. We found evidence that female vaginal thickness has coevolved with the presence of penile spines, but not with baculum presence or width. Collagen density did not appear to covary with male penile features. Our findings highlight the importance of considering interactions between the sexes in influencing functional reproductive structures and examine how these structures have been under selection in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teri J Orr
- New Mexico State University, Department of Biology, Las Cruces, NM 88003
| | - Theresa Lukitsch
- New Mexico State University, Department of Biology, Las Cruces, NM 88003
| | - Thomas P Eiting
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Patricia L R Brennan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA 01075
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12
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Eberhard WG, Rodríguez RL. Static allometry of a threat device that is not a weapon: wing spots in male Heterandrium fallax (Hymenoptera Agaonidae). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2021.2024269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William G. Eberhard
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancón, República de Panama
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, Costa Rica
- Museum of Natural Science, Lousiana State University, Baton Rouge (LA), USA
| | - Rafael L. Rodríguez
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee (WI), USA
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13
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Palaoro AV, García-Hernández S, Buzatto BA, Machado G. Function predicts the allometry of contest-related traits, but not sexual or male dimorphism in the amazonian tusked harvestman. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10152-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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OUP accepted manuscript. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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15
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Zhang F, Chen X, Zeng C, Wen L, Zhao Y, Peng Y. Modest sexual size dimorphism and allometric growth: a study based on growth and gonad development in the wolf spider Pardosa pseudoannulata (Araneae: Lycosidae). Biol Open 2021; 10:273630. [PMID: 34889957 PMCID: PMC8679722 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is a notable phenomenon in terrestrial animals, and it is correlated with unusual morphological traits. To date, the underlying sex-specific growth strategies throughout the ontogenetic stage of spiders are poorly understood. Here, we comprehensively investigated how the growth trajectories and gonad development shaped SSD in the wolf spider Pardosa pseudoannulata (Araneae: Lycosidae). We also hypothesized the potential growth allometry among the carapace, abdomen, and gonads of spiders in both sexes. By measuring the size of the carapace and abdomen, investigating developmental duration and growth rate, describing the gonadal sections, and calculating the area of gonads at all instars from hatching to maturity, we demonstrated that SSD results from sex-specific growth strategies. Our results indicated that the growth and developmental differences between both sexes appeared at early life stages, and there was allometric growth in the carapace, abdomen, and gonads between males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China.,State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Xiaoqiong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Chi Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Lelei Wen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Quality Control of Characteristic Fruits and Vegetables, College of Life Science and Technology, Hubei Engineering University, Xiaogan 432000, China
| | - Yao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Yu Peng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
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16
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Galicia-Mendoza DI, Sanmartín-Villar I, García-Miranda Ó, Cordero-Rivera A. Territorial damselflies are larger and show negative allometry in their genitalia. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The ‘functional allometry’ hypothesis proposes that the variation in allometric patterns of sexually selected traits is related to their function. We hypothesize that the allometric patterns for genitalia of aggressively territorial organisms are different from those in non-territorial organisms and predict that in aggressively territorial species, where body size is related directly to reproductive success, males must allocate more resources to body size than to genitalia. We studied 59 species of damselflies in 51 genera. Species were divided into three categories: highly territorial and aggressive; low aggressive; and not aggressive. We measured the length of the genital ligula, the width at the basis and its maximum width, and we used body length and wing length as descriptors of body size. The slope of allometric relationships was estimated using ordinary least squares and reduced major axis regressions. Our results indicated first, that territorial damselflies are larger and that body length and wing length are not equivalent as estimators of body size in odonates. Second, ordinary least squares and reduced major axis regressions provided different results in some of the analyses. Third, we found that aggressive species have less steep allometric slopes than non-aggressive species, both for the length of the ligula and for the width at its basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Ivette Galicia-Mendoza
- Laboratory of Evolutionary and Conservation Ecology, Universidade de Vigo, E.E. Forestal, Campus A Xunqueira, 36005 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Iago Sanmartín-Villar
- Laboratory of Evolutionary and Conservation Ecology, Universidade de Vigo, E.E. Forestal, Campus A Xunqueira, 36005 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Óscar García-Miranda
- Laboratory of Evolutionary and Conservation Ecology, Universidade de Vigo, E.E. Forestal, Campus A Xunqueira, 36005 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Adolfo Cordero-Rivera
- Laboratory of Evolutionary and Conservation Ecology, Universidade de Vigo, E.E. Forestal, Campus A Xunqueira, 36005 Pontevedra, Spain
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17
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Winkler L, Lindholm AK, Ramm SA, Sutter A. The baculum affects paternity success of first but not second males in house mouse sperm competition. BMC Ecol Evol 2021; 21:159. [PMID: 34384348 PMCID: PMC8359600 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-021-01887-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The vast variation observed in genital morphology is a longstanding puzzle in evolutionary biology. Studies showing that the morphology of the mammalian baculum (penis bone) can covary with a male’s paternity success indicate a potential impact of baculum morphology on male fitness, likely through influencing sperm competition outcomes. We therefore measured the size (measurements of length and width) and shape (geometric morphometric measurements) of the bacula of male house mice used in previously published sperm competition experiments, in which two males mated successively with the same female in staged matings. This enabled us to correlate baculum morphology with sperm competition success, incorporating potential explanatory variables related to copulatory plugs, male mating behavior and a selfish genetic element that influences sperm motility. We found that a wider baculum shaft increased a male’s paternity share when mating first, but not when mating second with a multiply-mating female. Geometric morphometric shape measurements were not clearly associated with fertilization success for either male. We found limited evidence that the effect of baculum morphology on male fertilization success was altered by experimental removal of the copulatory plug. Furthermore, neither genetic differences in sperm motility, nor covariation with male mating behavior mediated the effect of baculum morphology on male fertilization success. Taken together with previous findings, the mating-order effects we found here suggest that baculum-mediated stimulation by the first male might be particularly important for fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Winkler
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Bielefeld University, Konsequenz 45, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany. .,Applied Zoology, Technical University Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Anna K Lindholm
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Steven A Ramm
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Bielefeld University, Konsequenz 45, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Andreas Sutter
- School of Biological Sciences, Norwich Research Park, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
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18
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Lehmann GUC, Kuchenreuther S, Lehmann AW, Dickhaus T. Correlated sexual selection on male genitalia, copulatory performance and nuptial gifts in a bushcricket (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) indicated by allometric scaling. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
We adopt an allometric framework of scaling relationships for comparison between mating-related traits in the middle European bushcricket Roeseliana roeselii (Hagenbach, 1822). Eight characters, covering ontogenetic fitness (size traits; fixed at final moult), male condition (mass traits) and mating motivation (reproductive behaviours), were analysed in unrestricted matings and in matings involving genital manipulation. Shortening the male titillators had no effect on mating-related traits in males. However, titillators, known to be under sexual selection, scale hyperallometrically, with larger males possessing proportionally longer titillators, performing more titillator movements and exhibiting a reduced duration of copulation. Scaling was also hyperallometric for spermatophore mass, with larger males being heavier and transferring heavier nuptial gifts. Both titillator length and spermatophore mass might be condition-dependent indicators, because their variances were nearly twice as large those of body size or body mass. Mass traits were also dynamic, increasing by 11% for male body mass and 17% for spermatophore mass between the first and second matings. Sexual selection by female choice seems to favour larger trait size in the bushcricket R. roeselii, acting in concert on titillator length, intensity of titillator movements and spermatophore mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerlind U C Lehmann
