1
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Zeng J, Dong S, Chen C, Zheng Y, Zuo Y, Liu Y, Ding T, Liu F, Shen Q, Du Y, Wang X, Xie W, Zhou C, Lu H. Benzalkonium chloride induces hematopoietic stem cell reduction and immunotoxicity in zebrafish larvae. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 284:116902. [PMID: 39173224 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 08/14/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent that possesses cleaning and bactericidal properties, but impact of BAC on wellbeing of aquatic organisms remains uncertain. Consequently, in this current study, we have examined the immunotoxic potential of BAC in zebrafish embryos, thus marking it as the pioneering effort in this field. According to the findings, zebrafish embryos exposed to BAC exhibited a decline in yolk area that varied with the concentration, along with a significant decrease in the count of neutrophils, macrophages, red blood cells, and thymus T-cells. We observed significantly up-regulated expression of immune-related signaling genes such as cxcl-c1c, il-8, tir4 and inf-γ, but expression of nf-κb was downregulated. In addition, we observed a marked reduction in the number of hematopoietic stem cells in zebrafish larvae after BAC exposure, which could be the result of oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis. We found that compared with the control group, the number of red blood cells in juvenile zebrafish in BAC-exposure group was significantly down-regulated, which could be attributed to hematopoietic stem cell defect. Astaxanthin restored immune cells and hematopoietic stem cells after BAC exposure, whereas Inhibitor of Wnt Response-1(IWR-1) restored neutrophils after BAC exposure. The research findings demonstrated that exposure to BAC displayed harmful effects on the development and immune system of zebrafish embryos. These effects might be associated with alterations in reactive oxygen species(ROS) levels and activation of the Wnt signaling pathway caused by BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junquan Zeng
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Si Dong
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China; First Affiliated Hospital Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200065, China
| | - Yongliang Zheng
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Yuhua Zuo
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China; Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200065, China
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Ting Ding
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Fasheng Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Qinyuan Shen
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Yunyun Du
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Xiaoping Wang
- Comprehensive Teaching and Research Office, Ji'an College, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343000, China
| | - Wenguo Xie
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Chenjun Zhou
- Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Center for Clinical Medicine Research of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, Jiangxi 343009, China
| | - Huiqiang Lu
- First Affiliated Hospital Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, China.
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2
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Ku KB, Chae J, Park WH, La J, Lee SS, Lee HK. Assessment of immunopathological responses of a novel non-chemical biocide in C57BL/6 for safe disinfection usage. Lab Anim Res 2024; 40:28. [PMID: 39135094 PMCID: PMC11320990 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-024-00214-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water electrospray technology has been developed and extensively studied for its physical properties and potential application as a non-chemical biocide against airborne pathogens. However, there are still concerns regarding the safety and potential toxicity of inhaling water electrospray (WE) particles. To address these potential hazards and offer insights into the impact of WE on humans, we analyzed the immunopathological response to WE by employing an intranasal challenge C57BL/6 mouse model. This analysis aimed to compare the effects of WE with those of sodium hypochlorite (SH), a well-known biocidal agent. RESULTS The study findings suggest that the WE did not trigger any pathological immune reactions in the intranasal-challenged C57BL/6 mouse model. Mice challenged with WE did not experience body weight loss, and there was no increase in inflammatory cytokine production compared to SH-treated mice. Histopathological analysis revealed that WE did not cause any damage to the lung tissue. In contrast, mice treated with SH exhibited significant lung tissue damage, characterized by the infiltration of neutrophils and eosinophils. Transcriptomic analysis of lung tissue further confirmed the absence of a pathological immune response in mice treated with WE compared to those treated with SH. Upon intranasal challenge with WE, the C57BL/6 mouse model did not show any evidence of immunopathological damage. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study suggest that WE is a safe technology for disinfecting airborne pathogens. It demonstrated little to no effect on immune system activation and pathological outcomes in the intranasal challenge C57BL/6 mouse model. These findings not only support the potential use of WE as an effective and safe method for air disinfection but also highlight the value of the intranasal challenge of the C57BL/6 mouse model in providing significant immunopathological insights for assessing the inhalation of novel materials for potential use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keun Bon Ku
