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Ribeiro TP, Martins-de-Sa D, Macedo LLP, Lourenço-Tessutti IT, Ruffo GC, Sousa JPA, Rósario Santana JMD, Oliveira-Neto OB, Moura SM, Silva MCM, Morgante CV, Oliveira NG, Basso MF, Grossi-de-Sa MF. Cotton plants overexpressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry23Aa and Cry37Aa binary-like toxins exhibit high resistance to the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 344:112079. [PMID: 38588981 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2024.112079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
The cotton boll weevil (CBW, Anthonomus grandis) stands as one of the most significant threats to cotton crops (Gossypium hirsutum). Despite substantial efforts, the development of a commercially viable transgenic cotton event for effective open-field control of CBW has remained elusive. This study describes a detailed characterization of the insecticidal toxins Cry23Aa and Cry37Aa against CBW. Our findings reveal that CBW larvae fed on artificial diets supplemented exclusively with Cry23Aa decreased larval survival by roughly by 69%, while supplementation with Cry37Aa alone displayed no statistical difference compared to the control. However, the combined provision of both toxins in the artificial diet led to mortality rates approaching 100% among CBW larvae (LC50 equal to 0.26 PPM). Additionally, we engineered transgenic cotton plants by introducing cry23Aa and cry37Aa genes under control of the flower bud-specific pGhFS4 and pGhFS1 promoters, respectively. Seven transgenic cotton events expressing high levels of Cry23Aa and Cry37Aa toxins in flower buds were selected for greenhouse bioassays, and the mortality rate of CBW larvae feeding on their T0 and T1 generations ranged from 75% to 100%. Our in silico analyses unveiled that Cry23Aa displays all the hallmark characteristics of β-pore-forming toxins (β-PFTs) that bind to sugar moieties in glycoproteins. Intriguingly, we also discovered a distinctive zinc-binding site within Cry23Aa, which appears to be involved in protein-protein interactions. Finally, we discuss the major structural features of Cry23Aa that likely play a role in the toxin's mechanism of action. In view of the low LC50 for CBW larvae and the significant accumulation of these toxins in the flower buds of both T0 and T1 plants, we anticipate that through successive generations of these transgenic lines, cotton plants engineered to overexpress cry23Aa and cry37Aa hold promise for effectively managing CBW infestations in cotton crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuanne Pires Ribeiro
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Diogo Martins-de-Sa
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Brasília, Brasília, DF 70910-900, Brazil; Genesilico Biotech, Brasília, DF 71503-508, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Lima Pepino Macedo
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Isabela Tristan Lourenço-Tessutti
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Caseca Ruffo
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Graduate Program in Genomic Science and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF 71966-700, Brazil
| | - João Pedro Abreu Sousa
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Graduate Program in Genomic Science and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF 71966-700, Brazil
| | - Julia Moura do Rósario Santana
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Graduate Program in Genomic Science and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF 71966-700, Brazil
| | - Osmundo Brilhante Oliveira-Neto
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Euroamerican University Center, Unieuro, Brasília, DF 70790-160, Brazil
| | - Stéfanie Menezes Moura
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Maria Cristina Mattar Silva
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Carolina Vianna Morgante
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Embrapa Semi-Arid, Pretrolina, PE 56302-970, Brazil
| | - Nelson Geraldo Oliveira
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Marcos Fernando Basso
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil
| | - Maria Fatima Grossi-de-Sa
- Embrapa Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology, INCT PlantStress Biotech, Embrapa, Brasília, DF 70770-917, Brazil; Graduate Program in Genomic Science and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF 71966-700, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biotechnology, Catholic University Dom Bosco, Campo Grande, MS 79117-900, Brazil.
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2
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Yu C, Richly M, Hoang TT, El Beheiry M, Türkcan S, Masson JB, Alexandrou A, Bouzigues CI. Confinement energy landscape classification reveals membrane receptor nano-organization mechanisms. Biophys J 2024:S0006-3495(24)00384-9. [PMID: 38845200 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2024.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The cell membrane organization has an essential functional role through the control of membrane receptor confinement in micro- or nanodomains. Several mechanisms have been proposed to account for these properties, although some features have remained controversial, notably the nature, size, and stability of cholesterol- and sphingolipid-rich domains or lipid rafts. Here, we probed the effective energy landscape acting on single-nanoparticle-labeled membrane receptors confined in raft nanodomains- epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin receptor (CPεTR), and Clostridium septicum α-toxin receptor (CSαTR)-and compared it with hop-diffusing transferrin receptors. By establishing a new analysis pipeline combining Bayesian inference, decision trees, and clustering approaches, we systematically classified single-protein trajectories according to the type of effective confining energy landscape. This revealed the existence of only two distinct organization modalities: confinement in a quadratic energy landscape for EGFR, CPεTR, and CSαTR (A), and free diffusion in confinement domains resulting from the steric hindrance due to F-actin barriers for transferrin receptor (B). The further characterization of effective confinement energy landscapes by Bayesian inference revealed the role of interactions with the domain environment in cholesterol- and sphingolipid-rich domains with (EGFR) or without (CPεTR and CSαTR) interactions with F-actin to regulate the confinement energy depth. These two distinct mechanisms result in the same organization type (A). We revealed that the apparent domain sizes for these receptor trajectories resulted from Brownian exploration of the energy landscape in a steady-state-like regime at a common effective temperature, independently of the underlying molecular mechanisms. These results highlight that confinement domains may be adequately described as interaction hotspots rather than rafts with abrupt domain boundaries. Altogether, these results support a new model for functional receptor confinement in membrane nanodomains and pave the way to the constitution of an atlas of membrane protein organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yu
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Maximilian Richly
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Thi Thuy Hoang
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Mohammed El Beheiry
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Decision and Bayesian Computation, Paris, France; Épiméthée, INRIA, Paris, France
| | - Silvan Türkcan
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Masson
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Decision and Bayesian Computation, Paris, France; Épiméthée, INRIA, Paris, France
| | - Antigoni Alexandrou
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Cedric I Bouzigues
- Laboratoire Optique et Biosciences, CNRS UMR74645, Inserm U1182, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique Paris, Palaiseau, France.
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3
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Lichota A, Gwozdzinski K, Kowalczyk E, Kowalczyk M, Sienkiewicz M. Contribution of staphylococcal virulence factors in the pathogenesis of thrombosis. Microbiol Res 2024; 283:127703. [PMID: 38537329 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2024.127703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococci are responsible for many infections in humans, starting with skin and soft tissue infections and finishing with invasive diseases such as endocarditis, sepsis and pneumonia, which lead to high mortality. Patients with sepsis often demonstrate activated clotting pathways, decreased levels of anticoagulants, decreased fibrinolysis, activated endothelial surfaces and activated platelets. This results in disseminated intravascular coagulation and formation of a microthrombus, which can lead to a multiorgan failure. This review describes various staphylococcal virulence factors that contribute to vascular thrombosis, including deep vein thrombosis in infected patients. The article presents mechanisms of action of different factors released by bacteria in various host defense lines, which in turn can lead to formation of blood clots in the vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lichota
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.
| | | | - Edward Kowalczyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Monika Sienkiewicz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Ou L, Ye B, Sun M, Qi N, Li J, Lv M, Lin X, Cai H, Hu J, Song Y, Chen X, Zhu Y, Yin L, Zhang J, Liao S, Zhang H. Mechanisms of intestinal epithelial cell damage by Clostridiumperfringens. Anaerobe 2024; 87:102856. [PMID: 38609034 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens, a Gram-positive bacterium, causes intestinal diseases in humans and livestock through its toxins, related to alpha toxin (CPA), beta toxin (CPB), C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE), epsilon toxin (ETX), Iota toxin (ITX), and necrotic enteritis B-like toxin (NetB). These toxins disrupt intestinal barrier, leading to various cell death mechanisms such as necrosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis. Additionally, non-toxin factors like adhesins and degradative enzymes contribute to virulence by enhancing colonization and survival of C. perfringens. A vicious cycle of intestinal barrier breach, misregulated cell death, and subsequent inflammation is at the heart of chronic inflammatory and infectious gastrointestinal diseases. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for developing targeted therapies against C. perfringens-associated intestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanxin Ou
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, 528225, China
| | - Bijin Ye
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China; College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, 528225, China
| | - Mingfei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Nanshan Qi
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Minna Lv
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Xuhui Lin
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Haiming Cai
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Junjing Hu
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yongle Song
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Xiangjie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yibin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Lijun Yin
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Jianfei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Shenquan Liao
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
| | - Haoji Zhang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, 528225, China.
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Titball RW. The Molecular Architecture and Mode of Action of Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:180. [PMID: 38668605 PMCID: PMC11053738 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin has long been associated with a severe enterotoxaemia of livestock animals, and more recently, was proposed to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis in humans. The remarkable potency of the toxin has intrigued researchers for many decades, who suggested that this indicated an enzymatic mode of action. Recently, there have been major breakthroughs by finding that it is a pore-forming toxin which shows exquisite specificity for cells bearing the myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) receptor. This review details the molecular structures of the toxin, the evidence which identifies MAL as the receptor and the possible roles of other cell membrane components in toxin binding. The information on structure and mode of action has allowed the functions of individual amino acids to be investigated and has led to the creation of mutants with reduced toxicity that could serve as vaccines. In spite of this progress, there are still a number of key questions around the mode of action of the toxin which need to be further investigated.