- Evolutionary Ecology, Department of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 110, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sina Kuchenreuther
- Evolutionary Ecology, Department of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 110, Berlin, Germany
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19
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Okuzaki Y. Effects of body size divergence on male mating tactics in the ground beetle Carabus japonicus. Evolution 2021; 75:2269-2285. [PMID: 34231214 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Animal body size is involved in reproduction in various ways. Carabus japonicus exhibits considerable variation in adult body size across geographical locations depending on the larval environment. To investigate the effects of body size divergence on male mating traits, spermatophore deposition and weight, copulation duration, and post-copulatory mounting were observed using male-female pairs from C. japonicus populations with different body sizes. Then, variables with high predictive power on the mating traits were identified from individual characteristics. When the male was slightly smaller than his mate, spermatophore deposition likely succeeded, suggesting that mechanical size-assortative insemination determined male body size. Although male reproductive organ size was positively correlated with male body size, spermatophore weight was not significantly affected by male body size, whereas copulation duration decreased with increasing male body size. Enlarged males, with a high capacity for spermatophore production, could increase paternity by decreasing copulation duration and increasing mating frequency. Such shifts in mating tactics would alter selection pressures of intra- and intersexual interactions (e.g., sperm competition and sexual conflict). Genital dimensions also affected mating traits other than copulatory duration. Thus, ecological heterogeneity has the potential to lead to divergences in sexual traits, such as genital morphology, through body size divergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutaka Okuzaki
- Department of General Systems Studies, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan
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20
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Hagen JFD, Mendes CC, Booth SR, Figueras Jimenez J, Tanaka KM, Franke FA, Baudouin-Gonzalez L, Ridgway AM, Arif S, Nunes MDS, McGregor AP. Unraveling the Genetic Basis for the Rapid Diversification of Male Genitalia between Drosophila Species. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 38:437-448. [PMID: 32931587 PMCID: PMC7826188 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last 240,000 years, males of the Drosophila simulans species clade have evolved striking differences in the morphology of their epandrial posterior lobes and claspers (surstyli). These appendages are used for grasping the female during mating and so their divergence is most likely driven by sexual selection. Mapping studies indicate a highly polygenic and generally additive genetic basis for these morphological differences. However, we have limited understanding of the gene regulatory networks that control the development of genital structures and how they evolved to result in this rapid phenotypic diversification. Here, we used new D. simulans/D. mauritiana introgression lines on chromosome arm 3L to generate higher resolution maps of posterior lobe and clasper differences between these species. We then carried out RNA-seq on the developing genitalia of both species to identify the expressed genes and those that are differentially expressed between the two species. This allowed us to test the function of expressed positional candidates during genital development in D. melanogaster. We identified several new genes involved in the development and possibly the evolution of these genital structures, including the transcription factors Hairy and Grunge. Furthermore, we discovered that during clasper development Hairy negatively regulates tartan (trn), a gene known to contribute to divergence in clasper morphology. Taken together, our results provide new insights into the regulation of genital development and how this has evolved between species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna F D Hagen
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Cláudia C Mendes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Shamma R Booth
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Figueras Jimenez
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kentaro M Tanaka
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Franziska A Franke
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Luis Baudouin-Gonzalez
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Amber M Ridgway
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Saad Arif
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Centre for Functional Genomics, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Maria D S Nunes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Centre for Functional Genomics, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair P McGregor
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Centre for Functional Genomics, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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21
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Silva ARDA, Lopes AEB, Grabowski RC, Castilho AL. Weight/carapace length relationship and condition factor of the roughneck shrimp, Rimapenaeus constrictus (Stimpson, 1874), on the southeastern Brazilian coast. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2021; 93:e20190570. [PMID: 34105612 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765202120190570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rimapenaeus constrictus is a penaeid shrimp widely distributed in the Western Atlantic, frequently captured as bycatch in trawling activities. Here we describe the weight vs. carapace length relationship and the condition factor of the species. Shrimps were sampled in the Ubatuba region, northern littoral of São Paulo State, monthly. We analyzed 4,952 individuals (1,371 males and 3,581 females). We measured the individuals' weight and carapace length, and the condition factor (CF) was calculated for both sexes. Females had a heavier body when compared to males, probably due to their greater maximum body size achieved. Both sexes presented a negative allometric growth in weight, probably due to their reproductive pattern and activities. We found similar mean CF values for males and females. From temporal analysis, the highest CF values for females were observed during the seasons with lower water temperatures. Such a situation may happen because females' CF tend to be influenced by a greater food availability in the environment, induced by the intrusion of the South Atlantic Central Water during the spring and early summer in the Ubatuba. The information presented here could be used as subside in protection actions and management of bycatch species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre R DA Silva
- Universidade Estadual do Norte do Paraná/UENP, Campus Cornélio Procópio, Rua Portugal 340, 86300-000 Cornélio Procópio, PR, Brazil
| | - Ana Elisa B Lopes
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu, Departamento de Bioestatística, Biologia Vegetal, Parasitologia e Zoologia, Rua Prof. Dr. Antônio Celso Wagner Zanin 250, Distrito de Rubião Júnior, 18618-689 Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Raphael C Grabowski
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu, Departamento de Bioestatística, Biologia Vegetal, Parasitologia e Zoologia, Rua Prof. Dr. Antônio Celso Wagner Zanin 250, Distrito de Rubião Júnior, 18618-689 Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio L Castilho
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu, Departamento de Bioestatística, Biologia Vegetal, Parasitologia e Zoologia, Rua Prof. Dr. Antônio Celso Wagner Zanin 250, Distrito de Rubião Júnior, 18618-689 Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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22
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Peluffo AE, Hamdani M, Vargas‐Valderrama A, David JR, Mallard F, Graner F, Courtier‐Orgogozo V. A morphological trait involved in reproductive isolation between Drosophila sister species is sensitive to temperature. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:7492-7506. [PMID: 34188829 PMCID: PMC8216934 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Male genitalia are usually extremely divergent between closely related species, but relatively constant within one species. Here we examine the effect of temperature on the shape of the ventral branches, a male genital structure involved in reproductive isolation, in the sister species Drosophila santomea and Drosophila yakuba. We designed a semi-automatic measurement machine learning pipeline that can reliably identify curvatures and landmarks based on manually digitized contours of the ventral branches. With this method, we observed that temperature does not affect ventral branches in D. yakuba but that in D. santomea ventral branches tend to morph into a D. yakuba-like shape at lower temperature. We found that male genitalia structures involved in reproductive isolation can be relatively variable within one species and can resemble the shape of closely related species' genitalia through plasticity to temperature. Our results suggest that reproductive isolation mechanisms can be dependent on the environmental context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jean R. David
- Institut Systématique Evolution Biodiversité (ISYEB)CNRSMNHNSorbonne UniversitéEPHEParisFrance
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes, Comportement, Biodiversité (EGCE)CNRSIRDUniv. Paris‐sudUniversité Paris‐SaclayGif‐sur‐YvetteFrance
| | - François Mallard
- Institut de Biologie de l’École Normale SupérieureCNRS UMR 8197PSL Research UniversityParisFrance
| | - François Graner
- Matière et Systèmes ComplexesCNRS UMR 7057Univ. de ParisParisFrance
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23
