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Lahooti B, Akwii RG, Zahra FT, Sajib MS, Lamprou M, Alobaida A, Lionakis MS, Mattheolabakis G, Mikelis CM. Targeting endothelial permeability in the EPR effect. J Control Release 2023; 361:212-235. [PMID: 37517543 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
The characteristics of the primary tumor blood vessels and the tumor microenvironment drive the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, which confers an advantage towards enhanced delivery of anti-cancer nanomedicine and has shown beneficial effects in preclinical models. Increased vascular permeability is a landmark feature of the tumor vessels and an important driver of the EPR. The main focus of this review is the endothelial regulation of vascular permeability. We discuss current challenges of targeting vascular permeability towards clinical translation and summarize the structural components and mechanisms of endothelial permeability, the principal mediators and signaling players, the targeted approaches that have been used and their outcomes to date. We also critically discuss the effects of the tumor-infiltrating immune cells, their interplay with the tumor vessels and the impact of immune responses on nanomedicine delivery, the impact of anti-angiogenic and tumor-stroma targeting approaches, and desirable nanoparticle design approaches for greater translational benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behnaz Lahooti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Racheal G Akwii
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Fatema Tuz Zahra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Md Sanaullah Sajib
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - Margarita Lamprou
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Ahmed Alobaida
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Ha'il, Ha'il 81442, Saudi Arabia
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - George Mattheolabakis
- School of Basic Pharmaceutical and Toxicological Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA 71201, USA.
| | - Constantinos M Mikelis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA; Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece.
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2
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Hayakawa K, Maeda T, Egusa C, Okubo Y, Harada K. Topical application of imatinib mesylate ameliorated psoriasis-like skin lesions in imiquimod-induced murine model via angiogenesis inhibition. Exp Dermatol 2023; 32:878-888. [PMID: 36928929 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic skin disorder characterized by a skin rash with scaly patches. Microvascular abnormalities are a characteristic feature of psoriasis and play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of psoriatic lesions. Angiogenic factors are upregulated in psoriatic skin lesions and are thought to induce angiogenesis. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) induces vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and PDGF is upregulated in keratinocytes in psoriatic skin lesions. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of topical imatinib mesylate (IMT) in inhibiting the activation of PDGF signalling in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. When topically applied to the skin of mice with imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis, IMT ameliorated skin symptoms similar to those of human psoriasis. Hyperproliferation of keratinocytes, hyperkeratosis, inflammatory cell infiltration and hypervascularity were histologically suppressed by topical IMT. The expression of angiogenic factors including fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and VEGF was decreased. The expression of FGF and VEGF in a PDGF-stimulated fibroblast cell line was inhibited by IMT. PDGF is required for the signalling pathway producing angiogenic factors in fibroblast. Thus, topically applied IMT inhibits PDGFR activation in fibroblast and suppresses the production of angiogenic factors, thereby mitigating the symptoms of psoriasis. The inhibitory effect of IMT on angiogenesis suggests that topical application IMT may be a viable treatment option for psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuma Hayakawa
- Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Maeda
- Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chizu Egusa
- Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukari Okubo
- Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazutoshi Harada
- Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Li C, Kuang K, Du J, Eymin B, Jia T. Far beyond anti-angiogenesis: Benefits for anti-basicFGF therapy in cancer. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2022; 1869:119253. [PMID: 35259425 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2022.119253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Basic FGF (bFGF) was discovered as a typical inducer of angiogenesis and has already been studied for 3 decades. Recent evidence indicates that bFGF plays different roles and controls signaling pathways that participate in the hallmarks of cancer, underscoring bFGF an appealing target for anti-cancer therapy. However, the early clinical trials designed to block bFGF signaling showed safety without satisfiable benefits for cancer patients. In this review, we firstly discuss bFGF's canonical signaling pathways and later review newly identified bFGF's functions that contribute to the cancer hallmarks besides its typical role in angiogenesis. After, we summarize the role of bFGF as a therapeutic target in response to different cancer therapies including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and highlight the difficulties we must solve regarding the design of drugs targeting specifically bFGF. We also emphasize the need, especially for natural bFGF traps, to deepen their molecular mechanisms of action considering the specific context of cancer with different FGFR status, as well as the urgence of stratifying patients for both anti-bFGF first line and second line anti-cancer therapy. Finally, a perspective on potential feed-forward oncogenic signaling pathways mediated by bFGF is made. We discuss the importance of developing additional robust biomarkers to select patients who will benefit from bFGF-targeted therapy, as well as the rationale of developing combinatory therapies targeting either bFGF and/or its intracellular (co)effectors. This would ultimately provide novel therapeutic strategies to fight cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- ChunYan Li
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - KeLi Kuang
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - JunRong Du
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Beatrice Eymin
- INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, Institute For Advanced Biosciences, 38700 La Tronche, France; University Grenoble Alpes, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Tao Jia
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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4
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An J, Zeng Y, Liu H, Huang L, Yao J, Hou E, Zhang X. Corneal neovascularization inhibition and wound healing impregnability of conbercept on rabbit cornea after penetrating keratoplasty. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2022; 41:98-104. [PMID: 35373690 DOI: 10.1080/15569527.2022.2050745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin An
- The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yue Zeng
- Baoding NO.1 Central Hospital, Baoding, China
| | - Huan Liu
- Division of Ocular Injuries, Department of Ophthalmology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- Hebei OPO Eye Bank, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Liying Huang
- Division of Ocular Injuries, Department of Ophthalmology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- Hebei OPO Eye Bank, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Jia Yao
- Division of Ocular Injuries, Department of Ophthalmology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- Hebei OPO Eye Bank, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Enchong Hou
- Division of Ocular Injuries, Department of Ophthalmology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- Hebei OPO Eye Bank, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- Division of Ocular Injuries, Department of Ophthalmology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- Hebei OPO Eye Bank, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
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Lan C, Liu G, Huang L, Wang X, Tan J, Wang Y, Fan N, Zhu Y, Yu M, Liu X. Forkhead Domain Inhibitor-6 Suppresses Corneal Neovascularization and Subsequent Fibrosis After Alkali Burn in Rats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:14. [PMID: 35446346 PMCID: PMC9034725 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.4.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Forkhead Domain Inhibitor-6 (FDI-6) on regulating inflammatory corneal angiogenesis and subsequent fibrosis induced by alkali burn. Methods A corneal alkali burn model was established in Sprague Dawley rats using NaOH and the rat eyes were topically treated with FDI-6 (40 µM) or a control vehicle four times daily for 7 days. Corneal neovascularization, inflammation and epithelial defects were observed on days 1, 4, and 7 under a slit lamp microscope after corneal alkali burn. Analysis of angiogenesis-, inflammation-, and fibrosis-related indicators was conducted on day 7. Murine macrophages (RAW264.7 cells) and mouse retinal microvascular endothelial cells (MRMECs) were used to examine the effects of FDI-6 on inflammatory angiogenesis in vitro. Results Topical delivery of FDI-6 significantly attenuated alkali burn-induced corneal inflammation, neovascularization, and fibrosis. FDI-6 suppressed the expression of angiogenic factors (vascular epidermal growth factor, CD31, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and endothelial NO synthase), fibrotic factors (α-smooth muscle actin and fibronectin), and pro-inflammatory factor interleukin-6 in alkali-injured corneas. FDI-6 downregulated the expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1, pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-alpha), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3, and vascular endothelial growth factor in RAW264.7 cells and inhibited the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of MRMECs in vitro. Conclusions FDI-6 can attenuate corneal neovascularization, inflammation, and fibrosis in alkali-injured corneas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlin Lan
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Guo Liu
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Longxiang Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Xizhen Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen Eye Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Junkai Tan
- Xiamen Eye Center, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yun Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen Eye Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Ning Fan
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen Eye Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Yihua Zhu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Man Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Research Unit for Blindness Prevention of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2019RU026), Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xuyang Liu
- Xiamen Eye Center, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.,Department of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen People's Hospital, the 2nd Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen, China
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Jin H, Quesada C, Aliabouzar M, Kripfgans OD, Franceschi RT, Liu J, Putnam AJ, Fabiilli ML. Release of basic fibroblast growth factor from acoustically-responsive scaffolds promotes therapeutic angiogenesis in the hind limb ischemia model. J Control Release 2021; 338:773-783. [PMID: 34530052 PMCID: PMC8526405 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Pro-angiogenic growth factors have been studied as potential therapeutics for cardiovascular diseases like critical limb ischemia (CLI). However, the translation of these factors has remained a challenge, in part, due to problems associated with safe and effective delivery. Here, we describe a hydrogel-based delivery system for growth factors where release is modulated by focused ultrasound (FUS), specifically a mechanism termed acoustic droplet vaporization. With these fibrin-based, acoustically-responsive scaffolds (ARSs), release of a growth factor is non-invasively and spatiotemporally-controlled in an on-demand manner using non-thermal FUS. In vitro studies demonstrated sustained release of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) from the ARSs using repeated applications of FUS. In in vivo studies, ARSs containing bFGF were implanted in mice following induction of hind limb ischemia, a preclinical model of CLI. During the 4-week study, mice in the ARS + FUS group longitudinally exhibited significantly more perfusion and less visible necrosis compared to other experimental groups. Additionally, significantly greater angiogenesis and less fibrosis were observed for the ARS + FUS group. Overall, these results highlight a promising, FUS-based method of delivering a pro-angiogenic growth factor for stimulating angiogenesis and reperfusion in a cardiovascular disease model. More broadly, these results could be used to personalize the delivery of therapeutics in different regenerative applications by actively controlling the release of a growth factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Jin
- Department of Medical Ultrasound, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China; Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Carole Quesada
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mitra Aliabouzar
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Oliver D Kripfgans
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Applied Physics Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Renny T Franceschi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Dental School, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jianhua Liu
- Department of Medical Ultrasound, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Andrew J Putnam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mario L Fabiilli
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Applied Physics Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Role of bFGF in Acquired Resistance upon Anti-VEGF Therapy in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13061422. [PMID: 33804681 PMCID: PMC8003808 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13061422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anti-angiogenic approaches targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway have been a significant research focus during the past decades and are well established in clinical practice. Despite the expectations, their benefit is ephemeral in several diseases, including specific cancers. One of the most prominent side effects of the current, VEGF-based, anti-angiogenic treatments remains the development of resistance, mostly due to the upregulation and compensatory mechanisms of other growth factors, with the basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) being at the top of the list. Over the past decade, several anti-angiogenic approaches targeting simultaneously different growth factors and their signaling pathways have been developed and some have reached the clinical practice. In the present review, we summarize the knowledge regarding resistance mechanisms upon anti-angiogenic treatment, mainly focusing on bFGF. We discuss its role in acquired resistance upon prolonged anti-angiogenic treatment in different tumor settings, outline the reported resistance mechanisms leading to bFGF upregulation, and summarize the efforts and outcome of combined anti-angiogenic approaches to date.