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Titball RW, Lewis N, Nicholas R. Is Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin associated with multiple sclerosis? Mult Scler 2023; 29:1057-1063. [PMID: 37480283 PMCID: PMC10413780 DOI: 10.1177/13524585231186899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin is associated with enterotoxaemia in livestock. More recently, it is proposed to play a role in multiple sclerosis (MS) in humans. Compared to matched controls, strains of C. perfringens which produce epsilon toxin are significantly more likely to be isolated from the gut of MS patients and at significantly higher levels; similarly, sera from MS patients are significantly more likely to contain antibodies to epsilon toxin. Epsilon toxin recognises the myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein receptor, damaging the blood-brain barrier and brain cells expressing MAL. In the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of MS, the toxin enables infiltration of immune cells into the central nervous system, inducing an MS-like disease. These studies provide evidence that epsilon toxin plays a role in MS, but do not yet fulfil Koch's postulates in proving a causal role.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard Nicholas
- Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Sakaguchi Y, Kobayashi K, Takehara M, Nagahama M. Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin requires acid sphingomyelinase for cellular entry. Anaerobe 2023; 82:102753. [PMID: 37308057 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2023.102753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin is considered to be a crucial agent in enterotoxemia in domestic animals. Epsilon-toxin enters host cells via endocytosis and results in the formation of late endosome/lysosome-derived vacuoles. In the present study, we found that acid sphingomyelinase promotes the internalization of epsilon-toxin in MDCK cells. METHODS We measured the extracellular release of acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) by epsilon-toxin. We examined the role of ASMase in epsilon-toxin-induced cytotoxicity using selective inhibitors and knockdown of ASMase. Production of ceramide after toxin treatment was determined by immunofluorescence technique. RESULTS Blocking agents of ASMase and exocytosis of lysosomes inhibited this epsilon-toxin-induced vacuole formation. Lysosomal ASMase was liberated to extracellular space during treatment of the cells with epsilon-toxin in the presence of Ca2+. RNAi-mediated attenuation of ASMase blocked epsilon-toxin-induced vacuolation. Moreover, incubation of MDCK cells with epsilon-toxin led to production of ceramide. The ceramide colocalized with lipid raft-binding cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) in the cell membrane, indicating that conversion of lipid raft associated sphingomyelin to ceramide by ASMase facilitates lesion of MDCK cells and internalization of epsilon-toxin. CONCLUSIONS Based on the present results, ASMase is required for efficient internalization of epsilon-toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiko Sakaguchi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Keiko Kobayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masaya Takehara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nagahama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 180, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan.
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Shetty SV, Mazzucco MR, Winokur P, Haigh SV, Rumah KR, Fischetti VA, Vartanian T, Linden JR. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to and Kills Primary Human Lymphocytes. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:423. [PMID: 37505692 PMCID: PMC10467094 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is the third most lethal bacterial toxin and has been suggested to be an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis, an immune-mediated disease of the human central nervous system. However, ETX cytotoxicity on primary human cells has not been investigated. In this article, we demonstrate that ETX preferentially binds to and kills human lymphocytes expressing increased levels of the myelin and lymphocyte protein MAL. Using flow cytometry, ETX binding was determined to be time and dose dependent and was highest for CD4+ cells, followed by CD8+ and then CD19+ cells. Similar results were seen with ETX-induced cytotoxicity. To determine if ETX preference for CD4+ cells was related to MAL expression, MAL gene expression was determined by RT-qPCR. CD4+ cells had the highest amount of Mal gene expression followed by CD8+ and CD19+ cells. These data indicate that primary human cells are susceptible to ETX and support the hypothesis that MAL is a main receptor for ETX. Interestingly, ETX bindings to human lymphocytes suggest that ETX may influence immune response in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha V. Shetty
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Michael R. Mazzucco
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Paige Winokur
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuro-Endocrinology Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sylvia V. Haigh
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
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Du J, Wang T, Xu L, Wang C, Liu Y, Pan C, Chen X, Zhu Z, Luo Y, Yin C. Clostridium perfringens epsilon prototoxin mutant rpETX Y30A/Y71A/H106P/Y196A as a vaccine candidate against enterotoxemia. Vaccine 2023:S0264-410X(23)00719-3. [PMID: 37357076 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.06.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is secreted by Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens)as a relatively inactive prototoxin (pETX), which is enzymatically activated to ETX by removing carboxy-terminal and amino-terminal peptides. Genetically engineered ETX mutants have been shown to function as potential vaccine candidates in the prevention of the enterotoxemia caused by C. perfringens. In the present study, two recombinant site-directed mutants of pETX, rpETXY30A/Y71A/H106P/Y196A (rpETXm41) and rpETXY30A/H106P/Y196A/F199E (rpETXm42), were synthesized by mutating four essential amino acid residues (Tyr30, Tyr71, His106, Tyr196 or Phe199). Compared to recombinant pETX (rpETX), both rpETXm41 and rpETXm42 lacked the detectable toxicity in MDCK cells and mice, which suggested that both rpETXm41 and rpETXm42 are sufficiently safe to be vaccine candidates. Despite the fact that rpETXm41 and rpETXm42 were reactogenic with polyclonal antibodies against crude ETX, both single- and double-dose vaccination (Vs and Vd, respectively) of rpETXm41 induced a higher level of IgG titer and protection in mice than that of rpETXm42. Therefore, we selected rpETXm41 for the further study. Sheep received Vs of 150 μg rpETXm41 developed significant levels of toxin-neutralizing antibodies persisting for at least 6 months, which conferred protection against crude ETX challenge without microscopic lesions. These data suggest that genetically detoxified rpETXY30A/Y71A/H106P/Y196A could form the basis of a next-generation enterotoxemia vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jige Du
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Tuanjie Wang
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Lei Xu
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Cong Wang
- China Animal Husbandry Industry Co., Ltd., Beijing 100070, PR China
| | - Ying Liu
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Chenfan Pan
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiaoyun Chen
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Zhen Zhu
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yufeng Luo
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Chunsheng Yin
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, PR China.
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Grenda T, Jarosz A, Sapała M, Grenda A, Patyra E, Kwiatek K. Clostridium perfringens-Opportunistic Foodborne Pathogen, Its Diversity and Epidemiological Significance. Pathogens 2023; 12:768. [PMID: 37375458 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The C. perfringens species is associated with various environments, such as soils, sewage, and food. However, it is also a component of the gastrointestinal (GI) microflora (i.e., microbiota) of sick and healthy humans and animals. C. perfringens is linked with different systemic and enteric diseases in livestock and humans, such as gas gangrene, food poisoning, non-foodborne diarrhoea, and enterocolitis. The strains of this opportunistic pathogen are known to secrete over 20 identified toxins that are considered its principal virulence factors. C. perfringens belongs to the anaerobic bacteria community but can also survive in the presence of oxygen. The short time between generations, the multi-production capability of toxins and heat-resistant spores, the location of many virulence genes on mobile genetic elements, and the inhabitance of this opportunistic pathogen in different ecological niches make C. perfringens a very important microorganism for public health protection. The epidemiological evidence for the association of these strains with C. perfringens-meditated food poisoning and some cases of non-foodborne diseases is very clear and well-documented. However, the genetic diversity and physiology of C. perfringens should still be studied in order to confirm the importance of suspected novel virulence traits. A very significant problem is the growing antibiotic resistance of C. perfringens strains. The aim of this review is to show the current basic information about the toxins, epidemiology, and genetic and molecular diversity of this opportunistic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Grenda
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Jarosz
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Sapała
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Anna Grenda
- Department of Pneumonology, Oncology and Allergology, Medical University in Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - Ewelina Patyra
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kwiatek
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
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Ma Y, Sannino D, Linden JR, Haigh S, Zhao B, Grigg JB, Zumbo P, Dündar F, Butler D, Profaci CP, Telesford K, Winokur PN, Rumah KR, Gauthier SA, Fischetti VA, McClane BA, Uzal FA, Zexter L, Mazzucco M, Rudick R, Danko D, Balmuth E, Nealon N, Perumal J, Kaunzner U, Brito IL, Chen Z, Xiang JZ, Betel D, Daneman R, Sonnenberg GF, Mason CE, Vartanian T. Epsilon toxin-producing Clostridium perfringens colonize the multiple sclerosis gut microbiome overcoming CNS immune privilege. J Clin Invest 2023; 133:e163239. [PMID: 36853799 PMCID: PMC10145940 DOI: 10.1172/jci163239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disease of the CNS thought to require an environmental trigger. Gut dysbiosis is common in MS, but specific causative species are unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we used sensitive and quantitative PCR detection to show that people with MS were more likely to harbor and show a greater abundance of epsilon toxin-producing (ETX-producing) strains of C. perfringens within their gut microbiomes compared with individuals who are healthy controls (HCs). Isolates derived from patients with MS produced functional ETX and had a genetic architecture typical of highly conjugative plasmids. In the active immunization model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), where pertussis toxin (PTX) is used to overcome CNS immune privilege, ETX can substitute for PTX. In contrast to PTX-induced EAE, where inflammatory demyelination is largely restricted to the spinal cord, ETX-induced EAE caused demyelination in the corpus callosum, thalamus, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, more akin to the neuroanatomical lesion distribution seen in MS. CNS endothelial cell transcriptional profiles revealed ETX-induced genes that are known to play a role in overcoming CNS immune privilege. Together, these findings suggest that ETX-producing C. perfringens strains are biologically plausible pathogens in MS that trigger inflammatory demyelination in the context of circulating myelin autoreactive lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghua Ma
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute
| | | | | | | | - Baohua Zhao
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute
| | - John B. Grigg
- Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
- Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, and
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program and
| | - Paul Zumbo
- Applied Bioinformatics Core, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Friederike Dündar
- Applied Bioinformatics Core, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Butler
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Caterina P. Profaci
- Departments of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, UCSD, San Diego, California, USA
| | | | - Paige N. Winokur
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuro-endocrinology and
| | - Kareem R. Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Susan A. Gauthier
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Bruce A. McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Davis, California, USA
| | - Lily Zexter
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | | | - David Danko
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Nancy Nealon
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jai Perumal
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ulrike Kaunzner
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ilana L. Brito
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA
| | - Zhengming Chen
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Population Health Sciences, and
| | - Jenny Z. Xiang
- Genomics Resources Core Facility, Core Laboratories Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Doron Betel
- Applied Bioinformatics Core, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Richard Daneman
- Departments of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, UCSD, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Gregory F. Sonnenberg
- Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
- Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, and
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program and
| | - Christopher E. Mason
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute
- Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program and
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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12
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Xu J, Li D, Kang L, Liu T, Huang J, Li J, Lv J, Wang J, Gao S, Li Y, Yuan B, Zhao B, Wang J, Xin W. Systematic evaluation of membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles in neutralizing Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:95. [PMID: 36932366 PMCID: PMC10021051 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-01852-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin (ETX) is the main toxin leading to enterotoxemia of sheep and goats and is classified as a potential biological weapon. In addition, no effective treatment drug is currently available in clinical practice for this toxin. We developed membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles (MNPs) with different membrane origins to neutralize ETX and protect the host from fatal ETX intoxication. We evaluated the safety and therapeutic efficacy of these MNPs in vitro and in vivo. Compared with membranes from karyocytes, such as Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells and mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells (N2a cells), membrane from erythrocytes, which do not induce any immune response, are superior in safety. The protective ability of MNPs was evaluated by intravenous injection and lung delivery. We demonstrate that nebulized inhalation is as safe as intravenous injection and that both modalities can effectively protect mice against ETX. In particular, pulmonary delivery of nanoparticles more effectively treated the challenge of inhaled toxins than intravenously injected nanoparticles. Moreover, MNPs can alter the biological distribution of ETX among different organs in the body, and ETX was captured, neutralized and slowly delivered to the liver and spleen, where nanoparticles with ETX could be phagocytized and metabolized. This demonstrates how MNPs treat toxin infections in vivo. Finally, we injected the MNPs into mice in advance to find out whether MNPs can provide preventive protection, and the results showed that the long-cycle MNPs could provide at least a 3-day protection in mice. These findings demonstrate that MNPs provide safe and effective protection against ETX intoxication, provide new insights into membrane choices and delivery routes of nanoparticles, and new evidence of the ability of nanoparticles to provide preventive protection against infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglin Xu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Dongxue Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Tingting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Jiaxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Jing Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Yanwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Bing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
| | - Baohua Zhao
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China.