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Bertram SM, Yaremchuk DD, Reifer ML, Villarreal A, Muzzatti MJ, Kolluru GR. Tests of the positive and functional allometry hypotheses for sexually selected traits in the Jamaican field cricket. Behav Processes 2021; 188:104413. [PMID: 33957236 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Sexually selected traits, including threat signals, have been shown to scale steeply positively with body size because their exaggeration maximizes honest signalling. However, the functional allometry hypothesis makes the opposite prediction for some weapons: because the biomechanics of force applied in their use may favor relatively smaller size, sexually selected weapons may exhibit negative allometry. Tests of these ideas in insects have largely focused on holometabolous species, whose adult body size is entirely dependent on nutrients acquired during the larval stage. In contrast, hemimetabolous insects may exhibit different patterns of allometry development because they forage throughout development, between successive moults. Here, we tested complementary and competing predictions made by the positive and functional allometry hypotheses, regarding intrasexually selected trait allometry in a hemimetabolous insect, the Jamaican field cricket (Gryllus assimilis). As expected, head width (a dominance and/or combat trait) was more positively allometric than non-sexually selected traits. In contrast, and consistent with the functional allometry hypothesis, mouthparts (weapons) were either isometric or negatively allometric. We also tested whether trait allometry responded to rearing diet by raising males on either a high protein diet or a high carbohydrate diet; we predicted stronger positive allometry under the high protein diet. However, diet did not influence allometry in the predicted manner. Overall, our results support the functional allometry hypothesis regarding sexually selected trait allometry and raise intriguing possibilities for integrating these ideas with recent paradigms for classifying intrasexually selected traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Bertram
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Danya D Yaremchuk
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Mykell L Reifer
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Amy Villarreal
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Matthew J Muzzatti
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Gita R Kolluru
- Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California, 93407, United States
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24
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de Lira JJPR, Yan Y, Levasseur S, Kelly CD, Hendry AP. The complex ecology of genitalia: Gonopodium length and allometry in the Trinidadian guppy. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:4564-4576. [PMID: 33976831 PMCID: PMC8093694 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Male genitalia present an extraordinary pattern of rapid divergence in animals with internal fertilization, which is usually attributed to sexual selection. However, the effect of ecological factors on genitalia divergence could also be important, especially so in animals with nonretractable genitalia because of their stronger interaction with the surrounding environment in comparison with animals with retractable genitalia. Here, we examine the potential of a pervasive ecological factor (predation) to influence the length and allometry of the male genitalia in guppies. We sampled guppies from pairs of low-predation (LP) and high-predation (HP) populations in seven rivers in Trinidad, and measured their body and gonopodium length. A key finding was that HP adult males do not have consistently longer gonopodia than do LP adult males, as had been described in previous work. However, we did find such divergence for juvenile males: HP juveniles have longer gonopodia than do LP juveniles. We therefore suggest that an evolutionary trend toward the development of longer gonopodia in HP males (as seen in the juveniles) is erased after maturity owing to the higher mortality of mature males with longer gonopodia. Beyond these generalities, gonopodium length and gonopodium allometry were remarkably variable among populations even within a predation regime, thus indicating strong context dependence to their development/evolution. Our findings highlight the complex dynamics of genitalia evolution in Trinidadian guppies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yue Yan
- Department of Biology and Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontrealQCCanada
| | - Sophie Levasseur
- Faculty of Arts and SciencesConcordia UniversityMontrealQCCanada
| | - Clint D. Kelly
- Pavillon des Sciences BiologiquesUniversité du Québec à MontréalMontréalQCCanada
| | - Andrew P. Hendry
- Department of Biology and Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontrealQCCanada
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25
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House CM, Lewis Z, Sharma MD, Hodgson DJ, Hunt J, Wedell N, Hosken DJ. Sexual selection on the genital lobes of male Drosophila simulans. Evolution 2021; 75:501-514. [PMID: 33386741 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Sexual selection is thought to be responsible for the rapid divergent evolution of male genitalia with several studies detecting multivariate sexual selection on genital form. However, in most cases, selection is only estimated during a single episode of selection, which provides an incomplete view of net selection on genital traits. Here, we estimate the strength and form of multivariate selection on the genitalia arch of Drosophila simulans when mating occurs in the absence of a competitor and during sperm competition, in both sperm defence and offense roles (i.e., when mating first and last). We found that the strength of sexual selection on the genital arch was strongest during noncompetitive mating and weakest during sperm offense. However, the direction of selection was similar across selection episodes with no evidence for antagonistic selection. Overall, selection was not particularly strong despite genitals clearly evolving rapidly in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa M House
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Richmond, NSW, Australia
| | - Zenobia Lewis
- School of Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Manmohan D Sharma
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - David J Hodgson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - John Hunt
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Richmond, NSW, Australia.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - Nina Wedell
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
| | - David J Hosken
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK
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26
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Eberhard WG. Relation between sexual allometry and function in the sawfly Leseha vespa (Hymenoptera Tenthredinidae). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2020.1777209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William G. Eberhard
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Republica de Panama
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, Costa Rica
- Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
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27
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Melin A, Altwegg R, Manning JC, Colville JF. Allometric relationships shape foreleg evolution of long-legged oil bees (Melittidae: Rediviva). Evolution 2020; 75:437-449. [PMID: 33314060 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Exaggerated traits of pollinators have fascinated biologists for centuries. To understand their evolution, and their role in coevolutionary relationships, an essential first step is to understand how traits scale allometrically with body size, which may reveal underlying developmental constraints. Few pollination studies have examined how traits can adaptively diverge despite allometric constraints. Here, we present a comparative study of narrow-sense static and evolutionary allometry on foreleg length and body size of oil-collecting bees. Concurrently, we assess the relationship between scaling parameters and spur lengths of oil-secreting host flowers. Across species and populations, we found low variation in static slopes (nearly all <1), possibly related to stabilizing selection, but the static intercept varied substantially generating an evolutionary allometry steeper than static allometry. Variation in static intercepts was explained by changes in body size (∼28% species; ∼68% populations) and spur length (remaining variance: ∼36% species; ∼94% populations). The intercept-spur length relationship on the arithmetic scale was positive but forelegs did not track spur length perfectly in a one-to-one relationship. Overall, our study provides new insights on how phenotypic evolution in the forelegs of oil-collecting bees is related to the variability of the allometric intercept and adaptation to host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalie Melin
- Compton Herbarium, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Claremont, South Africa.,African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
| | - Res Altwegg
- Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - John C Manning
- Compton Herbarium, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Claremont, South Africa.,Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa
| | - Jonathan F Colville
- Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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28
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Lai J, Maddison WP, Ma H, Zhang J. Intra‐specific variation of non‐genitalic and genitalic traits in two euophryine jumping spider species. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Lai
- The Key Laboratory of Invertebrate Systematics and Application, College of Life Sciences, Institute of Life Science and Green Development Hebei University Baoding Hebei China
| | - W. P. Maddison
- Departments of Zoology and Botany and Beaty Biodiversity Museum University of British Columbia Vancouver BC Canada
| | - H. Ma
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Conservation Hengshui University Hengshui Hebei China
| | - J. Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Invertebrate Systematics and Application, College of Life Sciences, Institute of Life Science and Green Development Hebei University Baoding Hebei China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Conservation Hengshui University Hengshui Hebei China
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29
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Abstract
Abstract
Background
Organisms show an incredibly diverse array of body and organ shapes that are both unique to their taxon and important for adapting to their environment. Achieving these specific shapes involves coordinating the many processes that transform single cells into complex organs, and regulating their growth so that they can function within a fully-formed body.