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8
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Complement-mediated release of fibroblast growth factor 2 from human RPE cells. Exp Eye Res 2021; 204:108471. [PMID: 33516764 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Complement activation is associated with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and membrane attack complex (MAC) are present in eyes of patients with CNV. Herein, we investigated the effect of complement activation on FGF2 release in human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. METHODS Cultured human RPE cells were primed with an anti-RPE antibody and then treated with C1q-depleted human serum in the presence or absence of Tec kinases inhibitor (LFM-A13). 38 cytokines/chemokines levels were measured by Luminex technology. Secretion of FGF2 and interleukin (IL)-6 was assessed by ELISA. Tec protein was measured by Western blot. mRNA expression of FGF2, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL-1), and family members of Tec kinases was evaluated by qPCR. Cell viability and MAC deposition were determined by WST-1 assay and flow cytometry, respectively. RESULTS Complement activation caused increased FGF2 and IL-6 release. FGF2 was released when C6-depleted human serum was reconstituted with C6. Anti-C5 antibody significantly attenuated complement-mediated FGF2 release, but not IL-6. FGF2 mRNA levels were not affected, while CXCL-1 mRNA levels were increased by complement activation. FGF2-containing extracellular vesicles were detected in response to complement challenge. Tec mRNA and protein were expressed in RPE cells. In the presence of LFM-A13, secretion of FGF2, but not IL-6, and MAC deposition were significantly decreased and cell viability was significantly increased in complement-treated cells when compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS Complement plays an important role to release FGF2 from RPE cells. Tec kinase is involved in MAC formation and complement-mediated FGF2 release. This information suggests a role for complement activation to mediate neovascularization in conditions such as AMD, and may elucidate potential therapeutic targets.
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Corsini M, Ravelli C, Grillo E, Dell'Era P, Presta M, Mitola S. Simultaneously characterization of tumoral angiogenesis and vasculogenesis in stem cell-derived teratomas. Exp Cell Res 2021; 400:112490. [PMID: 33484747 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2021.112490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tumor neovascularization may occur via both angiogenic and vasculogenic events. In order to investigate the vessel formation during tumor growth, we developed a novel experimental model that takes into account the differentiative and tumorigenic properties of Embryonic Stem cells (ESCs). Leukemia Inhibitory Factor-deprived murine ESCs were grafted on the top of the chick embryo chorionallantoic membrane (CAM) in ovo. Cell grafts progressively grew, forming a vascularized mass within 10 days. At this stage, the grafts are formed by cells with differentiative features representative of all three germ layers, thus originating teratomas, a germinal cell tumor. In addition, ESC supports neovascular events by recruiting host capillaries from surrounding tissue that infiltrates the tumor mass. Moreover, immunofluorescence studies demonstrate that perfused active blood vessels within the tumor are of both avian and murine origin because of the simultaneous occurrence of angiogenic and vasculogenic events. In conclusion, the chick embryo ESC/CAM-derived teratoma model may represent a useful approach to investigate both vasculogenic and angiogenic events during tumor growth and for the study of natural and synthetic modulators of the two processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Corsini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy; Laboratory for Preventive and Personalized Medicine (MPP Lab), University of Brescia, Italy.
| | - Cosetta Ravelli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy; Laboratory for Preventive and Personalized Medicine (MPP Lab), University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Grillo
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Patrizia Dell'Era
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy; cFRU Lab, Università degli Studi di Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marco Presta
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Stefania Mitola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Via Branze 39, 25123, Brescia, University of Brescia, Italy; Laboratory for Preventive and Personalized Medicine (MPP Lab), University of Brescia, Italy.
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10
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Rezzola S, Loda A, Corsini M, Semeraro F, Annese T, Presta M, Ribatti D. Angiogenesis-Inflammation Cross Talk in Diabetic Retinopathy: Novel Insights From the Chick Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane/Human Vitreous Platform. Front Immunol 2020; 11:581288. [PMID: 33117388 PMCID: PMC7552803 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.581288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathological angiogenesis of the retina is a key component of irreversible causes of blindness, as observed in proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). The pathogenesis of PDR is complex and involves vascular, inflammatory, and neuronal mechanisms. Several structural and molecular alterations associated to PDR are related to the presence of inflammation that appears to play a non-redundant role in the neovascular response that characterizes the retina of PDR patients. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) blockers have evolved over time for the treatment of retinal neovascularization. However, several limitations to anti-VEGF interventions exist. Indeed, the production of other angiogenic factors and pro-inflammatory mediators may nullify and/or cause resistance to anti-VEGF therapies. Thus, appropriate experimental models are crucial for dissecting the mechanisms leading to retinal neovascularization and for the discovery of more efficacious anti-angiogenic/anti-inflammatory therapies for PDR patients. This review focuses on the tight cross talk between angiogenesis and inflammation during PDR and describe how the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay may represent a cost-effective and rapid in vivo tool for the study of the relationship between neovascular and inflammatory responses elicited by the vitreous humor of PDR patients and for the screening of novel therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Rezzola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandra Loda
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Michela Corsini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesco Semeraro
- Eye Clinic, Department of Neurological and Vision Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Tiziana Annese
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences, and Sensory Organs, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
| | - Marco Presta
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.,Italian Consortium for Biotechnology (CIB), Unit of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Domenico Ribatti
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences, and Sensory Organs, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
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11
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Joshi MG, Kshersagar J, Desai SR, Sharma S. Antiviral properties of placental growth factors: A novel therapeutic approach for COVID-19 treatment. Placenta 2020; 99:117-130. [PMID: 32798764 PMCID: PMC7406421 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2020.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The current challenge of the COVID-19 pandemic is complicated by the limited therapeutic options against the virus, with many being anecdotal or still undergoing confirmatory trials, underlining the urgent need for novel strategies targeting the virus. The pulmotropic virus causes loss of oxygenation in severe cases with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and need for mechanical ventilation. This work seeks to introduce placental extract-derived biologically active components as a therapeutic option and highlights their mechanism of action relevant to COVID-19 virus. Human placenta has been used in clinical practice for over a century and there is substantial experience in clinical applications of placental extract for different indications. Aqueous extract of human placentacontains growth factors, cytokines/chemokines, natural metabolic and other compounds, anti-oxidants, amino acids, vitamins, trace elements and biomolecules, which individually or in combination show accelerated cellular metabolism, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects, cellular proliferation and stimulation of tissue regeneration processes. Placental extract treatment is proposed as a suitable therapeutic approach consideringthe above properties which could protect against initial viral entry and acute inflammation of alveolar epithelial cells, reconstitute pulmonary microenvironment and regenerate the lung. We reviewed useful therapeutic information of placental biomolecules in relation to COVID-19 treatment. We propose the new approach of using placental growth factors, chemokines and cytokine which will execute antiviral activity in coordination with innate and humoral immunity and improve patient's immunological responses to COVID-19. Executing a clinical trial using placental extract as preventive, protective and/or therapeutic approach for COVID-19treatment could advance the development of a most promising therapeutic candidate that can join the armamentaria against the COVID-19 virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghnad G Joshi
- Department of Stem Cells & Regenerative Medicine, D Y Patil Education Society (Deemed University), E 869 D. Y. Patil Vidyanagar, KasbaBawda, Kolhapur, 416006, MS, India.