| | - Jinglin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China.
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China.
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Gut Microbiota Changes during Dimethyl Fumarate Treatment in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032720. [PMID: 36769041 PMCID: PMC9917003 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota is involved in the development of the immune system and can modulate the risk for immune-mediated disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Dysbiosis has been demonstrated in MS patients and its restoration by disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) is hypothesized. We aimed to study the changes in gut microbiota composition during the first 6 months of treatment with dimethyl fumarate (DMF), an oral DMT, and to identify the microorganisms associated with DMF side effects. We collected and analyzed the gut microbiota of 19 MS patients at baseline and after 1, 3, and 6 months of DMF treatment. We then cross-sectionally compared gut microbiota composition according to the presence of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and flushing. Overall, the gut microbiota biodiversity showed no changes over the 6-month follow-up. At the genus level, DMF was associated with decreased Clostridium abundance after 6 months. In subjects reporting side effects, a higher abundance of Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Clostridium, Lachnospira, Blautia, Subdoligranulum, and Tenericutes and lower of Bacteroidetes, Barnesiella, Odoribacter, Akkermansia, and some Proteobacteria families were detected. Our results suggest that gut microbiota may be involved in therapeutic action and side effects of DMF, representing a potential target for improving disease course and DMT tolerability.
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14
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Shafiei N, Mahmoodzadeh Hosseini H, Amani J, Mirhosseini SA, Jafary H. Screening and Identification of DNA Nanostructure Aptamer Using the SELEX Method for Detection of Epsilon Toxin. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH : IJPR 2023; 22:e140505. [PMID: 38444705 PMCID: PMC10912870 DOI: 10.5812/ijpr-140505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Background Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by Clostridium perfringens, is one of the most potent toxins known, with a lethal potency approaching that of botulinum neurotoxins. Epsilon toxin is responsible for enteritis. Therefore, the development of rapid and simple methods to detect ETX is imperative. Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that can bind tightly to specific target molecules with an affinity comparable to that of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). DNA aptamers can serve as tools for the molecular identification of organisms, such as pathogen subspecies. Objectives This study aimed to isolate high-affinity single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) aptamers against ETX. Methods This study identified aptamers using the Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) method, enzyme-linked apta-sorbent assay (ELASA), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to determine the affinity and specificity of the newly obtained aptamers targeting ETX. Results Several aptamers obtained through the SELEX process were studied. Among them, 2 aptamers, ETX clone 3 (ETX3; dissociation constant (Kd = 8.4 ± 2.4E-9M) and ETX11 (Kd = 6.3 ± 1.3E-9M) had favorable specificity for ETX. The limits of detection were 0.21 and 0.08 μg/mL for ETX3 and ETX11, respectively.. Conclusions The discovered aptamers can be used in various aptamer-based rapid diagnostic tests for the detection of ETX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nafiseh Shafiei
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamideh Mahmoodzadeh Hosseini
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jafar Amani
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Ali Mirhosseini
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hanieh Jafary
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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Santos RAND, Abdel-Nour J, McAuley C, Moore SC, Fegan N, Fox EM. Clostridium perfringens associated with dairy farm systems show diverse genotypes. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 382:109933. [PMID: 36166891 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a bacterial species of importance to both public and animal health. Frequently found in food system environments, it presents a risk to food animal health such as dairy herds, and may cross contaminate associated ingredients or food products, with potential to cause sporadic and outbreaks of disease in human populations, including gastroenteric illness. In this study, we characterized C. perfringens isolated from bovine, caprine, and ovine dairy farm systems (n = 8, 11 and 4, respectively). Isolates were phenotypically screened for antimicrobial sensitivity profiling, and subjected to whole genome sequencing to elucidate related genetic markers, as well as examine virulence gene markers, mobile genetic elements, and other features. Both toxin type A and type D isolates were identified (78 % and 22 % of isolates, respectively), including 20 novel sequence types. Resistance to clindamycin was most prevalent among antibiotics screened (30 %), followed by erythromycin (13 %), then penicillin and tetracycline (4 %), although an additional 3 isolates were non-susceptible to tetracycline. Most isolates harboured plasmids, which mobilised virulence markers such as etx, cpb2, and resistance markers tetA(P), tetB(P), and erm(Q), on conjugative plasmids. The presence of type D isolates on caprine farms emphasizes the need for control efforts to prevent infection and potential enterotoxemia. Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) was not identified, suggesting lower risk of gastrointestinal illness from contaminated foods, the presence of other virulence and antimicrobial resistance markers suggests farm hygiene remains an important consideration to help ensure food safety of associated dairy foods produced.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cathy McAuley
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia
| | - Sean C Moore
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Cooper Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Narelle Fegan
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Cooper Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Edward M Fox
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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Ribeiro HG, Nilsson A, Melo LDR, Oliveira A. Analysis of intact prophages in genomes of Paenibacillus larvae: An important pathogen for bees. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:903861. [PMID: 35923395 PMCID: PMC9341999 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.903861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Paenibacillus larvae is the etiological agent of American Foulbrood (AFB), a highly contagious and worldwide spread bacterial disease that affects honeybee brood. In this study, all complete P. larvae genomes available on the NCBI database were analyzed in order to detect presence of prophages using the PHASTER software. A total of 55 intact prophages were identified in 11 P. larvae genomes (5.0 ± 2.3 per genome) and were further investigated for the presence of genes encoding relevant traits related to P. larvae. A closer look at the prophage genomes revealed the presence of several putative genes such as metabolic and antimicrobial resistance genes, toxins or bacteriocins, potentially influencing host performance. Some of the coding DNA sequences (CDS) were present in all ERIC-genotypes, while others were only found in a specific genotype. While CDS encoding toxins and antitoxins such as HicB and MazE were found in prophages of all bacterial genotypes, others, from the same category, were provided by prophages particularly to ERIC I (enhancin-like toxin), ERIC II (antitoxin SocA) and ERIC V strains (subunit of Panton-Valentine leukocidin system (PVL) LukF-PV). This is the first in-depth analysis of P. larvae prophages. It provides better knowledge on their impact in the evolution of virulence and fitness of P. larvae, by discovering new features assigned by the viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique G. Ribeiro
- LIBRO – Laboratório de Investigação em Biofilmes Rosário Oliveira, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- LABBELS – Associate Laboratory on Biotechnology and Bioengineering, and Electromechanical Systems, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Anna Nilsson
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Luís D. R. Melo
- LIBRO – Laboratório de Investigação em Biofilmes Rosário Oliveira, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- LABBELS – Associate Laboratory on Biotechnology and Bioengineering, and Electromechanical Systems, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Luís D. R. Melo,
| | - Ana Oliveira
- LIBRO – Laboratório de Investigação em Biofilmes Rosário Oliveira, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- LABBELS – Associate Laboratory on Biotechnology and Bioengineering, and Electromechanical Systems, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- Ana Oliveira,
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Alberca GGF, Cardoso NSS, Solis-Castro RL, Nakano V, Alberca RW. Intestinal inflammation and the microbiota: Beyond diversity. World J Gastroenterol 2022; 28:3274-3278. [PMID: 36051343 PMCID: PMC9331525 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v28.i26.3274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent manuscript entitled “Relationship between clinical features and intestinal microbiota in Chinese patients with ulcerative colitis” reported a difference in the intestinal microbiota of patients with ulcerative colitis according to the severity of the colitis. The influence of the intestinal microbiota on the development and progress of gastrointestinal disorders is well established. Besides the diversity in the microbiome, the presence of virulence factors and toxins by commensal bacteria may affect an extensive variety of cellular processes, contributing to the induction of a proinflammatory environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Gama Freire Alberca
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Naiane Samira Souza Cardoso
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Rosa Liliana Solis-Castro
- Departamento Académico de Biología Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Tumbes, Pampa Grande 24000, Tumbes, Peru
| | - Viviane Nakano
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Wesley Alberca
- Laboratorio de Dermatologia e Imunodeficiencias, Departamento de Dermatologia, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 01246-903, Brazil
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Motafeghi F, Mortazavi P, Mahdavi M, Shokrzadeh M. Cellular effects of epsilon toxin on the cell viability and oxidative stress of normal and lung cancer cells. Microb Pathog 2022; 169:105649. [PMID: 35738467 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Clostridium perfringens is a type of gram-positive anaerobic bacilli. C.perfringens produces many toxins, of which epsilon (ε) is one of the major ones. The mechanism of epsilon's toxicity is located in the lipid of cell membrane tissues. Epsilon toxin is known as a bioterrorism agent. Inhalation of these aerosols can destroy pulmonary vascular endothelial cells and cause lung injury, which increases vascular permeability and pulmonary edema. METHODS In this study, we investigated the toxicity of epsilon toxin by using the MTT assay, evaluated oxidative stress effects such as ROS and LPO using the DCFH and TBA reagents, and measured the GSH of the normal and lung cancer cells by using the DTNB reagent. RESULTS The result showed that 1 μg/ml of epsilon toxin caused mitochondrial disorder and reduced the growth of the normal cell line. This toxin also induced ROS and damage to lipid membranes. Furthermore, the same effect occurred in the lung cancer cell, and the epsilon toxin inhibited cancer cell proliferation. CONCLUSION This toxin causes toxicity by binding to lipid membranes. As the present study results have confirmed, epsilon toxin inhibits mitochondrial function and induces ROS and lipid membrane damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzaneh Motafeghi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.
| | - Parham Mortazavi
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mobin Mahdavi
- Student Research Committee, Ramsar International Branch, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Ramsar, Iran
| | - Mohammad Shokrzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.