Main text
Conceptually, body and organ shape can be separated in two categories, although in practice these categories need not be mutually exclusive. Body shape results from the extent to which organs, or parts of organs, grow relative to each other. The patterns of relative organ size are characterized using allometry. Organ shape, on the other hand, is defined as the geometric features of an organ’s component parts excluding its size. Characterization of organ shape is frequently described by the relative position of homologous features, known as landmarks, distributed throughout the organ. These descriptions fall into the domain of geometric morphometrics.
Conclusion
In this review, we discuss the methods of characterizing body and organ shape, the developmental programs thought to underlie each, highlight when and how the mechanisms regulating body and organ shape might overlap, and provide our perspective on future avenues of research.
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30
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Danielson-François A, Sullivan HN. Do exaggerated chelicerae function as weapons or genitalia in a long-jawed spider? Functional allometric analysis yields an answer. J Morphol 2020; 282:66-79. [PMID: 33074570 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
From the elongated neck of the giraffe to the elaborate train of the peacock, extreme traits can result from natural or sexual selection (or both). The extreme chelicerae of the long-jawed spiders (Tetragnatha) present a puzzle: do these exaggerated chelicerae function as weapons or genitalia? Bristowe first proposed that Tetragnatha chelicerae function as a holdfast because these spiders embrace chelicerae during mating. This hypothesis has remained untested until now. Here, we use functional allometry to examine how extreme chelicerae develop and perform in the long-jawed spider Tetragnatha elongata. Similar to other Tetragnatha species, chelicerae were longer in adult males than in adult females. Overall, we confirm Bristowe's hypothesis: elongation only occurred in the adult stage. However, we propose that chelicerae function as more than a holdfast in T. elongata. Male chelicerae exhibited positive allometry, which suggests scaling as weapons rather than genitalia. However, fieldwork revealed that the operational sex ratio is female-biased and both adult male-male competition and sexual cannibalism were rarely observed. Consequently, we propose that the positive allometry of male chelicerae may result from sexual selection to mechanically mesh with larger and more fecund females. Evidence for mechanical mesh includes multiple traits ranging from apophyses and grooves to guide teeth on the basal portion of the chelicerae. In contrast, we propose that chelicerae of females are analogous to the female peacock's tail: shortened by natural selection limiting the exaggeration of sexually selected traits. Indeed, females had increased foraging efficiency compared to males and exhibited negative cheliceral allometry. We discuss the implications for the evolution of elongated chelicerae in Tetragnatha.
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31
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Echavarria-Heras HA, Castro-Rodriguez JR, Leal-Ramirez C, Villa-Diharce E. Assessment of a Takagi-Sugeno-Kang fuzzy model assembly for examination of polyphasic loglinear allometry. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8173. [PMID: 31934498 PMCID: PMC6951296 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The traditional allometric analysis relies on log- transformation to contemplate linear regression in geometrical space then retransforming to get Huxley’s model of simple allometry. Views assert this induces bias endorsing multi-parameter complex allometry forms and nonlinear regression in arithmetical scales. Defenders of traditional approach deem it necessary since generally organismal growth is essentially multiplicative. Then keeping allometry as originally envisioned by Huxley requires a paradigm of polyphasic loglinear allometry. A Takagi-Sugeno-Kang fuzzy model assembles a mixture of weighted sub models. This allows direct identification of break points for transition between phases. Then, this paradigm is seamlessly appropriate for efficient allometric examination of polyphasic loglinear allometry patterns. Here, we explore its suitability. Methods Present fuzzy model embraces firing strength weights from Gaussian membership functions and linear consequents. Weights are identified by subtractive clustering and consequents through recursive least squares or maximum likelihood. Intersection of firing strength factors set criterion to estimate breakpoints. A multi-parameter complex allometry model follows by adapting firing strengths by composite membership functions and linear consequents in arithmetical space. Results Takagi-Sugeno-Kang surrogates adapted complexity depending on analyzed data set. Retransformation results conveyed reproducibility strength of similar proxies identified in arithmetical space. Breakpoints were straightforwardly identified. Retransformed form implies complex allometry as a generalization of Huxley’s power model involving covariate depending parameters. Huxley reported a breakpoint in the log–log plot of chela mass vs. body mass of fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax), attributed to a sudden change in relative growth of the chela approximately when crabs reach sexual maturity. G.C. Packard implied this breakpoint as putative. However, according to present fuzzy methods existence of a break point in Huxley’s data could be validated. Conclusions Offered scheme bears reliable analysis of zero intercept allometries based on geometrical space protocols. Endorsed affine structure accommodates either polyphasic or simple allometry if whatever turns required. Interpretation of break points characterizing heterogeneity is intuitive. Analysis can be achieved in an interactive way. This could not have been obtained by relying on customary approaches. Besides, identification of break points in arithmetical scale is straightforward. Present Takagi-Sugeno-Kang arrangement offers a way to overcome the controversy between a school considering a log-transformation necessary and their critics claiming that consistent results can be only obtained through complex allometry models fitted by direct nonlinear regression in the original scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector A Echavarria-Heras
- Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Estudios Superiores de Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | - Juan R Castro-Rodriguez
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas e Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México
| | - Cecilia Leal-Ramirez
- Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Estudios Superiores de Ensenada, Ensenada, Baja California, México
| | - Enrique Villa-Diharce
- Departamento de Estadística Aplicada, Centro de Investigacion en Matematicas, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México
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Varón-González C, Fraimout A, Delapré A, Debat V, Cornette R. Limited thermal plasticity and geographical divergence in the ovipositor of Drosophila suzukii. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:191577. [PMID: 32218976 PMCID: PMC7029920 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.191577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity has been repeatedly suggested to facilitate adaptation to new environmental conditions, as in invasions. Here, we investigate this possibility by focusing on the worldwide invasion of Drosophila suzukii: an invasive species that has rapidly colonized all continents over the last decade. This species is characterized by a highly developed ovipositor, allowing females to lay eggs through the skin of ripe fruits. Using a novel approach based on the combined use of scanning electron microscopy and photogrammetry, we quantified the ovipositor size and three-dimensional shape, contrasting invasive and native populations raised at three different developmental temperatures. We found a small but significant effect of temperature and geographical origin on the ovipositor shape, showing the occurrence of both geographical differentiation and plasticity to temperature. The shape reaction norms are in turn strikingly similar among populations, suggesting very little difference in shape plasticity among invasive and native populations, and therefore rejecting the hypothesis of a particular role for the plasticity of the ovipositor in the invasion success. Overall, the ovipositor shape seems to be a fairly robust trait, indicative of stabilizing selection. The large performance spectrum rather than the flexibility of the ovipositor would thus contribute to the success of D. suzukii worldwide invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceferino Varón-González