| | - Jeevitaa Kshersagar
- Department of Stem Cells & Regenerative Medicine, D Y Patil Education Society (Deemed University), E 869 D. Y. Patil Vidyanagar, KasbaBawda, Kolhapur, 416006, MS, India
| | - Shashikant R Desai
- Stem Plus Foundation, C.T.S 648 A/1, Gajendra Bol, Gavali Galli, Peth Bhag, Sangli, 416 415, MS, India
| | - Shimpa Sharma
- Department of Medicine, D Y Patil Medical College, D Y Patil Education Society (Deemed University), E 869 D. Y. Patil Vidyanagar, KasbaBawda, Kolhapur, 416006, MS, India
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12
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Sangany CM, Moodley J, Onyagunga OA, Naicker T. Role of basic fibroblast growth factor in human immunodeficiency virus associated pre-eclampsia. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2020; 46:1292-1297. [PMID: 32500557 DOI: 10.1111/jog.14335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM Cell signaling is vital to ensure successful trophoblast invasion. This study assessed the level of serum basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) associated pre-eclampsia (PE). METHODS Using a Bio-plex Multiplex Immunoassay, FGF-2 (pg/mL) was analyzed in blood sera collected from 80 pregnant women attending a large regional hospital in Durban, South Africa. Study groups consisted of normotensive and pre-eclamptic pregnant women stratified according to their HIV status. Data analysis was performed using graphpad prism statistics software, version 5.00. RESULTS In this study, we report a significant decrease of FGF-2 serum level in pre-eclamptic compared to normotensive pregnant women groups (25.38 ± 6.69 pg/mL vs 61.79 ± 11.25 pg/mL), irrespective of their HIV status. Similarly, there was a significant decrease in FGF-2 serum level in HIV positive compared to HIV negative group (33.80 ± 9.62 pg/mL vs 52.15 ± 9.49 pg/mL), irrespective of their pregnancy type. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates a downregulation of serum FGF-2 expression in pre-eclamptic compared to normotensive pregnant women. This decline may be responsible for the defective trophoblast invasion and/or to PE severity. The decline in FGF-2 expression in HIV infection is probably due to the effect of HIV Tat protein on angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charline M Sangany
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Jagidesa Moodley
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and Women's Health and HIV Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Onankoy A Onyagunga
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Thajasvarie Naicker
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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13
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Sochet AA, Wilson EA, Das JR, Berger JT, Ray PE. Plasma and Urinary FGF-2 and VEGF-A Levels Identify Children at Risk for Severe Bleeding after Pediatric Cardiopulmonary Bypass: A Pilot Study. MEDICAL RESEARCH ARCHIVES 2020; 8:2134. [PMID: 33043139 PMCID: PMC7546309 DOI: 10.18103/mra.v8i6.2134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Severe bleeding after cardiothoracic surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in adults and children. Fibroblast Growth Factor-2 (FGF-2) and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A (VEGF-A) induce hemorrhage in murine models with heparin exposure. We aim to determine if plasma and urine levels of FGF-2 and VEGF-A in the immediate perioperative period can identify children with severe bleeding after CPB. We performed a prospective, observational biomarker study in 64 children undergoing CPB for congenital heart disease repair from June 2015 - January 2017 in a tertiary pediatric referral center. Primary outcome was severe bleeding defined as ≥ 20% estimated blood volume loss within 24-hours. Independent variables included perioperative plasma and urinary FGF-2 and VEGF-A levels. Analyses included comparative (Wilcoxon rank sum, Fisher's exact, and Student's t tests) and discriminative (receiver operator characteristic [ROC] curve) analyses. Forty-eight (75%) children developed severe bleeding. Median plasma and urinary FGF-2 and VEGF-A levels were elevated in children with severe bleeding compared to without bleeding (preoperative: plasma FGF-2 = 16[10-35] vs. 9[2-13] pg/ml; urine FGF-2= 28[15-76] vs. 14.5[1.5-22] pg/mg; postoperative: plasma VEGF-A = 146[34-379] vs. 53 [0-134] pg/ml; urine VEGF-A = 132 [52-257] vs. 45[0.1-144] pg/mg; all p < 0.05). ROC curve analyses of combined plasma and urinary FGF-2 and VEGF-A levels discriminated severe postoperative bleeding (AUC: 0.73-0.77) with mean sensitivity and specificity above 80%. We conclude that the perioperative plasma and urinary levels of FGF-2 and VEGF-A discriminate risk of severe bleeding after pediatric CPB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Sochet
- Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
| | - Elizabeth A Wilson
- Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
| | - Jharna R Das
- Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
| | - John T Berger
- Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
- Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
| | - Patricio E Ray
- Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
- Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Health System, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC 20010
- Child Health Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia, School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22980
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14
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Tan Y, Qiao Y, Chen Z, Liu J, Guo Y, Tran T, Tan KS, Wang DY, Yan Y. FGF2, an Immunomodulatory Factor in Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:223. [PMID: 32300593 PMCID: PMC7142218 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a potent mitogenic factor belonging to the FGF family. It plays a role in airway remodeling associated with chronic inflammatory airway diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Recently, research interest has been raised in the immunomodulatory function of FGF2 in asthma and COPD, through its involvement in not only the regulation of inflammatory cells but also its participation as a mediator between immune cells and airway structural cells. Herein, this review provides the current knowledge on the biology of FGF2, its expression pattern in asthma and COPD patients, and its role as an immunomodulatory factor. The potential that FGF2 is involved in regulating inflammation indicates that FGF2 could be a therapeutic target for chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyang Tan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
| | | | - Zhuanggui Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Yanrong Guo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Thai Tran
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kai Sen Tan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - De-Yun Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yan Yan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China.,Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
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15
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Wang X, Tang L, Zhang Z, Li W, Chen Y. Keratocytes promote corneal neovascularization through VEGFr3 induced by PPARα-inhibition. Exp Eye Res 2020; 193:107982. [PMID: 32092288 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.107982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As the peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor alpha (PPARα) agonist, fenofibrate has been widely used to be a good lipid-regulating drug in the clinical application. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which keratocytes inhibit the corneal neovascularization (CNV) through PPARα - activation. To do this, the CNV model was established by alkali burn, followed by being divided into three groups including control, fenofibrate and vehicle group. The expression of VEGFr3, MMP13 and PPARα in corneas of normal mouse and alkali-burned mouse was determined via quantitative RT- PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot analysis (WB). The CNV area was observed under a slit lamp microscope. The location of PPARα expression in the corneas was determined via immunohistochemistry. In cultured primary keratocytes, the effect of fenofibrate on PPARα, VEGFr3 and MMP13 expression was determined by qRT-PCR and WB. Besides, PPARα knockout (PPARα-/-) mouse CNV and keratocytes model were established to further confirm the effect of PPARα on VEGFr3 and MMP13 expression. We found that PPARα was expressed in epithelium, stroma and endothelium of the normal cornea, however, with relatively low level in the corneal stroma. Meanwhile, its expression was decreased markedly in the cornea during the stage of CNV formation. After treatment of fenofibrate, PPARα expression was promoted and the expression of VEGFr3 and MMP13 was inhibited in both CNV mice model and primary keratocytes, and CNV areas were decreased in CNV mice model. However, the results in PPARα-/- CNV and keratocytes model were opposite. Our results suggest that keratocytes could promote the expression of VEGFr3 and MMP13, and CNV formation through PPARα downregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Wang
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, 410015, China; Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Medical College, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Liying Tang
- Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Medical College, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zhaoqiang Zhang
- Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Medical College, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Wensheng Li
- Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, Changsha, 410015, China; Shanghai Aier Eye Hospital, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Yongxiong Chen
- Eye Institute of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Medical College, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
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16
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The Antitumor Efficacy of β-Elemene by Changing Tumor Inflammatory Environment and Tumor Microenvironment. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:6892961. [PMID: 32149121 PMCID: PMC7054771 DOI: 10.1155/2020/6892961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory mediators and inflammatory cells in the inflammatory microenvironment promote the transformation of normal cells to cancer cells in the early stage of cancer, promote the growth and development of cancer cells, and induce tumor immune escape. The monomeric active ingredient β-elemene is extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine Curcuma wenyujin and has been proven to have good anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities in clinical applications for more than 20 years in China. Recent studies have found that this traditional Chinese medicine plays a vital role in macrophage infiltration and M2 polarization, as well as in regulating immune disorders, and it even regulates the transcription factors NF-κB and STAT3 to alter inflammation, tumorigenesis, and development. In addition, β-elemene regulates not only different inflammatory factors (such as TNF-α, IFN, TGF-β, and IL-6/10) but also oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro. The excellent anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects of β-elemene and its ability to alter the inflammatory microenvironment of tumors have been gradually elaborated. Although the study of monomeric active ingredients in traditional Chinese medicines is insufficient in terms of quality and quantity, the pharmacological effects of more active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicines will be revealed after β-elemene.