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Abstract
Clostridium perfringens, a prevalent Gram-positive bacterium, causes necrotic diseases associated with abundant life loss and economic burdens of billions of USD. The mechanism of C. perfringens-induced necrotic diseases remains largely unknown, in part, because of the lack of effective animal models and the presence of a large array of exotoxins and diverse disease manifestations from the skin and deep tissues to the gastrointestinal tract. In the light of the advancement of medical and veterinary research, a large body of knowledge is accumulating on the factors influencing C. perfringens-induced necrotic disease onset, development, and outcomes. Here, we present an overview of the key virulence factors of C. perfringens exotoxins. Subsequently, we focus on comprehensively reviewing C. perfringens-induced necrotic diseases such as myonecrosis, acute watery diarrhea, enteritis necroticans, preterm infant necrotizing enterocolitis, and chicken necrotic enteritis. We then review the current understanding on the mechanisms of myonecrosis and enteritis in relation to the immune system and intestinal microbiome. Based on these discussions, we then review current preventions and treatments of the necrotic diseases and propose potential new intervention options. The purpose of this review is to provide an updated and comprehensive knowledge on the role of the host–microbe interaction to develop new interventions against C. perfringens-induced necrotic diseases.
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Gómez de Aranda I, Blasi J. New Mutants of Epsilon Toxin from Clostridium perfringens with an Altered Receptor-Binding Site and Cell-Type Specificity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040288. [PMID: 35448898 PMCID: PMC9031233 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is the third most potent toxin after the botulinum and tetanus toxins. Etx is the main agent of enterotoxemia in ruminants and is produced by Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes B and D, causing great economic losses. Etx selectively binds to target cells, oligomerizes and inserts into the plasma membrane, and forms pores. A series of mutants have been previously generated to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the toxin and to obtain valid molecular tools for effective vaccination protocols. Here, two new non-toxic Etx mutants were generated by selective deletions in the binding (Etx-ΔS188-F196) or insertion (Etx-ΔV108-F135) domains of the toxin. As expected, our results showed that Etx-ΔS188-F196 did not exhibit the usual Etx binding pattern but surprisingly recognized specifically an O-glycoprotein present in the proximal tubules of the kidneys in a wide range of animals, including ruminants. Although diminished, Etx-ΔV108-F135 maintained the capacity for binding and even oligomerization, indicating that the mutation particularly affected the pore-forming ability of the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Inmaculada Gómez de Aranda
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
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21
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Banerjee R, Flores-Escobar B, Chougule NP, Cantón PE, Dumitru R, Bonning BC. Peptide mediated, enhanced toxicity of a bacterial pesticidal protein against southern green stink bug. Microb Biotechnol 2022; 15:2071-2082. [PMID: 35315236 PMCID: PMC9249324 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The damage caused by stink bugs that feed on agricultural crops accounts for such significant losses that transgenic plant resistance to stink bugs would be highly desirable. As the level of toxicity of the Bacillus thuringiensis‐derived, ETX/Mtx2 pesticidal protein Mpp83Aa1 is insufficient for practical use against the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula, we employed two disparate approaches to isolate peptides NvBP1 and ABP5 that bind to specific proteins (alpha amylase and aminopeptidase N respectively) on the surface of the N. viridula gut. Incorporation of these peptides into Mpp83Aa1 provided artificial anchors resulting in increased gut binding, and enhanced toxicity. These peptide‐modified pesticidal proteins with increased toxicity provide a key advance for potential future use against N. viridula when delivered by transgenic plants to mitigate economic loss associated with this important pest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Banerjee
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, PO Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Biviana Flores-Escobar
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, PO Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Nanasaheb P Chougule
- Innovation Center, BASF Corporation, 3500 Paramount Parkway, Morrisville, NC, 27560, USA
| | - Pablo Emiliano Cantón
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, PO Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Razvan Dumitru
- Innovation Center, BASF Corporation, 3500 Paramount Parkway, Morrisville, NC, 27560, USA
| | - Bryony C Bonning
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, PO Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
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22
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Hussain R, Guangbin Z, Abbas RZ, Siddique AB, Mohiuddin M, Khan I, Rehman TU, Khan A. Clostridium perfringens Types A and D Involved in Peracute Deaths in Goats Kept in Cholistan Ecosystem During Winter Season. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:849856. [PMID: 35372540 PMCID: PMC8971777 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.849856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxemia is a severe and peracute disease caused by Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) rendering high mortality leading to huge economic losses, especially in small ruminants. The bacterium induces peracute death in animals based on the rapid production of different lethal toxins. Mortality occurred three private herds of two breeds, i.e., Makhi Cheeni and Beetal, and one non-descriptive (Teddy) herds reared in the desert area of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. At necropsy, tissue samples for histopathology and intestinal contents for bacterial isolation and culture were collected. Following the standard procedure, tissue slides were prepared. Multiplex PCR was used to identify toxinotypes using specific primers. Morbidity, mortality, and case fatality in Makhi Cheeni, Beetal, and Teddy goats caused by enterotoxemia were 87.58, 75.81, and 76.11%, respectively. Based on toxinotypes in the present outbreaks, C. perfringens type A (cpα = 20.7%; cpα + cpβ2 = 11.2%) and C. perfringens type D (cpα + cpβ2 + etx = 47.7%; cpα + etx = 20.7%) were detected. Deaths due to C. perfringens type D (68.10%) were significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared with deaths by C. perfringens type A (34.90%). Petechiation of serosal surfaces, hemorrhage of intestines, lungs, and liver were seen. Kidneys were soft, and under the microscope, tubules were studded with erythrocytes. There was stunting and fusion in the intestinal villi. From this study, we concluded that endotoxemia can occur in any season; thus, a proper vaccination schedule must be followed for the protection of small ruminants' health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riaz Hussain
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Zhang Guangbin
- Shandong Vocational Animal Science and Veterinary College, Weifang, China
| | - Rao Zahid Abbas
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Abu Baker Siddique
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Mudassar Mohiuddin
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Iahtasham Khan
- Section of Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Tauseef Ur Rehman
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Ahrar Khan
- Shandong Vocational Animal Science and Veterinary College, Weifang, China
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
- *Correspondence: Ahrar Khan
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Benz R, Piselli C, Hoxha C, Koy C, Glocker MO, Popoff MR. Clostridium perfringens Beta2 toxin forms highly cation-selective channels in lipid bilayers. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL 2022; 51:15-27. [PMID: 34854958 PMCID: PMC8827211 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-021-01577-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a potent producer of a variety of toxins. Well studied from these are five toxins (alpha, Beta (CPB), epsilon, iota and CPE) that are produced by seven toxinotype strains (A–G) of C. perfringens. Besides these toxins, C. perfringens produces also another toxin that causes necrotizing enterocolitis in piglets. This toxin termed consensus Beta2 toxin (cCPB2) has a molecular mass of 27,620 Da and shows only little homology to CPB and no one to the other toxins of C. perfringens. Its primary action on cells remained unknown to date. cCPB2 was heterogeneously expressed as fusion protein with GST in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. Although cCPB2 does not exhibit the typical structure of beta-stranded pore-forming proteins and contains no indication for the presence of amphipathic alpha-helices we could demonstrate that cCPB2 is a pore-forming component with an extremely high activity in lipid bilayers. The channels have a single-channel conductance of about 700 pS in 1 M KCl and are highly cation-selective as judged from selectivity measurements in the presence of salt gradients. The high cation selectivity is caused by the presence of net negative charges in or near the channel that allowed an estimate of the channel size being about 1.4 nm wide. Our measurements suggest that the primary effect of cCPB2 is the formation of cation-selective channels followed by necrotic enteritis in humans and animals. We searched in databases for homologs of cCPB2 and constructed a cladogram representing the phylogenetic relationship to the next relatives of cCPB2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Benz
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University, Campus Ring 1, 28759, Bremen, Germany.