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 50, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Antoine Fraimout
- Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, UMR CBGP, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, University of Montpellier, 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier sur Lez cedex, France
| | - Arnaud Delapré
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 50, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Vincent Debat
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 50, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Raphaël Cornette
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 50, 75005 Paris, France
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33
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Fasel NJ, Kołodziej-Sobocińska M, Komar E, Zegarek M, Ruczyński I. Penis size and sperm quality, are all bats grey in the dark? Curr Zool 2019; 65:697-703. [PMID: 31857816 PMCID: PMC6911842 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoy094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Penises play a key role in sperm transport and in stimulating female genitals. This should impact post-copulatory competition, and expose penis characteristics to sexual selective pressures. Studies of male genitalia have repeatedly reported negative static allometries, which mean that, within species, large males have disproportionally small genitals when compared with smaller individuals. Males of some sperm-storing bat species may stand as an exception to such a pattern by arousing from hibernation to copulate with torpid females. The selection for large penises might take place, if a long organ provides advantages during post-copulatory competition and/or if females have evolved mechanisms allowing the choice of sire, relying on characters other than pre-copulatory traits (e.g., penis size). In this study, we measured dimensions of the erected penis in 4 sperm-storing bat species. Furthermore, we collected sperm and evaluated the link between penis dimensions and sperm velocity. Our results revealed steep allometric slopes of the erected penis length in Barbastella barbastellus and an inverse allometry of penis head width in Myotis nattereri. More detailed studies of copulatory behavior are urgently needed to explain the range of observed scaling relations. Furthermore, penis head width correlates with sperm velocity in Plecotus auritus. For this last species, we propose that penis shape might act as a marker of male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Jean Fasel
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Ewa Komar
- Mammal Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Białowieża, Poland
| | - Marcin Zegarek
- Mammal Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Białowieża, Poland
| | - Ireneusz Ruczyński
- Mammal Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Białowieża, Poland
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34
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Dreyer AP, Shingleton AW. Insulin-insensitivity of male genitalia maintains reproductive success in Drosophila. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190057. [PMID: 31088279 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
For most arthropod species, male genital size is relatively implastic in response to variation in developmental nutrition, such that the genitals in large well-fed males are similar in size to those in small poorly-fed males. In Drosophila melanogaster, reduced nutritional plasticity of the male genitalia is a consequence of low insulin sensitivity through a tissue-specific reduction in the expression of FOXO, a negative growth regulator . Despite an understanding of the proximate developmental mechanisms regulating organ size, the ultimate evolutionary mechanisms that may have led to reduced FOXO expression in the genitalia have not been fully elucidated. Here we show that restoring FOXO activity in the developing genitalia reduces the male genital size and decreases various aspects of male reproductive success. These data support the hypothesis that sexual selection has acted on the male genitalia to limit their nutritional plasticity through a reduction in FOXO expression, linking proximate with ultimate mechanisms of genital evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin P Dreyer
- 1 Department of Biology, Loyola University of Chicago , 1050 West Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60660 , USA
| | - Alexander W Shingleton
- 2 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois Chicago , 845 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607 , USA
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35
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Rodríguez-Escobar FE, Carrillo-Muñoz AI, Serrano-Meneses MA. Seasonal variation in the allometry of wing pigmentation in adult males of the territorial damselfly Hetaerina vulnerata (Insecta Odonata). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2019.1693432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frida E. Rodríguez-Escobar
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de las Américas Puebla, Puebla, C.P. 72810, México
| | - Aldo I. Carrillo-Muñoz
- Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Carretera Tlaxcala-Puebla km 1.5, Tlaxcala, C.P. 90070, México
- Doctorado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Martín A. Serrano-Meneses
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de las Américas Puebla, Puebla, C.P. 72810, México
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36
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Frankino WA, Bakota E, Dworkin I, Wilkinson GS, Wolf JB, Shingleton AW. Individual Cryptic Scaling Relationships and the Evolution of Animal Form. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1411-1428. [PMID: 31364716 PMCID: PMC6863759 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial selection offers a powerful tool for the exploration of how selection and development shape the evolution of morphological scaling relationships. An emerging approach models the expression and evolution of morphological scaling relationships as a function of variation among individuals in the developmental mechanisms that regulate trait growth. These models posit the existence of genotype-specific morphological scaling relationships that are unseen or "cryptic." Within-population allelic variation at growth-regulating loci determines how these individual cryptic scaling relationships are distributed, and exposure to environmental factors that affect growth determines the size phenotype expressed by each individual on their cryptic, genotype-specific scaling relationship. These models reveal that evolution of the intercept and slope of the population-level static allometry is determined, often in counterintuitive ways, largely by the shape of the distribution of these underlying individual-level scaling relationships. Here we review this modeling framework and present the wing-body size individual cryptic scaling relationships from a population of Drosophila melanogaster. To determine how these models might inform interpretation of published work on scaling relationship evolution, we review studies where artificial selection was applied to alter the parameters of population-level static allometries. Finally, motivated by our review, we outline areas in need of empirical work and describe a research program to address these topics; the approach includes describing the distribution of individual cryptic scaling relationships across populations and environments, empirical testing of the model's predictions, and determining the effects of environmental heterogeneity on realized trait distributions and how this affects allometry evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Anthony Frankino
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5001, USA
| | - Eric Bakota
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5001, USA
| | - Ian Dworkin
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L9H 6X9
| | - Gerald S Wilkinson
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Jason B Wolf
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Alexander W Shingleton