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17
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Adeyemo A, Johnson C, Stiene A, LaSance K, Qi Z, Lemen L, Schultz JEJ. Limb functional recovery is impaired in fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) deficient mice despite chronic ischaemia-induced vascular growth. Growth Factors 2020; 38:75-93. [PMID: 32496882 PMCID: PMC8601595 DOI: 10.1080/08977194.2020.1767612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
FGF2 is a potent stimulator of vascular growth; however, even with a deficiency of FGF2 (Fgf2-/-), developmental vessel growth or ischaemia-induced revascularization still transpires. It remains to be elucidated as to what function, if any, FGF2 has during ischaemic injury. Wildtype (WT) or Fgf2-/- mice were subjected to hindlimb ischaemia for up to 42 days. Limb function, vascular growth, inflammatory- and angiogenesis-related proteins, and inflammatory cell infiltration were assessed in sham and ischaemic limbs at various timepoints. Recovery of ischaemic limb function was delayed in Fgf2-/- mice. Yet, vascular growth response to ischaemia was similar between WT and Fgf2-/- hindlimbs. Several angiogenesis- and inflammatory-related proteins (MCP-1, CXCL16, MMPs and PAI-1) were increased in Fgf2-/- ischaemic muscle. Neutrophil or monocyte recruitment/infiltration was elevated in Fgf2-/- ischaemic muscle. In summary, our study indicates that loss of FGF2 induces a pro-inflammatory microenvironment in skeletal muscle which exacerbates ischaemic injury and delays functional limb use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeola Adeyemo
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Christopher Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Andrew Stiene
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Kathleen LaSance
- Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
- Preclinical Imaging Core, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Zhihua Qi
- Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
- Preclinical Imaging Core, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Lisa Lemen
- Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
- Preclinical Imaging Core, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
| | - Jo El J. Schultz
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267
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18
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Feldo M, Wójciak-Kosior M, Sowa I, Kocki J, Bogucki J, Zubilewicz T, Kęsik J, Bogucka-Kocka A. Effect of Diosmin Administration in Patients with Chronic Venous Disorders on Selected Factors Affecting Angiogenesis. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24183316. [PMID: 31547271 PMCID: PMC6767141 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24183316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Diosmin is a natural compound with a wide range of biological activity, e.g., it improves lymphatic drainage, supports microcirculation, and increases venous tone, and venous elasticity, hence, it is applied in the pharmacotherapy of chronic venous disorders (CVD). The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between diosmin administration (2 × 600 mg daily) in patients suffering from CVD and the levels of selected factors influencing angiogenesis, which are involved in CVD pathophysiology. Thirty-five CVD patients were examined. Levels of plasma tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A and VEGF-C); angiostatin, interleukin 6 (IL-6), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2); and plasminogen (PLG) were measured with an Elisa assay before and after three months of diosmin administration. The clinical symptoms of CVD were monitored using ultrasound images, echo Doppler assay, visual analogue scale (VAS), and measurement of the leg circumference. The average content of TNF alpha, VEGF-C, VEGF-A IL-6, and FGF2 decreased after the therapy with diosmin in a significant manner; with p < 0.001, p < 0.05, p < 0.05, p < 0.01, and p < 0.01, respectively, and a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the plasma angiostatin level after the three-month treatment was found. A significant (p < 0.05) decrease in edema and the average leg circumference of the patients was observed after the therapy. Diosmin influences the angiogenic and inflammatory mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of edema presented in patients with a different class of CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Feldo
- Department of Vascular Surgery and Angiology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 11, 20-081 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Wójciak-Kosior
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4a, 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Ireneusz Sowa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4a, 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Janusz Kocki
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland, Radziwiłłowska 11, 20-080 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Jacek Bogucki
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland, Radziwiłłowska 11, 20-080 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Zubilewicz
- Department of Vascular Surgery and Angiology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 11, 20-081 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Jan Kęsik
- Department of Vascular Surgery and Angiology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 11, 20-081 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Anna Bogucka-Kocka
- Chair and Department of Biology and Genetics, Medical University of Lublin, W. Chodźki 4A, 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
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19
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Albiñana V, Giménez-Gallego G, García-Mato A, Palacios P, Recio-Poveda L, Cuesta AM, Patier JL, Botella LM. Topically Applied Etamsylate: A New Orphan Drug for HHT-Derived Epistaxis (Antiangiogenesis through FGF Pathway Inhibition). TH OPEN 2019; 3:e230-e243. [PMID: 31360828 PMCID: PMC6660472 DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1693710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a vascular dysplasia characterized by recurrent and spontaneous epistaxis (nose bleeds), telangiectases on skin and mucosa, internal organ arteriovenous malformations, and dominant autosomal inheritance. Mutations in
Endoglin
and
ACVRL1
/
ALK1
, genes mainly expressed in endothelium, are responsible in 90% of the cases for the pathology. These genes are involved in the transforming growth factor-β(TGF-β) signaling pathway. Epistaxis remains as one of the most common symptoms impairing the quality of life of patients, becoming life-threatening in some cases. Different strategies have been used to decrease nose bleeds, among them is antiangiogenesis. The two main angiogenic pathways in endothelial cells depend on vascular endothelial growth factor and fibroblast growth factor (FGF). The present work has used etamsylate, the diethylamine salt of the 2,5-dihydroxybenzene sulfonate anion, also known as dobesilate, as a FGF signaling inhibitor. In endothelial cells, in vitro experiments show that etamsylate acts as an antiangiogenic factor, inhibiting wound healing and matrigel tubulogenesis. Moreover, etamsylate decreases phosphorylation of Akt and ERK1/2. A pilot clinical trial (EudraCT: 2016–003982–24) was performed with 12 HHT patients using a topical spray of etamsylate twice a day for 4 weeks. The epistaxis severity score (HHT-ESS) and other pertinent parameters were registered in the clinical trial. The significant reduction in the ESS scale, together with the lack of significant side effects, allowed the designation of topical etamsylate as a new orphan drug for epistaxis in HHT (EMA/OD/135/18).
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Albiñana
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Angela García-Mato
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia Palacios
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lucia Recio-Poveda
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angel-M Cuesta
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - José-Luis Patier
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Ramón y Cajal; Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alcalá, IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luisa-María Botella
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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20
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Šebová R, Bauerová-Hlinková V, Beck K, Nemčovičová I, Bauer J, Kúdelová M. Residue Mutations in Murine Herpesvirus 68 Immunomodulatory Protein M3 Reveal Specific Modulation of Chemokine Binding. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:210. [PMID: 31293981 PMCID: PMC6603146 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The M3 protein (M3) encoded by murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is a unique viral immunomodulator with a high-affinity for a broad spectrum of chemokines, key mediators responsible for the migration of immune cells to sites of inflammation. M3 is currently being studied as a very attractive and desirable tool for blocking the chemokine signaling involved in some inflammatory diseases and cancers. In this study, we elucidated the role of M3 residues E70 and T272 in binding to chemokines by examining the effects of the E70A and T272G mutations on the ability of recombinant M3, prepared in Escherichia coli cells, to bind the human chemokines CCL5 and CXCL8. We found that the E70A mutation enhanced binding of M3 to CCL5 two-fold but had little effect on its binding to CXCL8. In contrast, the T272G mutation was found to be important for the thermal stability of M3 and significantly decreased M3's binding to both CCL5 (by about 4×) and CXCL8 (by about 5×). We also constructed in silico models of the wild-type M3–CCL5 and M3–CCL8 complexes and found substantial differences in their physical and chemical properties. M3 models with single mutation E70A and T272G suggested the role of E70 and T272 in binding M3 protein to chemokines. In sum, we have confirmed that site-directed mutagenesis could be an effective tool for modulating the blockade of particular chemokines by M3, as desired in therapeutic treatments for severe inflammatory illnesses arising from chemokine network dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radka Šebová
- Department of Viral Immunology, Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Vladena Bauerová-Hlinková
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Konrad Beck
- Cardiff University School of Dentistry, Heath Park, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Ivana Nemčovičová
- Department of Viral Immunology, Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jacob Bauer
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Marcela Kúdelová
- Department of Viral Immunology, Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
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21
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Presta M, Foglio E, Churruca Schuind A, Ronca R. Long Pentraxin-3 Modulates the Angiogenic Activity of Fibroblast Growth Factor-2. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2327. [PMID: 30349543 PMCID: PMC6187966 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing ones, plays a key role in various physiological and pathological conditions. Alteration of the angiogenic balance, consequent to the deranged production of angiogenic growth factors and/or natural angiogenic inhibitors, is responsible for angiogenesis-dependent diseases, including cancer. Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) represents the prototypic member of the FGF family, able to induce a complex “angiogenic phenotype” in endothelial cells in vitro and a potent neovascular response in vivo as the consequence of a tight cross talk between pro-inflammatory and angiogenic signals. The soluble pattern recognition receptor long pentraxin-3 (PTX3) is a member of the pentraxin family produced locally in response to inflammatory stimuli. Besides binding features related to its role in innate immunity, PTX3 interacts with FGF2 and other members of the FGF family via its N-terminal extension, thus inhibiting FGF-mediated angiogenic responses in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, PTX3 inhibits the growth and vascularization of FGF-dependent tumors and FGF2-mediated smooth muscle cell proliferation and artery restenosis. Recently, the characterization of the molecular bases of FGF2/PTX3 interaction has allowed the identification of NSC12, the first low molecular weight pan-FGF trap able to inhibit FGF-dependent tumor growth and neovascularization. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the impact of PTX3 and PTX3-derived molecules on the angiogenic, inflammatory, and tumorigenic activity of FGF2 and their potential implications for the development of more efficacious anti-FGF therapeutic agents to be used in those clinical settings in which FGFs play a pathogenic role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Presta
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Eleonora Foglio
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Ander Churruca Schuind
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberto Ronca
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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22
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Bradykinin B2 Receptor Contributes to Inflammatory Responses in Human Endothelial Cells by the Transactivation of the Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor FGFR-1. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19092638. [PMID: 30200598 PMCID: PMC6163484 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19092638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated levels of bradykinin (BK) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and angiogenic disorders. In angiogenesis, both stimuli induce a pro-inflammatory signature in endothelial cells, activating an autocrine/paracrine amplification loop that sustains the neovascularization process. Here we investigated the contribution of the FGF-2 pathway in the BK-mediated human endothelial cell permeability and migration, and the role of the B2 receptor (B2R) of BK in this cross-talk. BK (1 µM) upregulated the FGF-2 expression and promoted the FGF-2 signaling, both in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and in retinal capillary endothelial cells (HREC) by the activation of Fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (FGFR-1) and its downstream signaling (fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate: FRSα, extracellular signal–regulated kinases1/2: ERK1/2, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3: STAT3 phosphorylation). FGFR-1 phosphorylation triggered by BK was c-Src mediated and independent from FGF-2 upregulation. Either HUVEC and HREC exposed to BK showed increased permeability, disassembly of adherens and tight-junction, and increased cell migration. B2R blockade by the selective antagonist, fasitibant, significantly inhibited FGF-2/FGFR-1 signaling, and in turn, BK-mediated endothelial cell permeability and migration. Similarly, the FGFR-1 inhibitor, SU5402, and the knock-down of the receptor prevented the BK/B2R inflammatory response in endothelial cells. In conclusion, this work demonstrates the existence of a BK/B2R/FGFR-1/FGF-2 axis in endothelial cells that might be implicated in propagation of angiogenic/inflammatory responses. A B2R blockade, by abolishing the initial BK stimulus, strongly attenuated FGFR-1-driven cell permeability and migration.