| | - Claudio Piselli
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University, Campus Ring 1, 28759, Bremen, Germany
| | - Cezarela Hoxha
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University, Campus Ring 1, 28759, Bremen, Germany
- Bacterial Toxins, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris, France
| | - Cornelia Koy
- Proteome Center Rostock, University Medicine Rostock, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Michael O Glocker
- Proteome Center Rostock, University Medicine Rostock, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Bacterial Toxins, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, Paris, France
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Mehdizadeh Gohari I, A. Navarro M, Li J, Shrestha A, Uzal F, A. McClane B. Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridium perfringens. Virulence 2021; 12:723-753. [PMID: 33843463 PMCID: PMC8043184 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1886777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an extremely versatile pathogen of humans and livestock, causing wound infections like gas gangrene (clostridial myonecrosis), enteritis/enterocolitis (including one of the most common human food-borne illnesses), and enterotoxemia (where toxins produced in the intestine are absorbed and damage distant organs such as the brain). The virulence of this Gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobe is largely attributable to its copious toxin production; the diverse actions and roles in infection of these toxins are now becoming established. Most C. perfringens toxin genes are encoded on conjugative plasmids, including the pCW3-like and the recently discovered pCP13-like plasmid families. Production of C. perfringens toxins is highly regulated via processes involving two-component regulatory systems, quorum sensing and/or sporulation-related alternative sigma factors. Non-toxin factors, such as degradative enzymes like sialidases, are also now being implicated in the pathogenicity of this bacterium. These factors can promote toxin action in vitro and, perhaps in vivo, and also enhance C. perfringens intestinal colonization, e.g. NanI sialidase increases C. perfringens adherence to intestinal tissue and generates nutrients for its growth, at least in vitro. The possible virulence contributions of many other factors, such as adhesins, the capsule and biofilms, largely await future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Mehdizadeh Gohari
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Mauricio A. Navarro
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Jihong Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Archana Shrestha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Francisco Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Bruce A. McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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25
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Sannigrahi A, Chattopadhyay K. Pore formation by pore forming membrane proteins towards infections. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 128:79-111. [PMID: 35034727 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Over the last 25 years, the biology of membrane proteins, including the PFPs-membranes interactions is seeking attention for the development of successful drug molecules against a number of infectious diseases. Pore forming toxins (PFTs), the largest family of PFPs are considered as a group of virulence factors produced in a large number of pathogenic systems which include streptococcus, pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, group A and B streptococci, Corynebacterium diphtheria and many more. PFTs are generally utilized by the disease causing pathogens to disrupt the host first line of defense i.e. host cell membranes through pore formation strategy. Although, pore formation is the principal mode of action of the PFTs but they can have additional adverse effects on the hosts including immune evasion. Recently, structural investigation of different PFTs have imparted the molecular mechanistic insights into how PFTs get transformed from its inactive state to active toxic state. On the basis of their structural entity, PFTs have been classified in different types and their mode of actions alters in terms of pore formation and corresponding cellular toxicity. Although pathogen genome analysis can identify the probable PFTs depending upon their structural diversity, there are so many PFTs which utilize the local environmental conditions to generate their pore forming ability using a novel strategy which is known as "conformational switch" of a protein. This conformational switch is considered as characteristics of the phase shifting proteins which were often utilized by many pathogenic systems to protect them from the invaders through allosteric communication between distant regions of the protein. In this chapter, we discuss the structure function relationships of PFTs and how activity of PFTs varies with the change in the environmental conditions has been explored. Finally, we demonstrate these structural insights to develop therapeutic potential to treat the infections caused by multidrug resistant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Achinta Sannigrahi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.
| | - Krishnananda Chattopadhyay
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
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26
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Mondal AK, Chattopadhyay K. Structures and functions of the membrane-damaging pore-forming proteins. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 128:241-288. [PMID: 35034720 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) of the diverse life forms have emerged as the potent cell-killing entities owing to their specialized membrane-damaging properties. PFPs have the unique ability to perforate the plasma membranes of their target cells, and they exert this functionality by creating oligomeric pores in the membrane lipid bilayer. Pathogenic bacteria employ PFPs as toxins to execute their virulence mechanisms, whereas in the higher vertebrates PFPs are deployed as the part of the immune system and to generate inflammatory responses. PFPs are the unique dimorphic proteins that are generally synthesized as water-soluble molecules, and transform into membrane-inserted oligomeric pore assemblies upon interacting with the target membranes. In spite of sharing very little sequence similarity, PFPs from diverse organisms display incredible structural similarity. Yet, at the same time, structure-function mechanisms of the PFPs document remarkable versatility. Such notions establish PFPs as the fascinating model system to explore variety of unsolved issues pertaining to the structure-function paradigm of the proteins that interact and act in the membrane environment. In this article, we discuss our current understanding regarding the structural basis of the pore-forming functions of the diverse class of PFPs. We attempt to highlight the similarities and differences in their structures, membrane pore-formation mechanisms, and their implications for the various biological processes, ranging from the bacterial virulence mechanisms to the inflammatory immune response generation in the higher animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anish Kumar Mondal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Kausik Chattopadhyay
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Mohali, Punjab, India.
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27
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Geier RR, Rehberger TG, Smith AH. Comparative Genomics of Clostridium perfringens Reveals Patterns of Host-Associated Phylogenetic Clades and Virulence Factors. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:649953. [PMID: 34177831 PMCID: PMC8220089 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.649953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an opportunistic pathogenic bacterium that infects both animals and humans. Clostridium perfringens genomes encode a diverse array of toxins and virulence proteins, which continues to expand as more genomes are sequenced. In this study, the genomes of 44 C. perfringens strains isolated from intestinal sections of diseased cattle and from broiler chickens from diseased and healthy flocks were sequenced. These newly assembled genomes were compared to 141 publicly available C. perfringens genome assemblies, by aligning known toxin and virulence protein sequences in the assemblies using BLASTp. The genes for alpha toxin, collagenase, a sialidase (nanH), and alpha-clostripain were present in at least 99% of assemblies analyzed. In contrast, beta toxin, epsilon toxin, iota toxin, and binary enterotoxin of toxinotypes B, C, D, and E were present in less than 5% of assemblies analyzed. Additional sequence variants of beta2 toxin were detected, some of which were missing the leader or signal peptide sequences and therefore likely not secreted. Some pore-forming toxins involved in intestinal diseases were host-associated, the netB gene was only found in avian isolates, while netE, netF, and netG were only present in canine and equine isolates. Alveolysin was positively associated with canine and equine strains and only present in a single monophyletic clade. Strains from ruminant were not associated with known virulence factors and, except for the food poisoning associated clade, were present across the phylogenetic diversity identified to date for C. perfringens. Many C. perfringens strains associated with food poisoning lacked the genes for hyaluronidases and sialidases, important for attaching to and digesting complex carbohydrates found in animal tissues. Overall, the diversity of virulence factors in C. perfringens makes these species capable of causing disease in a wide variety of hosts and niches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alexandra H. Smith
- Arm and Hammer Animal and Food Production, Church & Dwight Co., Inc., Waukesha, WI, United States
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ANTIBODY RESPONSE TO EPSILON TOXIN OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS IN CAPTIVE ADULT SPRINGBOK ( ANTIDORCAS MARSUPIALIS), IMPALA ( AEPYCEROS MELAMPUS), ALPACA ( VICUGNA PACOS), AND RED-NECKED WALLABY ( MACROPUS RUFOGRISEUS) OVER A YEAR. J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:192-199. [PMID: 33827176 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxemia is an important issue in various zoological taxa. In this study, serologic responses over a 1-yr period after vaccination with a multivalent clostridial vaccine were evaluated in 10 adult springboks (Antidorcas marsupialis), 12 impalas (Aepyceros melampus), seven alpacas (Vicugna pacos), and five red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Antibody production to the Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin component of the vaccine was measured using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and determined as the percentage of inhibition (% inhib). Initial % inhib was (0.01-18.9)%. All animals received initial vaccination with a booster vaccine 4 weeks apart. Serum samples were collected at T0 (nonvaccinated), 15, 30, 60, 180, and 360 days postvaccination (dpv) for analysis. The vaccine induced a high antibody response that peaked at 15, 30, and 60 dpv in springboks, 30 and 60 dpv in impalas (P < 0.01), and 60 dpv in alpacas and wallabies (P < 0.01). The booster vaccine was followed by a high antibody response, which slowly decreased with time. The antibody response was significantly higher at 360 dpv than at T0 in wallabies and alpacas (P < 0.01). In impalas and springboks, it appeared that a booster every 6 mo might be required to maintain an antibody response above baseline (P < 0.01). Because no challenge studies were performed, it is unknown whether the measured humoral immune responses would have been protective. Further research is warranted to investigate protective effects of antibodies to inoculation challenge in nondomestic species.
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Rubio-Ramos A, Labat-de-Hoz L, Correas I, Alonso MA. The MAL Protein, an Integral Component of Specialized Membranes, in Normal Cells and Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:1065. [PMID: 33946345 PMCID: PMC8145151 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The MAL gene encodes a 17-kDa protein containing four putative transmembrane segments whose expression is restricted to human T cells, polarized epithelial cells and myelin-forming cells. The MAL protein has two unusual biochemical features. First, it has lipid-like properties that qualify it as a member of the group of proteolipid proteins. Second, it partitions selectively into detergent-insoluble membranes, which are known to be enriched in condensed cell membranes, consistent with MAL being distributed in highly ordered membranes in the cell. Since its original description more than thirty years ago, a large body of evidence has accumulated supporting a role of MAL in specialized membranes in all the cell types in which it is expressed. Here, we review the structure, expression and biochemical characteristics of MAL, and discuss the association of MAL with raft membranes and the function of MAL in polarized epithelial cells, T lymphocytes, and myelin-forming cells. The evidence that MAL is a putative receptor of the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, the expression of MAL in lymphomas, the hypermethylation of the MAL gene and subsequent loss of MAL expression in carcinomas are also presented. We propose a model of MAL as the organizer of specialized condensed membranes to make them functional, discuss the role of MAL as a tumor suppressor in carcinomas, consider its potential use as a cancer biomarker, and summarize the directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Rubio-Ramos
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Leticia Labat-de-Hoz
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Isabel Correas
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
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Vaccination against pathogenic clostridia in animals: a review. Trop Anim Health Prod 2021; 53:284. [PMID: 33891221 PMCID: PMC8062623 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-021-02728-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, and spore-forming bacterium, which is found in the surrounding environments throughout the world. Clostridium species cause botulism, tetanus, enterotoxaemia, gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, pseudomembranous colitis, blackleg, and black disease. Clostridium infection causes severe economic losses in livestock and poultry industries. Vaccination seems to be an effective way to control Clostridial diseases. This review discusses the toxins and vaccine development of the most common pathogenic Clostridium species in animals, including Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium novyi, Clostridium chauvoei, and Clostridium septicum. In this comprehensive study, we will review different kinds of clostridial toxins and the vaccines that are experimentally or practically available and will give a short description on each vaccine focusing on its applications, advantages, and disadvantages.