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Infectious Disease Vaccine and Diagnosis Innovation, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihwan Chae
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Hyung Park
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeongwoo La
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung S Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Heung Kyu Lee
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
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3
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Nguyen R, Seguin RP, Ross DH, Chen P, Richardson S, Liem J, Lin YS, Xu L. Development and Application of a Multidimensional Database for the Detection of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds and Their Phase I Hepatic Metabolites in Humans. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:6236-6249. [PMID: 38534032 PMCID: PMC11008582 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significantly increased human exposure to the widely used disinfectants quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs). Xenobiotic metabolism serves a critical role in the clearance of environmental molecules, yet limited data are available on the routes of QAC metabolism or metabolite levels in humans. To address this gap and to advance QAC biomonitoring capabilities, we analyzed 19 commonly used QACs and their phase I metabolites by liquid chromatography-ion mobility-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-IM-MS/MS). In vitro generation of QAC metabolites by human liver microsomes produced a series of oxidized metabolites, with metabolism generally occurring on the alkyl chain group, as supported by MS/MS fragmentation. Discernible trends were observed in the gas-phase IM behavior of QAC metabolites, which, despite their increased mass, displayed smaller collision cross-section (CCS) values than those of their respective parent compounds. We then constructed a multidimensional reference SQLite database consisting of m/z, CCS, retention time (rt), and MS/MS spectra for 19 parent QACs and 81 QAC metabolites. Using this database, we confidently identified 13 parent QACs and 35 metabolites in de-identified human fecal samples. This is the first study to integrate in vitro metabolite biosynthesis with LC-IM-MS/MS for the simultaneous monitoring of parent QACs and their metabolites in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Nguyen
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Dylan H. Ross
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Pengyu Chen
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Sean Richardson
- Department
of Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Jennifer Liem
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Yvonne S. Lin
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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4
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Mai Y, Wang Z, Zhou Y, Wang G, Chen J, Lin Y, Ji P, Zhang W, Jing Q, Chen L, Chen Z, Lin H, Jiang L, Yuan C, Xu P, Huang M. From disinfectants to antibiotics: Enhanced biosafety of quaternary ammonium compounds by chemical modification. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 460:132454. [PMID: 37703742 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
The excessive use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) following the COVID-19 pandemic has raised substantial concerns regarding their biosafety. Overuse of QACs has been associated with chronic biological adverse effects, including genotoxicity or carcinogenicity. In particular, inadvertent intravascular administration or oral ingestion of QACs can lead to fatal acute toxicity. To enhance the biosafety and antimicrobial efficacy of QACs, this study reports a new series of QACs, termed as PACs, with the alkyl chain of benzalkonium substituted by a phthalocyanine moiety. Firstly, the rigid phthalocyanine moiety enhances the selectivity of QACs to bacteria over human cells and reduces alkyl chain's entropic penalty of binding to bacterial membranes. Furthermore, phthalocyanine neutralizes hemolysis and cytotoxicity of QACs by binding with albumin in plasma. Our experimental results demonstrate that PACs inherit the optical properties of phthalocyanine and validate the broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of PACs in vitro. Moreover, the intravascular administration of the most potent PAC, PAC1a, significantly reduced bacterial burden and ameliorated inflammation level in a bacteria-induced septic mouse model. This study presents a new strategy to improve the antimicrobial efficacy and biosafety of QACs, thus expanding their range of applications to the treatment of systemic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Mai
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Zhiyou Wang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Yang Zhou
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Guodong Wang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Yuxin Lin
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Panpan Ji
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Wei Zhang
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Qian Jing
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Liyun Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Zheng Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Haili Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, The Peoples Hospital of Fujian Province, Fuzhou, Fujian 350004, PR China
| | - Longguang Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China
| | - Cai Yuan
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Enzyme Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China
| | - Peng Xu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Enzyme Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, PR China.
| | - Mingdong Huang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, PR China.