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Hwang MP, Ding X, Gao J, Acharya AP, Little SR, Wang Y. A biocompatible betaine-functionalized polycation for coacervation. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:387-395. [PMID: 29147712 PMCID: PMC5771809 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm01763d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The aqueous nature of complex coacervates provides a biologically-relevant context for various therapeutic applications. In this sense, biological applications demand a corresponding level of biocompatibility from the polyelectrolytes that participate in complex coacervation. Continued development with naturally-occurring polyelectrolytes such as heparin and chitosan underscore such aims. Herein, we design a synthetic polycation, in which betaine is conjugated to a biodegradable polyester backbone. Betaine is a naturally-occurring methylated amino acid that is ubiquitously present in human plasma. Inspired by its vast range of benefits - including but not limited to anti-inflammation, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, protein stabilization, and cardiovascular health - we aim to impart additional functionality to a polycation for eventual use in a complex coacervate with heparin. We report on its in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility, in vitro and in vivo effect on angiogenesis, in vitro effect on microbial growth, and ability to form complex coacervates with heparin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mintai P Hwang
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Rezzola S, Corsini M, Chiodelli P, Cancarini A, Nawaz IM, Coltrini D, Mitola S, Ronca R, Belleri M, Lista L, Rusciano D, De Rosa M, Pavone V, Semeraro F, Presta M. Inflammation and N-formyl peptide receptors mediate the angiogenic activity of human vitreous humour in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetologia 2017; 60:719-728. [PMID: 28083635 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-4204-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Angiogenesis and inflammation characterise proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), a major complication of diabetes mellitus. However, the impact of inflammation on the pathogenesis of PDR neovascularisation has not been elucidated. Here, we assessed the capacity of PDR vitreous fluid to induce pro-angiogenic/proinflammatory responses in endothelium and the contribution of the inflammation-related pattern recognition N-formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) in mediating these responses. METHODS Pooled and individual pars plana vitrectomy-derived PDR vitreous fluid ('PDR vitreous') samples were assessed in endothelial cell proliferation, motility, sprouting and morphogenesis assays, and for the capacity to induce proinflammatory transcription factor activation, reactive oxygen species production, intercellular junction disruption and leucocyte-adhesion molecule upregulation in these cells. In vivo, the pro-angiogenic/proinflammatory activity of PDR vitreous was tested in murine Matrigel plug and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assays. Finally, the FPR inhibitors Boc-Phe-Leu-Phe-Leu-Phe (Boc-FLFLF) and Ac-L-Arg-Aib-L-Arg-L-Cα(Me)Phe-NH2 tetrapeptide (UPARANT) were evaluated for their capacity to affect the biological responses elicited by PDR vitreous. RESULTS PDR vitreous activates a pro-angiogenic/proinflammatory phenotype in endothelial cells. Accordingly, PDR vitreous triggers a potent angiogenic/inflammatory response in vivo. Notably, the different capacity of individual PDR vitreous samples to induce neovessel formation in the CAM correlates with their ability to recruit infiltrating CD45+ cells. Finally, the FPR inhibitor Boc-FLFLF and the novel FPR antagonist UPARANT inhibit neovessel formation and inflammatory responses triggered by PDR vitreous in the CAM assay. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION This study provides evidence that inflammation mediates the angiogenic activity of PDR vitreous and paves the way for the development of FPR-targeting anti-inflammatory/anti-angiogenic approaches for PDR therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Rezzola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy.
| | - Michela Corsini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Paola Chiodelli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Anna Cancarini
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Brescia, Piazzale Spedali Civili 1, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Imtiaz M Nawaz
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Daniela Coltrini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Stefania Mitola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Roberto Ronca
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Mirella Belleri
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy
| | - Liliana Lista
- Department of Chemical Sciences, 'Federico II' University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Mario De Rosa
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Pavone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, 'Federico II' University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Semeraro
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Brescia, Piazzale Spedali Civili 1, Brescia, 25123, Italy.
| | - Marco Presta
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Via Branze 39, Brescia, 25123, Italy.
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Lacalle RA, Blanco R, Carmona-Rodríguez L, Martín-Leal A, Mira E, Mañes S. Chemokine Receptor Signaling and the Hallmarks of Cancer. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 331:181-244. [PMID: 28325212 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The chemokines are a family of chemotactic cytokines that mediate their activity by acting on seven-transmembrane-spanning G protein-coupled receptors. Both the ability of the chemokines and their receptors to form homo- and heterodimers and the promiscuity of the chemokine-chemokine receptor interaction endow this protein family with enormous signaling plasticity and complexity that are not fully understood at present. Chemokines were initially identified as essential regulators of homeostatic and inflammatory trafficking of innate and adaptive leucocytes from lymphoid organs to tissues. Chemokines also mediate the host response to cancer. Nevertheless, chemokine function in this response is not limited to regulating leucocyte infiltration into the tumor microenvironment. It is now known that chemokines and their receptors influence most-if not all-hallmark processes of cancer; they act on both neoplastic and untransformed cells in the tumor microenvironment, including fibroblasts, endothelial cells (blood and lymphatic), bone marrow-derived stem cells, and, obviously, infiltrating leucocytes. This review begins with an overview of chemokine and chemokine receptor structure, to better define how chemokines affect the proliferation, survival, stemness, and metastatic potential of neoplastic cells. We also examine the main mechanisms by which chemokines regulate tumor angiogenesis and immune cell infiltration, emphasizing the pro- and antitumorigenic activity of this protein superfamily in these interrelated processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Lacalle
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - R Blanco
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - A Martín-Leal
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - E Mira
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - S Mañes
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Madrid, Spain.
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Ramírez J, Celis R, Usategui A, Ruiz-Esquide V, Faré R, Cuervo A, Sanmartí R, Pablos JL, Cañete JD. Immunopathologic characterization of ultrasound-defined synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis patients in clinical remission. Arthritis Res Ther 2016; 18:74. [PMID: 27036513 PMCID: PMC4818452 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-016-0970-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in clinical remission may have ultrasound-defined synovitis according to the presence of power Doppler (PD) signal. The objective was to describe the immunopathologic characteristics of ultrasound-defined synovitis compared with synovitis in patients with clinically active RA. Methods We included between 6 and 8 ultrasound-guided synovial biopsies per patient from 20 patients with RA in clinical remission (DAS28-ESR <2.6) with PD signal, 22 synovial tissue samples (ST) from patients with clinically active RA (swollen joint with confirmed inflammatory synovial fluid) as inflammatory controls, and 10 ST from non-inflammatory controls. Immunostaining for CD3 (T lymphocytes), CD20 (B lymphocytes), CD68 (macrophages), CD117 (mast cells), hsp47 (fibroblasts), bFGF and CXCL12 (angiogenic factors) was made and quantified by digital image analysis. The number of CD31 vessels/mm2 was quantified. Results RA patients in remission with PD signal had significantly reduced synovial T-cell, B-cell, mast cell and fibroblast density, but similar macrophage infiltration compared with patients with clinically active RA. Vascularity, bFGF and CXCL12 were partially reduced in RA patients in remission with PD signal compared to those with active RA, but were significantly higher compared with ST from non-inflammatory controls. During the 12-month follow up, 8/20 RA patients (40 %) lost remission: all had synovial hypertrophy grade ≥2 and significantly more synovial B cells and mast cells than patients maintaining remission. Conclusions Asymptomatic ultrasound-defined synovitis and clinically active arthritis differ in the degree of infiltrating lymphoid, mast cells and fibroblast density, but are similar with respect to macrophage infiltration. Persistently increased angiogenic factor expression and vascularity may explain the persistence of a PD signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Ramírez
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raquel Celis
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alicia Usategui
- Rheumatology Department, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (I + 12), Avda, Córdoba, s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Virginia Ruiz-Esquide
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Regina Faré
- Rheumatology Department, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (I + 12), Avda, Córdoba, s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrea Cuervo
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raimon Sanmartí
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José L Pablos
- Rheumatology Department, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (I + 12), Avda, Córdoba, s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan D Cañete
- Arthritis Unit, Rheumatology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona and IDIBAPS, c/ Villarroel, 170, 08036, Barcelona, Spain.
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Interleukin-1β induces fibroblast growth factor 2 expression and subsequently promotes endothelial progenitor cell angiogenesis in chondrocytes. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016; 130:667-81. [PMID: 26811540 PMCID: PMC4797417 DOI: 10.1042/cs20150622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Angiogenesis is an important event in the process of arthritis. Stimulating chondrocytes with IL-1β increased the expression of FGF-2, via the IL-1RI/ROS/AMPK/p38/NF-κB signalling pathway. FGF-2-neutralizing antibody abolished ATDC5-conditional medium-mediated angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. Arthritis is a process of chronic inflammation that results in joint damage. IL (interleukin)-1β is an inflammatory cytokine that acts as a key mediator of cartilage degradation, and is abundantly expressed in arthritis. Neovascularization is one of the pathological characteristics of arthritis. However, the role of IL-1β in the angiogenesis of chondrocytes remains unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that stimulating chondrocytes (ATDC5) with IL-1β increased the expression of FGF (fibroblast growth factor)-2, a potent angiogenic inducer, and then promoted EPC (endothelial progenitor cell) tube formation and migration. In addition, FGF-2-neutralizing antibody abolished ATDC5-conditional medium-mediated angiogenesis in vitro, as well as its angiogenic effects in the CAM (chick chorioallantoic membrane) assay and Matrigel plug nude mice model in vivo. IHC (immunohistochemistry) staining from a CIA (collagen-induced arthritis) mouse model also demonstrates that arthritis increased the expression of IL-1β and FGF-2, as well as EPC homing in articular cartilage. Moreover, IL-1β-induced FGF-2 expression via IL-1RI (type-1 IL-1 receptor), ROS (reactive oxygen species) generation, AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), p38 and NF-κB (nuclear factor κB) pathway has been demonstrated. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that IL-1β promotes FGF-2 expression in chondrocytes through the ROS/AMPK/p38/NF-κB signalling pathway and subsequently increases EPC angiogenesis. Therefore IL-1β serves as a link between inflammation and angiogenesis during arthritis.