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31
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Challenges of automation and scale: Bioinformatics and the evaluation of proteins to support genetically modified product safety assessments. J Invertebr Pathol 2021; 186:107587. [PMID: 33838205 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2021.107587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Bioinformatic analyses of protein sequences play an important role in the discovery and subsequent safety assessment of insect control proteins in Genetically Modified (GM) crops. Due to the rapid adoption of high-throughput sequencing methods over the last decade, the number of protein sequences in GenBank and other public databases has increased dramatically. Many of these protein sequences are the product of whole genome sequencing efforts, coupled with automated protein sequence prediction and annotation pipelines. Published genome sequencing studies provide a rich and expanding foundation of new source organisms and proteins for insect control or other desirable traits in GM products. However, data generated by automated pipelines can also confound regulatory safety assessments that employ bioinformatics. Largely this issue does not arise due to underlying sequence, but rather its annotation or associated metadata, and the downstream integration of that data into existing repositories. Observations made during bioinformatic safety assessments are described.
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Complete Genome Sequence Analysis of Brevibacillus laterosporus Bl-zj Reflects its Potential Algicidal Response. Curr Microbiol 2021; 78:1409-1417. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-021-02378-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Titus HE, Chen Y, Podojil JR, Robinson AP, Balabanov R, Popko B, Miller SD. Pre-clinical and Clinical Implications of "Inside-Out" vs. "Outside-In" Paradigms in Multiple Sclerosis Etiopathogenesis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:599717. [PMID: 33192332 PMCID: PMC7654287 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.599717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated neurological disorder, characterized by central nervous system (CNS) inflammation, oligodendrocyte loss, demyelination, and axonal degeneration. Although autoimmunity, inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration underlie MS, the initiating event has yet to be clarified. Effective disease modifying therapies need to both regulate the immune system and promote restoration of neuronal function, including remyelination. The challenge in developing an effective long-lived therapy for MS requires that three disease-associated targets be addressed: (1) self-tolerance must be re-established to specifically inhibit the underlying myelin-directed autoimmune pathogenic mechanisms; (2) neurons must be protected from inflammatory injury and degeneration; (3) myelin repair must be engendered by stimulating oligodendrocyte progenitors to remyelinate CNS neuronal axons. The combined use of chronic and relapsing remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (C-EAE, R-EAE) (“outside-in”) as well as progressive diphtheria toxin A chain (DTA) and cuprizone autoimmune encephalitis (CAE) (“inside-out”) mouse models allow for the investigation and specific targeting of all three of these MS-associated disease parameters. The “outside-in” EAE models initiated by myelin-specific autoreactive CD4+ T cells allow for the evaluation of both myelin-specific tolerance in the absence or presence of neuroprotective and/or remyelinating agents. The “inside-out” mouse models of secondary inflammatory demyelination are triggered by toxin-induced oligodendrocyte loss or subtle myelin damage, which allows evaluation of novel therapeutics that could promote remyelination and neuroprotection in the CNS. Overall, utilizing these complementary pre-clinical MS models will open new avenues for developing therapeutic interventions, tackling MS from the “outside-in” and/or “inside-out”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley E Titus
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Yanan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Joseph R Podojil
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States.,Cour Pharmaceutical Development Company, Inc., Northbrook, IL, United States
| | - Andrew P Robinson
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Roumen Balabanov
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Brian Popko
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Stephen D Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States.,Cour Pharmaceutical Development Company, Inc., Northbrook, IL, United States.,Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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34
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Alibeiki M, Golchin M, Tabatabaei M. Development of a double-recombinant antibody sandwich ELISA for quantitative detection of epsilon toxoid concentration in inactivated Clostridium perfringens vaccines. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:361. [PMID: 32993643 PMCID: PMC7525996 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02572-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epsilon toxin (ETX) causes a commonly fatal enterotoxemia in domestic animals. Also, ETX causes serious economic losses to animal husbandry. In this study, we selected several clones against ETX using repertoires displayed on filamentous phage. Anti-ETX specific clones were enriched by binding to immobilized antigen, followed by elution and re-propagation of phage. After multiple rounds of binding selection, ELISA analysis showed that most isolated clones had high affinity and specificity for ETX. Results Two recombinant monoclonal antibodies against ETX were isolated by phage display technology. B1 phage VH antibody isolated from DAb library and G2 soluble scFv antibody isolated from Tomlinson I + J libraries have been applied as the capture and detection antibodies for developing an ETX sandwich ELISA test, respectively. Conclusions Designed ETX sandwich ELISA could be a valuable tool for quantitative detection of ETX in inactivated commercial vaccines against enterotoxemia. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Alibeiki
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Golchin
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Tabatabaei
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
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Knapp O, Maier E, Piselli C, Benz R, Hoxha C, Popoff MR. Central residues of the amphipathic β-hairpin loop control the properties of Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin channel. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183364. [PMID: 32450142 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is a heptameric pore-forming toxin of the aerolysin toxin family. ETX is the most potent toxin of this toxin family and the third most potent bacterial toxin with high cytotoxic and lethal activities in animals. In addition, ETX shows a demyelinating activity in nervous tissue leading to devastating multifocal central nervous system white matter disease in ruminant animals. Pore formation in target cell membrane is most likely the initial critical step in ETX biological activity. Eight single to quadruple ETX mutants were generated by replacement of polar residues (serine, threonine, glutamine) in middle positions of the β-strands forming the β-barrel and facing the channel lumen with charged glutamic residues. Channel activity and ion selectivity were monitored in artificial lipid monolayer membranes and cytotoxicity was investigated in MDCK cells by the viability MTT test and propidium iodide entry. All the mutants formed channels with similar conductance in artificial lipid membranes and increasing cation selectivity for increasing number of mutations. Here, we show that residues in the central position of each β-strand of the amphipathic β-hairpin loop that forms the transmembrane pore, control the size and ion selectivity of the channel. While the highest cationic ETX mutants were not cytotoxic, no strict correlation was observed between ion selectivity and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Knapp
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Elke Maier
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Claudio Piselli
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Roland Benz
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Cezarela Hoxha
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France.
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Santos FDS, Ferreira MRA, Maubrigades LR, Gonçalves VS, de Lara APS, Moreira C, Salvarani FM, Conceição FR, Leivas Leite FP. Bacillus toyonensis BCT-7112 T transient supplementation improves vaccine efficacy in ewes vaccinated against Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 130:699-706. [PMID: 32767796 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
AIM The aim of the present study was to examine the vaccine immune response in ewes supplemented with Bacillus toyonensis BCT-7112T during a period of 5-day supplementation before vaccination against a recombinant Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (rETX). METHODS AND RESULTS Ewes were vaccinated with 200 µg of rETX adjuvanted with 10% aluminium hydroxide. The treat group was orally supplemented with B. toyonensis BCT-7112T (3 × 108 viable spores) for 5 days prior to the first and second vaccination. Ewes supplemented with B. toyonensis BCT-7112T showed higher neutralizing antibody titres than the non-supplemented ewes (P < 0·05), with an increase in serum levels for total IgG anti-rETX by 3·2-fold (P < 0·0001), and for both IgG isotypes IgG1 and IgG2 by 2·1-fold and 2·3-fold (P < 0·01), respectively, compared with the control group. The peripheral blood mononuclear cells of ewes in the supplemented group had a higher (P < 0·05) cytokine mRNA transcription levels for IL-2 (6·4-fold increase), IFN-γ (2·9-fold increase) and transcription factor Bcl6 (2·3-fold increase) compared with the control group. CONCLUSION We conclude that a 5 days of supplementation with B. toyonensis BCT-7112T prior vaccination is sufficient to significantly improve the humoral immune response of ewes against C. perfringens recombinant ETX vaccine. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY These findings open a new perspective in the utilization of B. toyonensis BCT-7112T as an immunomodulator since a 5 days period of probiotic supplementation is sufficient to improve the vaccine immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- F D S Santos
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - M R A Ferreira
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - L R Maubrigades
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - V S Gonçalves
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - A P S de Lara
- Institute of Biology, Postgraduate Program in Parasitology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - C Moreira
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - F M Salvarani
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Pará, Castanhal, Brazil
| | - F R Conceição
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - F P Leivas Leite
- Center for Technological Development, Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
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37
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Etx-Y71A as a non-toxic mutant of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces protective immunity in mice and sheep. Vaccine 2020; 38:6553-6561. [PMID: 32788135 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) is an extremely potent toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes B and D, which cause fatal enterotoxemia in many livestock species, mainly sheep and goats. Our previous study demonstrated that the aromatic amino acid (AA) residue at position 71 in domain III of Etx is needed for its cytotoxic activity toward MDCK cells. Here, we first determined that Etx mutants with non-aromatic AA substitutions at Tyr71 lost lethality in mice, indicating that the aromatic AA residue at position 71 is a toxicity determinant of Etx in vivo. After intravenous injection with a high dose of the trypsin-activated Etx-Y71A mutant, mice did not show any histopathological lesions, and confocal microscopy observations further showed that Etx-Y71A lost the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier of the mice. These results suggested that the Etx-Y71A mutant is sufficiently safe in vivo to be a vaccine candidate. Furthermore, the immune efficacy of Etx-Y71A was evaluated in model and host animals. Mice inoculated with this mutant produced high levels of neutralizing antibodies and were completely protected from a 100 LD50 of trypsin-activated Etx challenge. Sheep immunized with Etx-Y71A produced high levels of neutralizing antibodies that provided protection in mice against an activated Etx challenge, and lambs could receive passive immunity through immunization of pregnant ewes. Additionally, homology modeling and circular dichroism analysis showed that Etx-Y71A has structural similarity to Etx, which provides a structural basis for Etx-Y71A retaining the immunogenicity of Etx. Taken together, these results suggest that Etx-Y71A is a potential vaccine candidate against Etx-inducing enterotoxemia.