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5
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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6
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Wang G, Yang L, Jiang L, Chen J, Jing Q, Mai Y, Deng L, Lin Y, Chen L, Chen Z, Xu P, Jiang L, Yuan C, Huang M. A new class of quaternary ammonium compounds as potent and environmental friendly disinfectants. JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION 2022; 379:134632. [PMID: 36246409 PMCID: PMC9552062 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are inexpensive and readily available disinfectants, and have been widely used, especially since the COVID-19 outbreak. The toxicity of QACs to humans has raised increasing concerns in recent years. Here, a new type of QACs was synthesized by replacing the alkyl chain with zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc), which consists of a large aromatic ring and is hydrophobic in nature, similar to the alkyl chain of QACs. Three ZnPc-containing disinfectants were synthesized and fully characterized. These compounds showed 15-16 fold higher antimicrobial effect against Gram-negative bacteria than the well-known QACs with half-maximal inhibitory (IC50) values of 1.43 μM, 2.70 μM, and 1.31 μM, respectively. With the assistance of 680 nm light, compounds 4 and 6 had much higher bactericidal toxicities at nanomolar concentrations. Compound 6 had a bactericidal efficacy of close to 6 logs (99.9999% kill rate) at 1 μM to Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA, under light illumination. Besides, these compounds were safe for mammalian cells. In a mouse model, compound 6 was effective in healing wound infection. Importantly, compound 6 was easily degraded at working concentrations under sunlight illumination, and is environmentally friendly. Thus, compound 6 is a novel and promising disinfectant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Wang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Ling Yang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Libin Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Qian Jing
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Yuhan Mai
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Lina Deng
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Yuxin Lin
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Liyun Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Zheng Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Peng Xu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Longguang Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Cai Yuan
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Mingdong Huang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
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7
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Peyneau M, de Chaisemartin L, Gigant N, Chollet-Martin S, Kerdine-Römer S. Quaternary ammonium compounds in hypersensitivity reactions. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:973680. [PMID: 36211198 PMCID: PMC9534575 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.973680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are commonly used disinfectants, antiseptics, preservatives, and detergents due to their antibacterial property and represent the first used biocides before phenolic or nitrogen products. Their common structure consists of one or more quaternary ammonium bound with four lateral substituents. Their amphiphilic structure allows them to intercalate into microorganism surfaces which induces an unstable and porous membrane that explains their antimicrobial activity towards bacteria, fungi, and viruses. QAC are thus found in many areas, such as household products, medicines, hygiene products, cosmetics, agriculture, or industrial products but are also used in medical practice as disinfectants and antiseptics and in health care facilities where they are used for cleaning floors and walls. QAC exposure has already been involved in occupational asthma in healthcare workers or professional cleaners by many authors. They also have been suggested to play a role in contact dermatitis (CD) and urticaria in workers using cosmetics such as hairdressers or healthcare workers, inciting reglementary agencies to make recommendations regarding those products. However, distinguishing the irritant or sensitizing properties of chemicals is complex and as a result, the sensitizing property of QAC is still controverted. Moreover, the precise mechanisms underlying the possible sensitization effect are still under investigation, and to date, only a few studies have documented an immunological mechanism. Besides, QAC have been suggested to be responsible for neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBA) sensitization by cross-reactivity. This hypothesis is supported by a higher prevalence of quaternary ammonium (QA)-specific IgE in the professionally exposed populations, such as hairdressers, cleaners, or healthcare workers, suggesting that the sensitization happens with structurally similar compounds present in the environment. This review summarizes the newest knowledge about QAC and their role in hypersensitivities. After describing the different QAC, their structure and use, the most relevant studies about the effects of QAC on the immune system will be reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Peyneau