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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Casasa S, Moczek AP. Evolution of, and via, Developmental Plasticity: Insights through the Study of Scaling Relationships. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1346-1355. [PMID: 31147701 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Scaling relationships emerge from differential growth of body parts relative to each other. As such, scaling relationships are at least in part the product of developmental plasticity. While some of the developmental genetic mechanisms underlying scaling relationships are starting to be elucidated, how these mechanisms evolve and give rise to the enormous diversity of allometric scaling observed in nature is less understood. Furthermore, developmental plasticity has itself been proposed as a mechanism that facilitates adaptation and diversification, yet its role in the developmental evolution of scaling relationships remains largely unknown. In this review, we first explore how the mechanisms of scaling relationships have evolved. We primarily focus on insect development and review how pathway components and pathway interactions have evolved across taxa to regulate scaling relationships across diverse traits. We then discuss the potential role of developmental plasticity in the evolution of scaling relationships. Specifically, we address the potential role of allometric plasticity and cryptic genetic variation in allometry in facilitating divergence via genetic accommodation. Collectively, in this article, we aim to bring together two aspects of developmental plasticity: the mechanistic underpinnings of scaling relationships and their evolution, and the potential role that plasticity plays in the evolutionary diversification of scaling relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Casasa
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Armin P Moczek
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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38
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Ribeiro JRI, Stefanello F, Bugs C, Stenert C, Maltchik L, Guilbert E. Coevolution between male and female genitalia in Belostoma angustum Lauck, 1964 (Insecta, Heteroptera, Belostomatidae): disentangling size and shape. ZOOLOGY 2019; 137:125711. [PMID: 31634693 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sexual and natural selection mechanisms might drive variation in the genitalia of male animals. All aforementioned mechanisms are known to predict the coevolution of male and female genital morphology. Belostoma angustum is known to have subtle variation in the male and female genitalia of its members. In this species, phallosoma with dorsal arms and ventral diverticulum are assumed to be intromittent male genital traits that interact with the female genital chamber. We thus evaluated the existence of variation after disentangling the size from the shape of male genitalia in B. angustum. Body and genitalia dimensions and photographs of phallosoma with dorsal arms, ventral diverticulum and lateral views of the right paramere (the non-intromittent part) were obtained. Semi-landmarks and landmarks were used to capture phenotypic variation, by eliminating all non-shape variation with a Procrustes superimposition. Male and female specimens collected from the same location or immediate vicinity were grouped, and 12 groups originating from 12 locations were used to conduct two block-Partial Least Squares analyses (PLS). Group structures were also taken into account by adopting a multilevel approach. The male and female genital traits had similarly shallow static allometry slopes, as well as the dispersion values around the mean (i.e. coefficient of variation) and the standard error of the estimate. The correlation between the pooled within-locality covariance matrix of the symmetric component of phallosoma with dorsal arms and the female genital chamber was significant (r-PLS=0.37), as well as that with male body dimensions (r-PLS=0.36), even after controlling for allometry. Specimens with lower PLS shape scores had narrower phallosoma with dorsal arms, with poorly curved outer margins of the dorsal arms, whereas specimens with higher PLS shape scores had slightly shorter dorsal arms, with strongly curved outer margins. Lower shape scores were associated with narrower and especially shorter and narrower female genital chambers. Similar shallow allometric curves among sexes and the correlation between intromittent male parts and the female genital chamber, as well as male dimensions, suggest the coevolution of these contact structures in size and in shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Ricardo Inacio Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Estudos da Biodiversidade do Pampa (LEBIP), Universidade Federal do Pampa, Campus São Gabriel, 97307-020, São Gabriel, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.
| | - Fabiano Stefanello
- Laboratório de Estudos da Biodiversidade do Pampa (LEBIP), Universidade Federal do Pampa, Campus São Gabriel, 97307-020, São Gabriel, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.
| | - Cristhian Bugs
- Laboratório de Estudos da Biodiversidade do Pampa (LEBIP), Universidade Federal do Pampa, Campus São Gabriel, 97307-020, São Gabriel, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.
| | - Cristina Stenert
- Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação de Ecossistemas Aquáticos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Av. Unisinos, 950, 93022-000, Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.
| | - Leonardo Maltchik
- Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação de Ecossistemas Aquáticos, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Av. Unisinos, 950, 93022-000, Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.
| | - Eric Guilbert
- Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, MECADEV - UMR 7179 MNHN/CNRS, CP50-57, rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
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39
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Barrantes G, Madrigal-Brenes R. Allometry of reaching and contact structures in Kukulcania hibernalis (Araneae: Filistatidae). Evol Dev 2019; 21:311-319. [PMID: 31508876 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Large part of the morphological diversity observed across taxa is attributed to the effect of sexual selection; and the static allometry of these structures vary largely from highly positive to negative, depending on their function, and position on the animal's body. In arthropods, information of how sexually selected contact and reaching male structures use during courtship scale on body size is scarce. We tested two complementary hypotheses: the reaching structure hypothesis and the contact-function hypothesis, in the spider Kukulcania hibernalis. We used the length of the proximal segments of the male pedipalp to test the reaching structure hypothesis, and claw features to test the contact-function hypothesis. Our results support both hypotheses. Small males have disproportionally longer pedipalps (highly negative allometry) than large males, increasing the probability of small-bodied males to inseminate even large females. We also found that both distal contact and noncontact homologous structures scaled shallow (slope < 1) on body size, but allometry was significantly shallower for contact than for noncontact distal structures, providing support to the contact-function hypothesis, and allowing teasing apart the effect of sexual selection on distal contact structures with dual functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert Barrantes
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio, San Pedro, Costa Rica
| | - Ruth Madrigal-Brenes
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio, San Pedro, Costa Rica
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40
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Female secondary sexual traits in spiders: Adaptive interpretations of the sternum projection in the pholcid Holocnemus pluchei. ZOOLOGY 2019; 136:125694. [PMID: 31434022 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sexually dimorphic traits are the outcome of a network of selective pressures acting upon each sex. While male secondary sexual traits are frequently restricted to intrasexual competition, female ornaments or weapons are mostly associated to social interactions for the access to limited resources. Here we investigate a sexually dimorphic trait expressed within the female's sternum of the spider species Holocnemus pluchei (Pholcidae), and its adaptive maintenance under the three leading hypotheses: sexual receptivity signaling, mate choice and sexual conflict hypothesis. We provide fine-scaled behavioral descriptions of the copulatory behavior of Holocnemus pluchei, corroborating that mating interactions are mediated by the female's sternum projection. The single moment of contact between the female projection and male body occurs during sperm transfer, always followed by a reduction on the intensity of the male genital movement. Additionally, biometrical properties of the female sternum projection corroborate our functional interpretation for the trait as restricting the intensity of males' copulatory movements. We claim that female sternum projection is a sexually selected trait mediating sexual conflict, with several adaptive consequences upon the sexes.