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Jerebtsova M, Das JR, Tang P, Wong E, Ray PE. Angiopoietin-1 prevents severe bleeding complications induced by heparin-like drugs and fibroblast growth factor-2 in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 309:H1314-25. [PMID: 26276817 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00373.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Critically ill children can develop bleeding complications when treated with heparin-like drugs. These events are usually attributed to the anticoagulant activity of these drugs. However, previous studies showed that fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), a heparin-binding growth factor released in the circulation of these patients, could precipitate intestinal hemorrhages in mice treated with the heparin-like drug pentosan polysulfate (PPS). Yet very little is known about how FGF-2 induces bleeding complications in combination with heparin-like drugs. Here, we examined the mechanisms by which circulating FGF-2 induces intestinal hemorrhages in mice treated with PPS. We used a well-characterized mouse model of intestinal hemorrhages induced by FGF-2 plus PPS. Adult FVB/N mice were infected with adenovirus carrying Lac-Z or a secreted form of recombinant human FGF-2, and injected with PPS, at doses that do not induce bleeding complications per se. Mice treated with FGF-2 in combination with PPS developed an intestinal inflammatory reaction that increased the permeability and disrupted the integrity of submucosal intestinal vessels. These changes, together with the anticoagulant activity of PPS, induced lethal hemorrhages. Moreover, a genetically modified form of the endothelial ligand angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1*), which has powerful antipermeability and anti-inflammatory activity, prevented the lethal bleeding complications without correcting the anticoagulant status of these mice. These findings define new mechanisms through which FGF-2 and Ang-1* modulate the outcome of intestinal bleeding complications induced by PPS in mice and may have wider clinical implications for critically ill children treated with heparin-like drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Jerebtsova
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Jharna R Das
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Pingtao Tang
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Edward Wong
- Division of Laboratory Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; Department of Pediatrics, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Patricio E Ray
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; and Department of Pediatrics, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia
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Improved Angiogenesis in Response to Localized Delivery of Macrophage-Recruiting Molecules. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131643. [PMID: 26132702 PMCID: PMC4489184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful engineering of complex organs requires improved methods to promote rapid and stable vascularization of artificial tissue scaffolds. Toward this goal, tissue engineering strategies utilize the release of pro-angiogenic growth factors, alone or in combination, from biomaterials to induce angiogenesis. In this study we have used intravital microscopy to define key, dynamic cellular changes induced by the release of pro-angiogenic factors from polyethylene glycol diacrylate hydrogels transplanted in vivo. Our data show robust macrophage recruitment when the potent and synergistic angiogenic factors, PDGFBB and FGF2 were used as compared with VEGF alone and intravital imaging suggested roles for macrophages in endothelial tip cell migration and anastomosis, as well as pericyte-like behavior. Further data from in vivo experiments show that delivery of CSF1 with VEGF can dramatically improve the poor angiogenic response seen with VEGF alone. These studies show that incorporating macrophage-recruiting factors into the design of pro-angiogenic biomaterial scaffolds is a key strategy likely to be necessary for stable vascularization and survival of implanted artificial tissues.
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30
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Angulo J, Cuevas P, Cuevas B, El Youssef M, Fernández A, Martínez-Salamanca E, González-Corrochano R, Giménez-Gallego G. Diacetyloxyl derivatization of the fibroblast growth factor inhibitor dobesilate enhances its anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoral activities. J Transl Med 2015; 13:48. [PMID: 25638171 PMCID: PMC4318172 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-015-0413-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dobesilate (2,5-dihydroxyphenyl sulfonate, DHPS) was recently identified as the most potent member of a family of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) inhibitors headed by gentisic acid, one of the main catabolites of aspirin. Although FGFs were first described as inducers of angiogenesis, they were soon recognized as broad spectrum mitogens. Furthermore, in the last decade these proteins have been shown to participate directly in the onset of inflammation, and their potential angiogenic activity often contributes to the inflammatory process in vivo. The aim of this work was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoral activities of the derivative of DHPS obtained by acetoxylation of its two hydroxyl groups (2,5-diacetoxyphenyl sulfonate; DAPS). METHODS Anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoral activities of DHPS and DAPS were compared using in vivo assays of dermatitis, angiogenesis and tumorigenesis. The effects of both compounds on myeloperoxidase (MPO) and cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, cytokine production and FGF-induced fibroblast proliferation were also determined. RESULTS Topical DAPS is more effective than DHPS in preventing inflammatory signs (increased vascular permeability, edema, leukocyte infiltration, MPO activation) caused by contact dermatitis induction in rat ears. DAPS, but not DHPS, effectively inhibits COX-1 and COX-2 activities. DAPS also reduces the increase in serum cytokine concentration induced by lipopolysaccharide in rats. Furthermore, DAPS displays higher in vivo efficacy than DHPS in inhibiting FGF-induced angiogenesis and heterotopic glioma progression, with demonstrated oral efficacy to combat both processes. CONCLUSIONS By inhibiting both FGF-signaling and COX-mediated prostaglandin synthesis, DAPS efficiently breaks the vicious circle created by the reciprocal induction of FGF and prostaglandins, which probably sustains undesirable inflammation in many circumstances. Our findings define the enhancement of anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoral activities by diacetyloxyl derivatization of the FGF inhibitor, dobesilate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Angulo
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Pedro Cuevas
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Begoña Cuevas
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Mohammad El Youssef
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Argentina Fernández
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Eduardo Martínez-Salamanca
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rocío González-Corrochano
- Departamento de Estructura y Función de Proteínas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avda Ramiro de Maeztu 9, ES-28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Guillermo Giménez-Gallego
- Departamento de Estructura y Función de Proteínas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avda Ramiro de Maeztu 9, ES-28040, Madrid, Spain.
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Cuevas P, Outeiriño LA, Azanza C, Angulo J, Giménez-Gallego G. Improvement in the signs and symptoms of dry eye disease with dobesilate eye drops. Mil Med Res 2015; 2:35. [PMID: 26697189 PMCID: PMC4687099 DOI: 10.1186/s40779-015-0068-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dry eye is a multifactor disease of the tear film and ocular surface that substantially affects quality of life. CASE PRESENTATION Dobesilate administered as eye drops was well tolerated and effective in treating both the objective signs and subjective symptoms of dry eye disease in this 2-week study. CONCLUSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first clinical report of using dobesilate in eye drops. Dobesilate may provide a novel approach to treating drying diseases of the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Cuevas
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Alfonso X, Madrid, Spain ; Departamento de Oftalmología, Hospital de Día Pío XII, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Carlos Azanza
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Hospital de Día Pío XII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Angulo
- Servicio de Histología. Departamento de Investigación, IRYCIS; Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
| | - Guillermo Giménez-Gallego
- Departamento de Estructura y Función de Proteínas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas. CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Cuevas P, Outeiriño LA, Azanza C, Angulo J, Giménez-Gallego G. Dramatic resolution of vitreous hemorrhage after an intravitreal injection of dobesilate. Mil Med Res 2015; 2:23. [PMID: 26357547 PMCID: PMC4563831 DOI: 10.1186/s40779-015-0050-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitreous hemorrhages are important clinical manifestations of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Non-cleared vitreous hemorrhages could lead to hemosiderosis bulbi and glaucoma. Here, we describe the case of a type 2 diabetic patient presenting anterior segment and vitreous hemorrhages that resolved three days after treatment with a single intravitreal injection of dobesilate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Cuevas
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Alfonso X, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Carlos Azanza
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Hospital de Día Pío XII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Angulo
- Servicio de Histología, Departamento, de Investigación, IRYCIS, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
| | - Guillermo Giménez-Gallego
- Departamento de Estructura y Función de Proteínas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Role of M2-like macrophage recruitment during angiogenic growth factor therapy. Angiogenesis 2014; 18:191-200. [PMID: 25537851 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-014-9456-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic angiogenesis has yet to fulfill its promise for the clinical treatment of ischemic diseases. Given the impact of macrophages during pathophysiological angiogenesis, we asked whether macrophages may similarly modulate vascular responses to targeted angiogenic therapies. Mouse matrigel plug assay and rat myocardial infarction (MI) model were used to assess angiogenic therapy with either VEGF-A or FGF-2 with HGF (F+H) delivered locally via albumin-alginate microcapsules. The infiltration of classical M1-type and alternative M2-like macrophages was assessed. Clodronate was used to prevent macrophage recruitment, and the VEGFR2 blocking antibody, DC101, to prevent VEGF-A signaling. At 3 weeks after matrigel implantation, the combination therapy (F+H) led to increased total, and specifically M2-like, macrophage infiltration versus control and VEGF-A plugs, correlating with the angiogenic response. In contrast, VEGF-A preferential recruited M1-type macrophages. In agreement with a direct role of M2-like macrophages in F+H-induced vessel growth, clodronate radically decreased angiogenesis. Further, DC101 reduced F+H-induced angiogenesis, without altering macrophage infiltration, revealing macrophage-derived VEGF-A as a crucial determinant of tissue responsiveness. Similarly, increased cardiac M2-like macrophage infiltration was found following F+H therapy post-MI, with strong correlation between macrophage levels and angiogenic and arteriogenic responses. In conclusion, M2-like macrophages play a decisive role, linked to VEGF-A production, in regulation of tissue responsiveness to angiogenic therapies including the combination of F+H. Our data suggest that future attempts at therapeutic revascularization in ischemic patients might benefit from coupling targeted growth factor delivery with either direct or indirect approaches to recruit pro-angiogenic macrophages in order to maximize therapeutic angiogenic/arteriogenic responses.