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Marine Peyneau,
| | - Luc de Chaisemartin
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Gigant
- CNRS, BioCIS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Sylvie Chollet-Martin
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
| | - Saadia Kerdine-Römer
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
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8
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Osimitz TG, Droege W. Adverse Outcome Pathway for Antimicrobial Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2022; 85:494-510. [PMID: 35191814 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2022.2037479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) or quats are a large class of antimicrobial chemicals used in households and institutions as sanitizers and disinfectants. These chemicals are utilized as food processing sanitizers, algicides, in the process of water treatment, and preservatives in cosmetics. The aim of this study was to determine an Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) whereby two widely used QACs, alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (ADBAC) and didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC), may result in respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract effects. When inhaled or ingested, these QACs are incorporated into the epithelial cell membrane at the point of contact. With sufficient dosage, the epithelial membrane is disrupted, reducing its fluidity, and releasing cellular contents. Further, ADBAC and DDAC might disrupt mitochondrial functions leading to decreased ATP production. Both events might lead to cell death, either attributed to direct lysis, necrosis, or apoptosis. Pro-inflammatory mediators are recruited to the tissue, inducing inflammation, edema, and excess mucus production. The primary tissue-level adverse outcome is epithelial degeneration and dysplasia. Most important, no apparent metabolism or distribution is involved in QAC action. Based upon this knowledge, it is suggested to replace default Uncertainty Factors for risk assessments with a set of Data Derived Extrapolation Factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- T G Osimitz
- Science Strategies, LLC, Charlottesville, VA USA
| | - W Droege
- Science Strategies, LLC, Charlottesville, VA USA
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9
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Park EJ, Jin SW, Kang MS, Yang MJ, Kim SH, Han HY, Kang JW. Pulmonary inflammation and cellular responses following exposure to benzalkonium chloride: Potential impact of disrupted pulmonary surfactant homeostasis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 440:115930. [PMID: 35202710 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.115930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BKC) is a prototypical quaternary ammonium disinfectant. Previously, we suggested a no lethal dose level (0.005%) and an LD50 range (0.5-0.05%) of BKC following a single pharyngeal aspiration. Herein, we exposed BKC repeatedly by pharyngeal aspiration for 14 days (0.005 and 0.01%, female mice, total five times with interval of two days, 5 mice/group) and 28 days (0, 0.001, 0.005, and 0.01%, male and female mice, weekly, 16 mice/sex/group). Death following 14 days-repeated exposure did not occur. Meanwhile, chronic pathological lesions were observed in the lung tissues of mice exposed to BKC for 28 days. The total number of bronchial alveolar lavage cells increased, and pulmonary homeostasis of immunologic messenger molecules was disturbed. Following, we investigated BKC-induced cellular responses using human bronchial epithelial cells. The cytotoxicity increased rapidly with concentration. Lysosomal volume, NO production, and lipid peroxidation increased in BKC-treated cells, whereas intracellular ROS level decreased accompanying structural and functional damage of mitochondria. We also found that BKC affected the expression level of immune response, DNA damage, and amino acid biosynthesis-related molecules. More interestingly, lamellar body- and autophagosome-like structures were notably observed in cells exposed to BKC, and necrotic and apoptotic cell death were identified accompanying cell accumulation in the G2/M phase. Therefore, we suggest that repeated respiratory exposure of BKC causes pulmonary inflammation and lung tissue damage and that dead and damaged cells may contribute to the inflammatory response. In addition, the formation process of lamellar body-like structures may function as a key toxicity mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Jung Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea; Human Health and Environmental Toxins Research Center, Kyung Hee University, 02447, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seung-Woo Jin
- Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Sung Kang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea; Jeonbuk Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Jin Yang