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41
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Are hemipenial traits under sexual selection in Tropidurus lizards? Hemipenial development, male and female genital morphology, allometry and coevolution in Tropidurus torquatus (Squamata: Tropiduridae). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219053. [PMID: 31291313 PMCID: PMC6619691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Male genitalia show considerable morphological variation among animals with internal fertilization and exhibit a high level of evolvability in lizards. Studies have suggested that sexual selection may be driving hemipenial evolution against natural selection and pleiotropy. Given the direct interaction of male and female genitals, coevolution of the aforementioned is posited by several hypotheses of genital evolution. However, there are only a few studies on female genitalia morphology, resulting in a lack of coevolution description and understanding. Studies of allometric patterns have filled some gaps by answering questions about male genital evolution and could prove a powerful tool in clarifying coevolution between male and female genitals. Here, we studied the genital morphology of Tropidurus torquatus. This Tropidurus lizard species is an emerging Neotropical lizard model organism notable for having enlarged hemipenial lobes in contrast with other tropidurid species. In this study, we analyzed hemipenial development in early and late stages, describing both morphological variation and ontogenetic allometric pattern. We used quantitative traits to describe male and female genital morphology, examining their static allometric patterns and correspondence. Our study provides a quantitative discussion on the evolution of lizard genitals, suggesting that sexual selection plays an important role in genital evolution in Tropidurus lizards.
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42
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Cao C, Yu P, Hayashi F. Allometry and morphological trait relationship in the sexually dimorphic Chinese dobsonfly, Acanthacorydalisasiatica (Wood-Mason, 1884) (Megaloptera, Corydalidae). Zookeys 2019; 854:119-129. [PMID: 31231160 PMCID: PMC6579787 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.854.32897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Male insects with large weapons such as horns and elongate mandibles would be expected to invest more on such structures than other parts of the body for advantages in male to male competition for mating. In male genitalia, however, intermediate size provides a better fit for more females than small or large sizes, and such a male would leave more offspring regardless of their body size. These predictions were tested using a static allometry analysis between body size and other trait sizes. Acanthacorydalisasiatica is a large dobsonfly (Megalotera) and males have conspicuously large mandibles used as weapons. We examined the hypothesis that the male mandibles of this sexually dimorphic species are sexually selected to enlarge, whereas the male genitalia are stable to be intermediate regardless of a great variation in body size. The results, as predicted, showed positive allometry between male body size and mandible length but negative allometry between male body size and ectoproct length (a male grasping structure). Sperm are transferred through a small spermatophore attached externally to the female genital opening, so it may be evolutionarily unnecessary to develop an enlarged male genital size. In contrast, there may be a trade-off between male mandible size and wing length, because of negative allometry between body size and wing length in males but isometry between them in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengquan Cao
- College of Life Science, Leshan Normal University, Leshan, Sichuan 614004, China
| | - Pei Yu
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minamiosawa 1-1, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
| | - Fumio Hayashi
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minamiosawa 1-1, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
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43
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Rodríguez RL, Eberhard WG. Why the Static Allometry of Sexually-Selected Traits Is So Variable: The Importance of Function. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1290-1302. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractSexually-selected traits often show positive static allometry, with large individuals bearing disproportionately large structures. But many other sexually-selected traits show isometry or even negative allometry, with trait size varying relatively little with body size. We recently proposed that the functions of these traits (as aggressive signals, weapons, courtship signals, and contact courtship devices) determine their allometries. Positive allometry is generally favored for aggressive signals because aggressive signals are selected to emphasize body size (and thus fighting prowess). In contrast, the biomechanics of force application in weapons only sometimes select for positive allometry; the content of courtship signals is even less often related to body size; and contact courtship devices are selected to be relatively invariant across body sizes. Here we summarize the arguments in favor of this “functional allometry” hypothesis and expand a comparative test of its predictions. Our results indicate that sexual traits have the allometric slopes predicted by our hypothesis, regardless of which body part bears the structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Lucas Rodríguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Behavioral & Molecular Ecology Group, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
| | - William G Eberhard
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San José, Costa Rica; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama; Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
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44
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Gilman CA, Corl A, Sinervo B, Irschick DJ. Genital morphology associated with mating strategy in the polymorphic lizard, Uta stansburiana. J Morphol 2018; 280:184-192. [PMID: 30592530 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Sexual selection can lead to rapid evolution of sexual traits and striking morphological diversity across taxa. In populations where competition for mates is intense, males sometimes evolve distinct behavioral strategies along with morphological differences that help them secure mating opportunities. Strong postcopulatory selection and differential resource allocation across male strategy type can result in strategy-specific differences in sexual traits, such as sperm morphology, ejaculate components, and testis size. Some polymorphic species also have strategy-specific genital morphology. Thus far, among vertebrates, this has only been observed in fish. Here, we present the first morphological description of the intromittant copulatory organ, the hemipenis, of the three mating types of the side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana, from a population that exhibits alternative mating strategies. We found that the isometrically scaling hemipenis was shortest in the nonterritorial (yellow) morph that sneaks copulations with other males' mates. Although the hemipenes were generally the same shape across morphs, the usurping territorial (orange) morph had a significantly wider apical horn than the nonterritorial sneaker morph. Sneaker males also had smaller relative body masses than both the mate-guarding (blue) morph and the usurper morph, and shorter tibia than the usurper morph. This study using a small sample of males suggests that strong sexual selection may drive genital trait differentiation across morphs within populations of terrestrial vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey A Gilman
- Department of Biology, Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Ammon Corl
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California
| | - Barry Sinervo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California
| | - Duncan J Irschick
- Department of Biology, Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts.,Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts
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45
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Casasa S, Moczek AP. Insulin signalling's role in mediating tissue-specific nutritional plasticity and robustness in the horn-polyphenic beetle Onthophagus taurus. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20181631. [PMID: 30963895 PMCID: PMC6304051 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Organisms cope with nutritional variation via developmental plasticity, adjusting trait size to nutrient availability for some traits while enabling others to develop in a nutritionally robust manner. Yet, the developmental mechanisms that regulate organ-specific growth across nutritional gradients remain poorly understood. We assessed the functions of members of the insulin/insulin-like signalling pathway (IIS) in the regulation of nutrition sensitivity and robustness in males of the horn-polyphenic beetle Onthophagus taurus, as well as potential regulatory interactions between IIS and two other growth-regulating pathways: Doublesex and Hedgehog signalling. Using RNA interference (RNAi), we experimentally knocked down both insulin receptors ( InR1 and InR2) and Foxo, a growth inhibitor. We then performed morphometric measurements on horns, a highly nutrition-sensitive trait, and genitalia, a largely nutrition-insensitive trait. Finally, we used quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction to assess expression levels of doublesex and the Hedgehog signalling gene smoothened following IIS-RNAi. Our results suggest that nutrition responsiveness of both traits is regulated by different IIS components, which transduce nutritional conditions to both Doublesex and Hedgehog pathways, albeit via different IIS pathway members. Combined with previous studies, our findings suggest that separate origins of trait exaggeration among insect lineages were enabled through the independent co-option of IIS, yet via reliance on different components therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Casasa