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38
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Geng Z, Huang J, Kang L, Gao S, Yuan Y, Li Y, Wang J, Xin W, Wang J. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin binds to erythrocyte MAL receptors and triggers phosphatidylserine exposure. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:7341-7352. [PMID: 32463157 PMCID: PMC7339222 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is a 33-kDa pore-forming toxin produced by type B and D strains of Clostridium perfringens. We previously found that ETX caused haemolysis of human red blood cells, but not of erythrocytes from other species. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of ETX-mediated haemolysis are not well understood. Here, we investigated the effects of ETX on erythrocyte volume and the role of the putative myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) receptors in ETX-mediated haemolysis. We observed that ETX initially decreased erythrocyte size, followed by a gradual increase in volume until lysis. Moreover, ETX triggered phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure and enhanced ceramide abundance in erythrocytes. Cell shrinkage, PS exposure and enhanced ceramide abundance were preceded by increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Interestingly, lentivirus-mediated RNA interference studies in the human erythroleukaemia cell line (HEL) cells confirmed that MAL contributes to ETX-induced cytotoxicity. Additionally, ETX was shown to bind to MAL in vitro. The results of this study recommend that ETX-mediated haemolysis is associated with MAL receptor activation in human erythrocytes. These data imply that interventions affecting local MAL-mediated autocrine and paracrine signalling may prevent ETX-mediated erythrocyte damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Geng
- Graduate College, Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China.,Life Science Institute of Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Yanwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jinglin Wang
- Graduate College, Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
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Babele P, Kumar RB, Rajoria S, Rashid F, Malakar D, Bhagyawant SS, Kamboj DV, Alam SI. Putative serum protein biomarkers for epsilon toxin exposure in mouse model using LC-MS/MS analysis. Anaerobe 2020; 63:102209. [PMID: 32387808 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2020.102209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by Clostridium perfringens Type B or type D strains, is a potential biological and toxin warfare (BTW) agent, largely for its very high toxicity. The toxin is implicated in several animal diseases. Using LC-MS/MS analysis, we report here elucidation of putative serum maker proteins for ETX exposure with an objective of the early diagnosis of intoxication. Of 166 consensus proteins (488 peptides), showing ETX-induced alterations, 119 proteins exhibited increase and 47 proteins showed decreased abundance in serum, as revealed by SWATH (DIA) acquisition on LC-MS/MS and label free quantitative analysis of control and test samples. Complement and coagulation cascade, nitrogen metabolism, negative regulation of peptidase activity, and response to ROS were among the biological processes and pathways perturbed by the ETX exposure. Interaction network indicated enzyme inhibitor activity, detoxification of ROS, and steroid binding functions were the major interaction networks for the proteins with increased abundance, while, hemostasis and structural molecule activity were the prominent networks for the down-regulated proteins. Validation studies were carried out by immunoprecipitation, ELISA, and Western blot analysis of selected proteins to demonstrate diagnostic potential of the putative marker proteins of ETX exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabhakar Babele
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Ravi Bhushan Kumar
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Sakshi Rajoria
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Faraz Rashid
- Sciex, 121 DHR, Udyog Vihar, Gurugram, Haryana, India
| | - Dipankar Malakar
- School of Studies in Biotechnology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, India
| | | | - Dev Vrat Kamboj
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Syed Imteyaz Alam
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India.
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40
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Clostridium perfringens Epsilon-Toxin Impairs the Barrier Function in MDCK Cell Monolayers in a Ca 2+-Dependent Manner. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050286. [PMID: 32365779 PMCID: PMC7291203 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon-toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens significantly contributes to the pathogeneses of enterotoxemia in ruminants and multiple sclerosis in humans. Epsilon-toxin forms a heptameric oligomer in the host cell membrane, promoting cell disruption. Here, we investigate the effect of epsilon-toxin on epithelial barrier functions. Epsilon-toxin impairs the barrier integrity of Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells, as demonstrated by decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), increased paracellular flux marker permeability, and the decreased cellular localization of junctional proteins, such as occludin, ZO-1, and claudin-1. U73122, an endogenous phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor, inhibited the decrease in TEER and the increase in the permeability of flux marker induced by epsilon-toxin. The application of epsilon-toxin to MDCK cells resulted in the biphasic formation of 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3). U73122 blocked the formation of DAG and IP3 induced by the toxin. Epsilon-toxin also specifically activated endogenous PLC-γ1. Epsilon-toxin dose-dependently increased the cytosolic calcium ion concentration ([Ca2+]i). The toxin-induced elevation of [Ca2+]i was inhibited by U73122. Cofilin is a key regulator of actin cytoskeleton turnover and tight-junction (TJ) permeability regulation. Epsilon-toxin caused cofilin dephosphorylation. These results demonstrate that epsilon-toxin induces Ca2+ influx through activating the phosphorylation of PLC-γ1 and then causes TJ opening accompanied by cofilin dephosphorylation.
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Enterococcus durans with mosquito larvicidal toxicity against Culex quinquefasciatus, elucidated using a Proteomic and Metabolomic approach. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4774. [PMID: 32179781 PMCID: PMC7075886 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61245-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Various bacteria from the Bacillus species have been used as pesticides against mosquito larvae for more than a decade. The prolonged use of these bacterial species by little alteration within their genome, using various permutations and combinations of mosquito-cidal toxins, has proven unsuccessful in controlling the mosquito population. In our current study we report Enterococcus sp. to be exhibiting similar kind of mosquito-cidal toxins alike those which are present in the mainly used Bacillus strains. Three Enterococcus species were isolated on a rich media selective for gram- positive bacteria from the mid-gut of dead mosquito larvae which were collected from the wild locations within and around the city of Mumbai, India. Their surface morphologies were studied by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and their identity was confirmed using the standard 16S rRNA sequencing method. Upon performing several repetitive toxicity assays of these three strains on the laboratory cultured third instar stage of Culex quinquefasciatus larvae, showed differential toxicities from a minimum of 20% (LC50: 59.6 CFU/ml), intermediate 35% (LC50: 48.4 CFU/ml) and a maximum of 60% (LC50: 35.7 CFU/ml). To justify the data in all the three similar strains of Enterococcus durans, we followed the differential proteomics using LCMS 6540 UHD Accurate Mass QTOF and differential metabolomics approach using both LCMS 6540 UHD Accurate Mass QTOF and 1H-NMR. The presence and significance of the obtained toxins were studied to elucidate the plausible reason for showing differential toxicities. This work helped in identifying Enterococcus durans as a new, potential and alternative strain to the Bacillus species in terms of mosquito larvicidal toxicity against Culex quinquefasciatus.
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Dorca E, Torrejón-Escribano B, Blanch M, Martín-Satué M, Blasi J. Lung endothelial cells are sensitive to epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens. Vet Res 2020; 51:27. [PMID: 32093740 PMCID: PMC7041264 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00748-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The pore-forming protein epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens produces acute perivascular edema affecting several organs, especially the brain and lungs. Despite the toxin evident effect on microvasculature and endothelial cells, the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain obscure. Moreover, no Etx-sensitive endothelial cell model has been identified to date. Here, we characterize the mouse lung endothelial cell line 1G11 as an Etx-sensitive cell line and compare it with the well-characterized Etx-sensitive Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cell line. Several experimental approaches, including morphological and cytotoxic assays, clearly demonstrate that the 1G11 cell line is highly sensitive to Etx and show the specific binding, oligomerization, and pore-forming activity of the toxin in these cells. Recently, the myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein has been postulated as a putative receptor for Etx. Here, we show the presence of Mal mRNA in the 1G11 cell line and the presence of the MAL protein in the endothelium of some mouse lung vessels, supporting the hypothesis that this protein is a key element in the Etx intoxication pathway. The existence of an Etx-sensitive cell line of endothelial origin would help shed light on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying Etx-induced edema and its consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. .,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Eduard Dorca
- Pathology Service, Bellvitge University Hospital, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Benjamín Torrejón-Escribano
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Centres Científics i Tecnològics, Universitat de Barcelona, Campus Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Blanch
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Martín-Satué
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), Oncobell Program, CIBERONC, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
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Linden JR, Flores C, Schmidt EF, Uzal FA, Michel AO, Valenzuela M, Dobrow S, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces blood brain barrier permeability via caveolae-dependent transcytosis and requires expression of MAL. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008014. [PMID: 31703116 PMCID: PMC6867657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is responsible for causing the economically devastating disease, enterotoxaemia, in livestock. It is well accepted that ETX causes blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, however the mechanisms involved in this process are not well understood. Using in vivo and in vitro methods, we determined that ETX causes BBB permeability in mice by increasing caveolae-dependent transcytosis in brain endothelial cells. When mice are intravenously injected with ETX, robust ETX binding is observed in the microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) with limited to no binding observed in the vasculature of peripheral organs, indicating that ETX specifically targets CNS endothelial cells. ETX binding to CNS microvasculature is dependent on MAL expression, as ETX binding to CNS microvasculature of MAL-deficient mice was not detected. ETX treatment also induces extravasation of molecular tracers including 376Da fluorescein salt, 60kDA serum albumin, 70kDa dextran, and 155kDA IgG. Importantly, ETX-induced BBB permeability requires expression of both MAL and caveolin-1, as mice deficient in MAL or caveolin-1 did not exhibit ETX-induced BBB permeability. Examination of primary murine brain endothelial cells revealed an increase in caveolae in ETX-treated cells, resulting in dynamin and lipid raft-dependent vacuolation without cell death. ETX-treatment also results in a rapid loss of EEA1 positive early endosomes and accumulation of large, RAB7-positive late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. Based on these results, we hypothesize that ETX binds to MAL on the apical surface of brain endothelial cells, causing recruitment of caveolin-1, triggering caveolae formation and internalization. Internalized caveolae fuse with early endosomes which traffic to late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. We believe that these multivesicular bodies fuse basally, releasing their contents into the brain parenchyma. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is an extremely lethal bacterial toxin known to cause a devastating disease in livestock animals and may be a possible cause of multiple sclerosis in humans. ETX is well known to cause disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical structure necessary for proper brain function. Deterioration of this barrier allows entry of toxic blood-borne material to enter the brain. Although ETX-induced BBB dysfunction is well accepted, how this happens is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that ETX causes BBB permeability by inducing formation of cell-surface invaginations called caveolae in endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. Importantly, only endothelial cells from the brain and other central nervous system organs appear to be a target of ETX, as the toxin only binds to blood vessels in these organs and not blood vessels from other organs. These ETX-induced caveolae fuse with other caveolae and specialized intracellular vesicles called endosomes. We predict that these endosomes engulf blood-borne material during their internalization, allowing material to travel from the blood, through the cell, and into brain tissue. We also show that expression of the protein MAL and caveolin-1 is necessary for ETX-induced BBB permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R. Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Flores