- Jeonbuk Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hwan Kim
- Jeonbuk Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung-Yun Han
- Korea Institute of Toxicology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Won Kang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, 0284, Republic of Korea; Graduate School of Energy and Environment, Korea University, 0284, Republic of Korea
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Zheng G, Webster TF, Salamova A. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: Bioaccumulation Potentials in Humans and Levels in Blood before and during the Covid-19 Pandemic. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14689-14698. [PMID: 34662096 PMCID: PMC8547165 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are commonly used in a variety of consumer, pharmaceutical, and medical products. In this study, bioaccumulation potentials of 18 QACs with alkyl chain lengths of C8-C18 were determined in the in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) model using the results of human hepatic metabolism and serum protein binding experiments. The slowest in vivo clearance rates were estimated for C12-QACs, suggesting that these compounds may preferentially build up in blood. The bioaccumulation of QACs was further confirmed by the analysis of human blood (sera) samples (n = 222). Fifteen out of the 18 targeted QACs were detected in blood with the ΣQAC concentrations reaching up to 68.6 ng/mL. The blood samples were collected during two distinct time periods: before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (2019; n = 111) and during the pandemic (2020, n = 111). The ΣQAC concentrations were significantly higher in samples collected during the pandemic (median 6.04 ng/mL) than in those collected before (median 3.41 ng/mL). This is the first comprehensive study on the bioaccumulation and biomonitoring of the three major QAC groups and our results provide valuable information for future epidemiological, toxicological, and risk assessment studies targeting these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guomao Zheng
- O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405, United States
| | - Thomas F. Webster
- School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
| | - Amina Salamova
- O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405, United States
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11
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Dewey HM, Jones JM, Keating MR, Budhathoki-Uprety J. Increased Use of Disinfectants During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Potential Impacts on Health and Safety. ACS CHEMICAL HEALTH & SAFETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chas.1c00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M. Dewey
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Jaron M. Jones
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Mike R. Keating
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Januka Budhathoki-Uprety
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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12
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Biomaterials for human space exploration: A review of their untapped potential. Acta Biomater 2021; 128:77-99. [PMID: 33962071 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
As biomaterial advances make headway into lightweight radiation protection, wound healing dressings, and microbe resistant surfaces, a relevance to human space exploration manifests itself. To address the needs of the human in space, a knowledge of the space environment becomes necessary. Both an understanding of the environment itself and an understanding of the physiological adaptations to that environment must inform design parameters. The space environment permits the fabrication of novel biomaterials that cannot be produced on Earth, but benefit Earth. Similarly, designing a biomaterial to address a space-based challenge may lead to novel biomaterials that will ultimately benefit Earth. This review describes several persistent challenges to human space exploration, a variety of biomaterials that might mitigate those challenges, and considers a special category of space biomaterial. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work is a review of the major human and environmental challenges facing human spaceflight, and where biomaterials may mitigate some of those challenges. The work is significant because a broad range of biomaterials are applicable to the human space program, but the overlap is not widely known amongst biomaterials researchers who are unfamiliar with the challenges to human spaceflight. Additionaly, there are adaptations to microgravity that mimic the pathology of certain disease states ("terrestrial analogs") where treatments that help the overwhelmingly healthy astronauts can be applied to help those with the desease. Advances in space technology have furthered the technology in that field on Earth. By outlining ways that biomaterials can promote human space exploration, space-driven advances in biomaterials will further biomaterials technology.