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Lappas M. Markers of endothelial cell dysfunction are increased in human omental adipose tissue from women with pre-existing maternal obesity and gestational diabetes. Metabolism 2014; 63:860-73. [PMID: 24684825 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2014.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of maternal obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on the expression and release of genes involved in endothelial cell dysfunction in human placenta and omental adipose tissue. MATERIALS/METHODS Human placenta and omental adipose tissue were obtained from non-obese and obese normal glucose tolerant (NGT) women and women with GDM at the time of Caesarean section. Quantitative RT-PCR was performed to determine the level of expression. Tissue explants were performed to determine the release of proteins of interest. RESULTS There was no effect of pre-existing maternal obesity or GDM on placental gene expression or secretion of members of the VEGF family members (PLGF and VEGF-A expression and secretion; sFlt-1 release; VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 mRNA expression); FGFR1 mRNA expression, FGF2 mRNA expression and secretion; endoglin mRNA expression and secretion (sEng); and the adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1. On the other hand, in omental adipose tissue, pre-existing maternal obesity and GDM were associated with increased gene expression of PLGF, endoglin and ICAM-1 and increased secretion of PLGF, sFlt-1, FGF2, sEng and sICAM-1. There was, however, no effect of maternal pre-existing obesity and GDM on VEGF-A, VEGFR1, VEGFR2, FGFR1 and VCAM-1 expression or secretion. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the presence of abnormal expression and secretion of angiogenic proteins and adhesion molecules in omental adipose tissue, but not placenta, from pregnant women with GDM and pre-existing maternal obesity. Increased angiogenic and adhesion molecules released from adipose tissue may affect angiogenesis, inflammation and or lipid and glucose metabolism in both mum and her offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha Lappas
- Obstetrics, Nutrition and Endocrinology Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Mercy Perinatal Research Centre, Mercy Hospital for Women, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia.
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Sugimoto K, Yoshida S, Mashio Y, Toyota N, Xing Y, Xu H, Fujita Y, Huang Z, Touma M, Wu Q. Role of FGF10 on tumorigenesis by MS-K. Genes Cells 2013; 19:112-25. [DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kenkichi Sugimoto
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Suzuka Yoshida
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Yuka Mashio
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Naoka Toyota
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Yanjiang Xing
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Henan Xu
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Yuki Fujita
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Zhijun Huang
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology; Harbin Institute of Technology; Harbin 150001 China
| | - Maki Touma
- Department of Cell Science; Faculty of Graduate School of Science and Technology; Niigata University; Nishi-ku Niigata 950-2181 Japan
| | - Qiong Wu
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology; Harbin Institute of Technology; Harbin 150001 China
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36
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Corsini M, Moroni E, Ravelli C, Andrés G, Grillo E, Ali IH, Brazil DP, Presta M, Mitola S. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element-binding protein mediates the proangiogenic or proinflammatory activity of gremlin. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2013; 34:136-45. [PMID: 24233491 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.113.302517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Angiogenesis and inflammation are closely related processes. Gremlin is a novel noncanonical vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2) ligand that induces a proangiogenic response in endothelial cells (ECs). Here, we investigated the role of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element (CRE)-binding protein (CREB) in mediating the proinflammatory and proangiogenic responses of ECs to gremlin. APPROACH AND RESULTS Gremlin induces a proinflammatory response in ECs, leading to reactive oxygen species and cyclic adenosine monophosphate production and the upregulation of proinflammatory molecules involved in leukocyte extravasation, including chemokine (C-C motif) ligand-2 (Ccl2) and Ccl7, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand-1 (Cxcl1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Accordingly, gremlin induces the VEGFR2-dependent phosphorylation, nuclear translocation, and transactivating activity of CREB in ECs. CREB activation mediates the early phases of the angiogenic response to gremlin, including stimulation of EC motility and permeability, and leads to monocyte/macrophage adhesion to ECs and their extravasation. All these effects are inhibited by EC transfection with a dominant-negative CREB mutant or with a CREB-binding protein-CREB interaction inhibitor that competes for CREB/CRE binding. Also, both recombinant gremlin and gremlin-expressing tumor cells induce proinflammatory/proangiogenic responses in vivo that are suppressed by the anti-inflammatory drug hydrocortisone. Similar effects were induced by the canonical VEGFR2 ligand VEGF-A165. CONCLUSIONS Together, the results underline the tight cross-talk between angiogenesis and inflammation and demonstrate a crucial role of CREB activation in the modulation of the VEGFR2-mediated proinflammatory/proangiogenic response of ECs to gremlin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Corsini
- From the Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy (M.C., E.M., C.R., E.G., M.P., S.M.); Electron Microscopy Unit, Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa, Campus Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain (G.A.); and Centre for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, ICS-A, Grosvenor Road, Belfast BT12 6BA, UK (I.H.A., D.P.B.)
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37
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Cuevas P, Outeiriño LA, Azanza C, Giménez-Gallego G. Durable recovery of the macular architecture and functionality of a diagnosed age-related macular degeneration 1 year after a single intravitreal injection of dobesilate. BMJ Case Rep 2013; 2013:bcr-2013-010203. [PMID: 24225910 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2013-010203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the age-related diseases that affect vision, age-related macular degeneration is the most frequent cause of blindness in patients older than 60 years. In this communication, we report the full anatomical and functional recovery of a patient diagnosed with wet age-related macular degeneration 1 year after a single intravitreal injection of dobesilate.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Cuevas
- Departamento de Investigación, IRYCIS, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
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38
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Gyanchandani R, Ortega Alves MV, Myers JN, Kim S. A proangiogenic signature is revealed in FGF-mediated bevacizumab-resistant head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Cancer Res 2013; 11:1585-96. [PMID: 24092775 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-13-0358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Resistance to antiangiogenic therapies is a critical problem that has limited the utility of antiangiogenic agents in clinical settings. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this resistance have yet to be fully elucidated. In this study, we established a novel xenograft model of acquired resistance to bevacizumab. To identify molecular changes initiated by the tumor cells, we performed human-specific microarray analysis on bevacizumab-sensitive and -resistant tumors. Efficiency analysis identified 150 genes upregulated and 31 genes downregulated in the resistant tumors. Among angiogenesis-related genes, we found upregulation of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) and fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 (FGFR3) in the resistant tumors. Inhibition of the FGFR in the resistant tumors led to the restoration of sensitivity to bevacizumab. Furthermore, increased FGF2 production in the resistant cells was found to be mediated by overexpression of upstream genes phospholipase C (PLCg2), frizzled receptor-4 (FZD4), chemokine [C-X3-C motif] (CX3CL1), and chemokine [C-C motif] ligand 5 (CCL5) via extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). In summary, our work has identified an upregulation of a proangiogenic signature in bevacizumab-refractory HNSCC tumors that converges on ERK signaling to upregulate FGF2, which then mediates evasion of anti-VEGF therapy. These findings provide a new strategy on how to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of antiangiogenic therapy. IMPLICATIONS Novel xenograft model leads to the discovery of FGF as a promising therapeutic target in overcoming the resistance of antiangiogenic therapy in HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rekha Gyanchandani
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 200 Lothrop Street, Suite 500, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
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Porcù E, Viola G, Bortolozzi R, Persano L, Mitola S, Ronca R, Presta M, Romagnoli R, Baraldi PG, Basso G. TR-644 a novel potent tubulin binding agent induces impairment of endothelial cells function and inhibits angiogenesis. Angiogenesis 2013; 16:647-62. [PMID: 23456551 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-013-9343-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
TR-644 is a novel combretastatin A-4 (CA-4) analogue endowed with potent microtubule depolymerizing activity superior to that of the lead compound and it also has high affinity to colchicines binding site of tubulin. We tested TR-644 anti-angiogenic effects in human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVEC). It showed no significant effects on the growth of HUVEC cells at concentrations below 1,000 nM, but at much lower concentrations (10-100 nM) it induced inhibition of capillary tube formation, inhibition of endothelial cell migration and affected endothelial cell morphology as demonstrated by the disruption of the microtubule network. TR-644 also increased permeability of HUVEC cells in a time dependent manner. The molecular mechanism for the anti-vascular activity of TR-644 was investigated in detail. TR-644 caused G2/M arrest in endothelial cells and this effect correlated with downregulation of the expression of Cdc25C and Cdc2(Tyr15). Moreover TR-644 inhibited VEGF-induced phosphorylation of VE-cadherin but did not prevent the VEGF-induced phosphorylation of FAK. In chick chorioallantoic membrane in vivo assay, TR-644 (0.1-1.0 pmol/egg) efficiently counteracted the strong angiogenic response induced by FGF. Also CA-4, used as reference compound, caused an antagonistic effect, but in contrast, it induced per se, a remarkable angiogenic response probably due to an inflammatory reaction in the site of treatment. In a mice allogenic tumor model, immunohistochemical staining of tumors with anti-CD31 antibody showed that TR-644 significantly reduced the number of vessel, after 24 h from the administration of a single dose (30 mg/Kg).
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Porcù
- Laboratorio di Oncoematologia, Dipartimento di Salute della Donna e del Bambino, Università di Padova, Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padua, Italy
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40
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Matrigel plug assay: evaluation of the angiogenic response by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Angiogenesis 2012; 16:469-77. [PMID: 23143707 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-012-9324-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The subcutaneous Matrigel plug assay in mice is a method of choice for the in vivo evaluation of pro- and anti-angiogenic molecules. However, quantification of the angiogenic response in the plug remains a problematic task. Here we report a simple, rapid, unbiased and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) method to investigate the angiogenic process occurring in the Matrigel plug in response to fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2). To this purpose, a fixed amount of human cells were added to harvested plugs at the end of the in vivo experimentation as an external cell tracer. Then, mRNA levels of the pan-endothelial cell markers murine CD31 and vascular endothelial-cadherin were measured by species-specific RT-qPCR analysis of the total RNA and data were normalized for human GAPDH or β-actin mRNA levels. RT-qPCR was used also to measure the levels of expression in the plug of various angiogenesis/inflammation-related genes. The procedure allows the simultaneous, quantitative evaluation of the newly-formed endothelium and of non-endothelial/inflammatory components of the cellular infiltrate in the Matrigel implant, as well as the expression of genes involved in the modulation of the angiogenesis process. Also, the method consents the quantitative assessment of the effect of local or systemic administration of anti-angiogenic compounds on the neovascular response triggered by FGF2.