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric F. Schmidt
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, California, United States of America
| | - Adam O. Michel
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Center of Comparative Medicine and Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, The Rockefeller University, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marissa Valenzuela
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Dobrow
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shivappagowdar A, Pati S, Narayana C, Ayana R, Kaushik H, Sah R, Garg S, Khanna A, Kumari J, Garg L, Sagar R, Singh S. A small bioactive glycoside inhibits epsilon toxin and prevents cell death. Dis Model Mech 2019; 12:dmm.040410. [PMID: 31492678 PMCID: PMC6826021 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.040410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (Etx) is categorized as the third most lethal bioterrorism agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), with no therapeutic counter measures available for humans. Here, we have developed a high-affinity inhibitory compound by synthesizing and evaluating the structure activity relationship (SAR) of a library of diverse glycosides (numbered 1-12). SAR of glycoside-Etx heptamers revealed exceptionally strong H-bond interactions of glycoside-4 with a druggable pocket in the oligomerization and β-hairpin region of Etx. Analysis of its structure suggested that glycoside-4 might self-aggregate to form a robust micelle-like supra-molecular complex due to its linear side-chain architecture, which was authenticated by fluorescence spectroscopy. Further, this micelle hinders the Etx monomer-monomer interaction required for oligomerization, validated by both surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and immunoblotting. This phenomenon in turn leads to blockage of pore formation. Downstream evaluation revealed that glycoside-4 effectively blocked cell death of Etx-treated cultured primary cells and maintained cellular homeostasis via disrupting oligomerization, blocking pore formation, restoring calcium homeostasis, stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane and impairing high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) translocation from nucleus to cytoplasm. Furthermore, a single dosage of glycoside-4 protected the Etx-challenged mice and restored normal function to multiple organs. This work reports for the first time a potent, nontoxic glycoside with strong ability to occlude toxin lethality, representing it as a bio-arm therapeutic against Etx-based biological threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Shivappagowdar
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Soumya Pati
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Chintam Narayana
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Rajagopal Ayana
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Himani Kaushik
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Raj Sah
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Swati Garg
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Ashish Khanna
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Jyoti Kumari
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Lalit Garg
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Ram Sagar
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Shailja Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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Omersa N, Podobnik M, Anderluh G. Inhibition of Pore-Forming Proteins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E545. [PMID: 31546810 PMCID: PMC6784129 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11090545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Perforation of cellular membranes by pore-forming proteins can affect cell physiology, tissue integrity, or immune response. Since many pore-forming proteins are toxins or highly potent virulence factors, they represent an attractive target for the development of molecules that neutralize their actions with high efficacy. There has been an assortment of inhibitors developed to specifically obstruct the activity of pore-forming proteins, in addition to vaccination and antibiotics that serve as a plausible treatment for the majority of diseases caused by bacterial infections. Here we review a wide range of potential inhibitors that can specifically and effectively block the activity of pore-forming proteins, from small molecules to more specific macromolecular systems, such as synthetic nanoparticles, antibodies, antibody mimetics, polyvalent inhibitors, and dominant negative mutants. We discuss their mechanism of inhibition, as well as advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neža Omersa
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Marjetka Podobnik
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Zaragoza NE, Orellana CA, Moonen GA, Moutafis G, Marcellin E. Vaccine Production to Protect Animals Against Pathogenic Clostridia. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E525. [PMID: 31514424 PMCID: PMC6783934 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11090525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium is a broad genus of anaerobic, spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that can be found in different environments all around the world. The genus includes human and animal pathogens that produce potent exotoxins that cause rapid and potentially fatal diseases responsible for countless human casualties and billion-dollar annual loss to the agricultural sector. Diseases include botulism, tetanus, enterotoxemia, gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, pseudomembranous colitis, blackleg, and black disease, which are caused by pathogenic Clostridium. Due to their ability to sporulate, they cannot be eradicated from the environment. As such, immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid vaccines is the only protective method against infection. Toxins recovered from Clostridium cultures are inactivated to form toxoids, which are then formulated into multivalent vaccines. This review discusses the toxins, diseases, and toxoid production processes of the most common pathogenic Clostridium species, including Clostridiumbotulinum, Clostridiumtetani, Clostridiumperfringens, Clostridiumchauvoei, Clostridiumsepticum, Clostridiumnovyi and Clostridiumhemolyticum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas E. Zaragoza
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Camila A. Orellana
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Glenn A. Moonen
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - George Moutafis
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Esteban Marcellin
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
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Cai J, Chen D, Chen D, Huang X, Li C, Liu H, Li M, Li G, Zhang Y. Complete Genome Sequence of Brevibacillus laterosporus Bl-zj, an Algicidal Bacterium Isolated from Soil. Microbiol Resour Announc 2019; 8:e00408-19. [PMID: 31346010 PMCID: PMC6658680 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00408-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Brevibacillus laterosporus can be used as a biocontrol agent for varieties of plants, as it is a pathogen of invertebrates and can also inhibit many bacteria and fungi. Here, we describe the complete genome sequence of B. laterosporus strain Bl-zj, an algicidal bacterium on cyanobacteria isolated from the soil in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Cai
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Dianyu Chen
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Dong Chen
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Algae Breeding and Application of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Xianghu Huang
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen, China
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Algae Breeding and Application of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Changling Li
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen, China
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Algae Breeding and Application of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Huiling Liu
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen, China
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Algae Breeding and Application of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Mengjie Li
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Guanbao Li
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yulei Zhang
- Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen, China
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Algae Breeding and Application of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
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Kaushik H, Deshmukh SK, Solanki AK, Bhatia B, Tiwari A, Garg LC. Immunization with recombinant fusion of LTB and linear epitope (40-62) of epsilon toxin elicits protective immune response against the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens type D. AMB Express 2019; 9:105. [PMID: 31300915 PMCID: PMC6626085 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-019-0824-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, a major causative agent of enterotoxaemia causes significant economic losses to animal industry. Conventional vaccines against these pathogens generally employ formalin-inactivated culture supernatants. However, immunization with the culture supernatant and full length toxin subjects the animal to antigenic load and often have adverse effect due to incomplete inactivation of the toxins. In the present study, an epitope-based vaccine against Clostridium perfringens Etx, comprising 40-62 amino acid residues of the toxin in translational fusion with heat labile enterotoxin B subunit (LTB) of E. coli, was evaluated for its protective potential. The ability of the fusion protein rLTB.Etx40-62 to form pentamers and biologically active holotoxin with LTA of E. coli indicated that the LTB present in the fusion protein retained its biological activity. Antigenicity of both the components in the fusion protein was retained as anti-fusion protein antisera detected both the wild type Etx and LTB in Western blot analysis. Immunization of BALB/c mice with the fusion protein resulted in a significant increase in all isotypes, predominantly IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b. Anti-fusion protein antisera neutralized the cytotoxicity of epsilon toxin both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, the results demonstrate the potential of rLTB.Etx40-62 as a candidate vaccine against C. perfringens.
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49
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Adler D, Linden JR, Shetty SV, Ma Y, Bokori-Brown M, Titball RW, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Compromises the Blood-Brain Barrier in a Humanized Zebrafish Model. iScience 2019; 15:39-54. [PMID: 31030181 PMCID: PMC6487375 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is hypothesized to mediate blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability by binding to the myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) on the luminal surface of endothelial cells (ECs). However, the kinetics of this interaction and a general understanding of ETX's behavior in a live organism have yet to be appreciated. Here we investigate ETX binding and BBB breakdown in living Danio rerio (zebrafish). Wild-type zebrafish ECs do not bind ETX. When zebrafish ECs are engineered to express human MAL (hMAL), proETX binding occurs in a time-dependent manner. Injection of activated toxin in hMAL zebrafish initiates BBB leakage, hMAL downregulation, blood vessel stenosis, perivascular edema, and blood stasis. We propose a kinetic model of MAL-dependent ETX binding and neurovascular pathology. By generating a humanized zebrafish BBB model, this study contributes to our understanding of ETX-induced BBB permeability and strengthens the proposal that MAL is the ETX receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Adler
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Jennifer R Linden
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Samantha V Shetty
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yinghua Ma
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | - Richard W Titball
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon EX4 4SB, UK
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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50
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
The clostridia cause a spectrum of diseases in humans and animals ranging from life-threatening tetanus and botulism, uterine infections, histotoxic infections and enteric diseases, including antibiotic-associated diarrhea, and food poisoning. The symptoms of all these diseases are the result of potent protein toxins produced by these organisms. These toxins are diverse, ranging from a multitude of pore-forming toxins to phospholipases, metalloproteases, ADP-ribosyltransferases and large glycosyltransferases. The location of the toxin genes is the unifying theme of this review because with one or two exceptions they are all located on plasmids or on bacteriophage that replicate using a plasmid-like intermediate. Some of these plasmids are distantly related whilst others share little or no similarity. Many of these toxin plasmids have been shown to be conjugative. The mobile nature of these toxin genes gives a ready explanation of how clostridial toxin genes have been so widely disseminated both within the clostridial genera as well as in the wider bacterial community.
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