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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Alpha shapes: determining 3D shape complexity across morphologically diverse structures. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:184. [PMID: 30518326 PMCID: PMC6282314 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1305-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Following recent advances in bioimaging, high-resolution 3D models of biological structures are now generated rapidly and at low-cost. To use this data to address evolutionary and ecological questions, an array of tools has been developed to conduct shape analysis and quantify topographic complexity. Here we focus particularly on shape techniques applied to irregular-shaped objects lacking clear homologous landmarks, and propose a new ‘alpha-shapes’ method for quantifying 3D shape complexity. Methods We apply alpha-shapes to quantify shape complexity in the mammalian baculum as an example of a morphologically disparate structure. Micro- computed-tomography (μCT) scans of bacula were conducted. Bacula were binarised and converted into point clouds. Following application of a scaling factor to account for absolute size differences, a suite of alpha-shapes was fitted per specimen. An alpha shape is formed from a subcomplex of the Delaunay triangulation of a given set of points, and ranges in refinement from a very coarse mesh (approximating convex hulls) to a very fine fit. ‘Optimal’ alpha was defined as the refinement necessary in order for alpha-shape volume to equal CT voxel volume, and was taken as a metric of overall ‘complexity’. Results Our results show that alpha-shapes can be used to quantify interspecific variation in shape ‘complexity’ within biological structures of disparate geometry. The ‘stepped’ nature of alpha curves is informative with regards to the contribution of specific morphological features to overall ‘complexity’. Alpha-shapes agrees with other measures of complexity (dissection index, Dirichlet normal energy) in identifying ursid bacula as having low shape complexity. However, alpha-shapes estimates mustelid bacula as being most complex, contrasting with other shape metrics. 3D fractal dimension is identified as an inappropriate metric of complexity when applied to bacula. Conclusions Alpha-shapes is used to calculate ‘optimal’ alpha refinement as a proxy for shape ‘complexity’ without identifying landmarks. The implementation of alpha-shapes is straightforward, and is automated to process large datasets quickly. We interpret alpha-shapes as being particularly sensitive to concavities in surface topology, potentially distinguishing it from other shape complexity metrics. Beyond genital shape, the alpha-shapes technique holds considerable promise for new applications across evolutionary, ecological and palaeoecological disciplines.
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McDonald JMC, Ghosh SM, Gascoigne SJL, Shingleton AW. Plasticity Through Canalization: The Contrasting Effect of Temperature on Trait Size and Growth in Drosophila. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:156. [PMID: 30515381 PMCID: PMC6255818 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In most ectotherms, a reduction in developmental temperature leads to an increase in body size, a phenomenon known as the temperature size rule (TSR). In Drosophila melanogaster, temperature affects body size primarily by affecting critical size, the point in development when larvae initiate the hormonal cascade that stops growth and starts metamorphosis. However, while the thermal plasticity of critical size can explain the effect of temperature on overall body size, it cannot entirely account for the effect of temperature on the size of individual traits, which vary in their thermal sensitivity. Specifically, the legs and male genitalia show reduced thermal plasticity for size, while the wings show elevated thermal plasticity, relative to overall body size. Here, we show that these differences in thermal plasticity among traits reflect, in part, differences in the effect of temperature on the rates of cell proliferation during trait growth. Counterintuitively, the elevated thermal plasticity of the wings is due to canalization in the rate of cell proliferation across temperatures. The opposite is true for the legs. These data reveal that environmental canalization at one level of organization may explain plasticity at another, and vice versa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shampa M Ghosh
- Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT), Bhubaneswar, India
| | | | - Alexander W Shingleton
- Department of Biology, Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, IL, United States.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Evans KM, Bernt MJ, Kolmann MA, Ford KL, Albert JS. Why the long face? Static allometry in the sexually dimorphic phenotypes of Neotropical electric fishes. Zool J Linn Soc 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zly076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The evolution of sexually dimorphic traits is thought to have marked effects on underlying patterns of static allometry. These traits can negatively affect organismal survivability by creating trade-offs between trait size and performance. Here we use three-dimensional geometric morphometrics to study the static allometry of two species of sexually dimorphic electric fishes (Apteronotus rostratus and Compsaraia samueli) in which mature males grow elongate jaws used in agonistic male–male interactions. We also estimate jaw-closing performance between the sexes of both species to track changes in kinematic transmission associated with the development of sexual weaponry. We find significantly different patterns of static allometry between the sexes of both species, with males exhibiting more positive allometric slopes relative to females. We also find a negative relationship between skull shape and mandibular kinematic transmission in C. samueli, suggesting a trade-off where males with longer faces exhibit lower mechanical advantages, suggesting weaker jaw leverage. In contrast, males and females of A. rostratus exhibit no difference between sexes in mechanical advantage associated with facial elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kory M Evans
- University of Minnesota, Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, & Bell Museum of Natural History, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Maxwell J Bernt
- University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Department of Biology, Lafayette, LA, USA
| | | | - Kassandra L Ford
- University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Department of Biology, Lafayette, LA, USA
| | - James S Albert
- University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Department of Biology, Lafayette, LA, USA
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Takahashi KH, Ishimori M, Iwata H. HSP90 as a global genetic modifier for male genital morphology in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 2018; 72:2419-2434. [PMID: 30221481 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The molecular chaperone protein HSP90 has been proposed to modulate genotype-phenotype relationship in a broad range of organisms. We explore the proposed genetic modifier effect of HSP90 through a genomewide analysis. Here, we show that HSP90 functions as a genetic modifier of genital morphology in Drosophila melanogaster. We identified a large number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with an HSP90-dependent effect by using genome wide association analysis. We classified the SNPs into the ones under capacitance effect (smaller allelic effect under HSP90 inhibition) or the ones under potentiation effect (larger allelic effect under HSP90 inhibition). Although the majority of SNPs are under capacitance, there are a large number of SNPs under potentiation. This observation provides support for a model in which Hsp90 is not described exclusively as a "genetic capacitor," but is described more broadly as a "genetic modifier." Because the majority of the candidate genes estimated from SNPs with an HSP90-dependent effect in the current study has never been reported to interact with HSP90 directly, the global genetic modifier effect of HSP90 may be exhibited through epistatic interactions in gene regulatory networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo H Takahashi
- Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, 1-1-1 Tsushima-naka, Kita-ku, Okayama-si, Okayama-ken, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Motoyuki Ishimori
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Iwata
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Eberhard WG, Rodríguez RL, Huber BA, Speck B, Miller H, Buzatto BA, Machado G. Sexual Selection and Static Allometry: The Importance of Function. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1086/699410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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