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41
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Cuevas P, Outeiriño LA, Angulo J, Giménez-Gallego G. Treatment of Stargardt disease with dobesilate. BMJ Case Rep 2012; 2012:bcr-2012-007128. [PMID: 23076703 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2012-007128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Stargardt disease is a common inherited macular degeneration characterised by a significant loss in the central vision during the first or second decade of the life. Bilateral atrophic changes in the central retina are associated with degeneration of photoreceptors and underlying retinal pigment epithelium, and yellow flecks are extending from the macula. We present a patient with Stargardt disease treated with an intravitreal injection of dobesilate, showing an improvement of visual acuity 4 weeks after treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Cuevas
- Departamento de Investigación, IRYCIS, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
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42
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Reed JR, Stone MD, Beadnell TC, Ryu Y, Griffin TJ, Schwertfeger KL. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 activation in mammary tumor cells promotes macrophage recruitment in a CX3CL1-dependent manner. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45877. [PMID: 23029290 PMCID: PMC3454319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor formation is an extensive process requiring complex interactions that involve both tumor cell-intrinsic pathways and soluble mediators within the microenvironment. Tumor cells exploit the intrinsic functions of many soluble molecules, including chemokines and their receptors, to regulate pro-tumorigenic phenotypes that are required for growth and progression of the primary tumor. Previous studies have shown that activation of inducible FGFR1 (iFGFR1) in mammary epithelial cells resulted in increased proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro and tumor formation in vivo. These studies also demonstrated that iFGFR1 activation stimulated recruitment of macrophages to the epithelium where macrophages contributed to iFGFR1-mediated epithelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis. The studies presented here further utilize this model to identify the mechanisms that regulate FGFR1-induced macrophage recruitment. Results from this study elucidate a novel role for the inflammatory chemokine CX3CL1 in FGFR1-induced macrophage migration. Specifically, we illustrate that activation of both the inducible FGFR1 construct in mouse mammary epithelial cells and endogenous FGFR in the triple negative breast cancer cell line, HS578T, leads to expression of the chemokine CX3CL1. Furthermore, we demonstrate that FGFR-induced CX3CL1 is sufficient to recruit CX3CR1-expressing macrophages in vitro. Finally, blocking CX3CR1 in vivo leads to decreased iFGFR1-induced macrophage recruitment, which correlates with decreased angiogenesis. While CX3CL1 is a known target of FGF signaling in the wound healing environment, these studies demonstrate that FGFR activation also leads to induction of CX3CL1 in a tumor setting. Furthermore, these results define a novel role for CX3CL1 in promoting macrophage recruitment during mammary tumor formation, suggesting that the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis may represent a potential therapeutic approach for targeting breast cancers associated with high levels of tumor-associated macrophages.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Breast Neoplasms
- CX3C Chemokine Receptor 1
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Movement
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic
- Chemokine CX3CL1/metabolism
- Chemokine CX3CL1/physiology
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/physiology
- Female
- Humans
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Macrophages/physiology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/blood supply
- Mammary Glands, Animal/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/metabolism
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1/metabolism
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna R. Reed
- Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Matthew D. Stone
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Thomas C. Beadnell
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Yungil Ryu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Timothy J. Griffin
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Kathryn L. Schwertfeger
- Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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43
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Zong A, Zhao T, Zhang Y, Song X, Shi Y, Cao H, Liu C, Cheng Y, Qu X, Cao J, Wang F. Anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic activities of sulfated polysaccharide of Sepiella maindroni ink. Carbohydr Polym 2012; 91:403-9. [PMID: 23044150 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Revised: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A previous study demonstrated that SIP-SII, a sulfated Sepiella maindroni ink polysaccharide, suppressed the invasion and migration of cancer cells via the inhibition of the proteolytic activity of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). Therefore, this study investigated the anti-metastatic effect of SIP-SII in vivo. SIP-SII (15 and 30 mg/kg d) markedly decreased B16F10 pulmonary metastasis in mice models by 85.9% and 88.0%, respectively. Immunohistochemistry showed that SIP-SII decreased the expression of the intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in lung metastasis nodules. In addition, SIP-SII inhibited neovascularization in chick chorioallantoic membrane assay at 0.08-2 mg/mL. In the in vitro experiments, SIP-SII (0.8-500 μg/mL) significantly decreased the protein and mRNA expression of ICAM-1 and bFGF in SKOV3 and EA.hy926 cells, respectively. These results suggested that SIP-SII might suppress melanoma metastasis via the inhibition of the tumor adhesion mediated by ICAM-1 and the angiogenesis mediated by bFGF, as well as resulting in depression of the invasion and migration of carcinoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aizhen Zong
- Institute of Biochemical and Biotechnological Drugs, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, Shandong, PR China
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44
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Cuevas P, Outeiriño LA, Angulo J, Giménez-Gallego G. Chronic cystoid macular oedema treated with intravitreal dobesilate. BMJ Case Rep 2012; 2012:bcr-2012-006376. [PMID: 22778475 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2012-006376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Dobesilate is an anti-inflammatory and antipermeability agent. Intravitreal administration of this compound is a therapeutically beneficial agent in the treatment of chronic cystoid macular oedema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Cuevas
- Department of Research, Hospital Ramon y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
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45
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Kao S, Mo J, Baird A, Eliceiri BP. Basic fibroblast growth factor in an animal model of spontaneous mammary tumor progression. Oncol Rep 2012; 27:1807-14. [PMID: 22407271 DOI: 10.3892/or.2012.1710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Although basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) was the first pro-angiogenic molecule discovered, it has numerous activities on the growth and differentiation of non-vascular cell types. FGF2 is both stimulatory and inhibitory, depending on the cell type evaluated, the experimental design used and the context in which it is tested. Here, we investigated the effects of manipulating endogenous FGF2 on the development of mammary cancer to determine whether its endogenous contribution in vivo is pro- or anti-tumorigenic. Specifically, we examined the effects of FGF2 gene dosing in a cross between a spontaneous breast tumor model (PyVT+ mice) and FGF2-/- (FGF KO) mice. Using these mice, the onset and progression of mammary tumors was determined. As predicted, female FGF2 WT mice developed mammary tumors starting around 60 days after birth and by 80 days, 100% of FGF2 WT female mice had mammary tumors. In contrast, 80% of FGF2 KO female mice had no palpable tumors until nearly three weeks later (85 days) at times when 100% of the WT cohort was tumor positive. All FGF KO mice were tumor-bearing by 115 days. When we compared the onset of mammary tumor development and the tumor progression curves between FGF het and FGF KO mice, we observed a difference, which suggested a gene dosing effect. Analysis of the tumors demonstrated that there were significant differences in tumor size depending on FGF2 status. The delay in tumor onset supports a functional role for FGF2 in mammary tumor progression, but argues against an essential role for FGF2 in overall mammary tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Kao
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, MC 8236, San Diego, CA 92103, USA
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46
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Leali D, Inforzato A, Ronca R, Bianchi R, Belleri M, Coltrini D, Di Salle E, Sironi M, Norata GD, Bottazzi B, Garlanda C, Day AJ, Presta M. Long pentraxin 3/tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 interaction: a biological rheostat for fibroblast growth factor 2-mediated angiogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:696-703. [PMID: 22267482 PMCID: PMC3551298 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.111.243998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Angiogenesis is regulated by the balance between pro- and antiangiogenic factors and by extracellular matrix protein interactions. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a major proangiogenic inducer inhibited by the interaction with the soluble pattern recognition receptor long pentraxin 3 (PTX3). PTX3 is locally coexpressed with its ligand tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6), a secreted glycoprotein that cooperates with PTX3 in extracellular matrix assembly. Here, we characterized the effect of TSG-6 on PTX3/FGF2 interaction and FGF2-mediated angiogenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS Solid phase binding and surface plasmon resonance assays show that TSG-6 and FGF2 bind the PTX3 N-terminal domain with similar affinity. Accordingly, TSG-6 prevents FGF2/PTX3 interaction and suppresses the inhibition exerted by PTX3 on heparan sulfate proteoglycan/FGF2/FGF receptor complex formation and on FGF2-dependent angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Also, endogenous PTX3 exerts an inhibitory effect on vascularization induced by FGF2 in a murine subcutaneous Matrigel plug assay, the inhibition being abolished in Ptx3-null mice or by TSG-6 treatment in wild-type animals. CONCLUSION TSG-6 reverts the inhibitory effects exerted by PTX3 on FGF2-mediated angiogenesis through competition of FGF2/PTX3 interaction. This may provide a novel mechanism to control angiogenesis in those pathological settings characterized by the coexpression of TSG-6 and PTX3, in which the relative levels of these proteins may fine-tune the angiogenic activity of FGF2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Leali
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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47
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The Chick Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane as an In Vivo Assay to Study Antiangiogenesis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:482-513. [PMID: 27713265 PMCID: PMC4033966 DOI: 10.3390/ph3030482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2010] [Revised: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiangiogenesis, e.g., inhibition of blood vessel growth, is being investigated as a way to prevent the growth of tumors and other angiogenesis-dependent diseases. Pharmacological inhibition interferes with the angiogenic cascade or the immature neovasculature with synthetic or semi-synthetic substances, endogenous inhibitors or biological antagonists.The chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) is an extraembryonic membrane, which serves as a gas exchange surface and its function is supported by a dense capillary network. Because its extensive vascularization and easy accessibility, CAM has been used to study morphofunctional aspects of the angiogenesis process in vivo and to study the efficacy and mechanism of action of pro- and anti-angiogenic molecules. The fields of application of CAM in the study of antiangiogenesis, including our personal experience, are illustrated in this review article.
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