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Migueres N, Debaille C, Walusiak-Skorupa J, Lipińska-Ojrzanowska A, Munoz X, van Kampen V, Suojalehto H, Suuronen K, Seed M, Lee S, Rifflart C, Godet J, de Blay F, Vandenplas O. Occupational Asthma Caused by Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Multicenter Cohort Study. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY-IN PRACTICE 2021; 9:3387-3395. [PMID: 33940212 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2021.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are used extensively for cleaning and disinfection and have been documented in scattered reports as a cause of occupational asthma (OA) through bronchoprovocation tests (BPTs). OBJECTIVE To examine the clinical, functional, and inflammatory profile of QAC-induced OA compared with OA caused by other low-molecular weight (LMW) agents. METHODS The study was conducted in a retrospective multicenter cohort of 871 subjects with OA ascertained by a positive BPT. Subjects with QAC-induced OA (n = 22) were identified based on a positive BPT to QACs after exclusion of those challenged with cleaning products or disinfectants that contained other potential respiratory sensitizers. They were compared with 289 subjects with OA caused by other LMW agents. RESULTS Most subjects with QAC-induced OA were working in the health care sector (n = 14). A twofold or greater increase in the postchallenge level of nonspecific bronchial hyperresponsiveness was recorded in eight of 11 subjects with QAC-induced OA (72.7%) and in 49.7% of those with OA caused by other LMW agents. Although sputum assessment was available in only eight subjects with QAC-induced OA, they showed a significantly greater median (interquartile) increase in sputum eosinophils (18.1% [range, 12.1% to 21.1%]) compared with those with OA caused by other LMW agents (2.0% [range, 0% to 5.2%]; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that QAC-induced OA is associated with a highly eosinophilic pattern of airway response and provides further evidence supporting the sensitizing potential of QACs. The findings highlight the heterogeneous nature of the pathobiologic pathways involved in OA caused by LMW agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Migueres
- Groupe Méthode Recherche Clinique, Pôle de Santé Publique, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France; Division of Asthma and Allergy, Department of Chest Diseases, University Hospital of Strasbourg and Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - Charlotte Debaille
- Department of Chest Medicine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire UCL Namur, Université Catholique de Louvain, Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Jolanta Walusiak-Skorupa
- Department of Occupational Diseases and Environmental Health, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Xavier Munoz
- Servei Pneumologia, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Vera van Kampen
- Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Hille Suojalehto
- Occupational Health, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katri Suuronen
- Occupational Health, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin Seed
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Sewon Lee
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Rifflart
- Department of Chest Medicine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire UCL Namur, Université Catholique de Louvain, Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Julien Godet
- Groupe Méthode Recherche Clinique, Pôle de Santé Publique, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - Frédéric de Blay
- Division of Asthma and Allergy, Department of Chest Diseases, University Hospital of Strasbourg and Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - Olivier Vandenplas
- Department of Chest Medicine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire UCL Namur, Université Catholique de Louvain, Yvoir, Belgium.
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Zhao T, Zhang M, Ma L, Ma L, Shi H, Kang W, Xu X. Cyanuric chloride-imidazole dendrimer functionalized nanoparticles as an adsorbent for magnetic solid phase extraction of quaternary ammonium compounds from fruit and vegetable puree based infant foods. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1636:461735. [PMID: 33316560 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A novel magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) material (Fe3O4@SiO2-NH2-G2) had been prepared and employed for adsorption and analysis of seven quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) in infant fruit and vegetable products coupled with high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). In this paper, Fe3O4@SiO2-NH2-G2 was synthesized based on Fe3O4@SiO2-NH2 and dendrimer (G2) consisting of cyanuric chloride and imidazole. The morphology, configuration and magnetic behavior of the magnetic material were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). Critical parameters affecting extraction efficiency, such as the adsorbent amount, sample pH, extraction time, the type of eluent, and desorption time, were optimized. The proposed method provided good linearity with the correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.9992-0.9999, low limits of detection (LODs) (0.05-0.50 μg kg-1) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) (0.20-2.00 μg kg-1). The satisfactory method recoveries in three spiked infant fruit and vegetable products samples were between 80.12% and 101.35% with the relative standard deviations (RSDs) less than 12.04%. In summary, the established method was an effective sample preparation method and showed good prospect for the analysis of QACs in complex matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tangjuan Zhao
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China; Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China
| | - Mengyan Zhang
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China
| | - Ling Ma
- Shijiazhuang Center for Diseases Control and Prevention, Shijiazhuang 050011, PR China
| | - Li Ma
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China
| | - Hongmei Shi
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China
| | - Weijun Kang
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China; Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China.
| | - Xiangdong Xu
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China; Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang 050017, PR China.
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15
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Abdelhamid L, Cabana-Puig X, Mu Q, Moarefian M, Swartwout B, Eden K, Das P, Seguin RP, Xu L, Lowen S, Lavani M, Hrubec TC, Jones CN, Luo XM. Quaternary Ammonium Compound Disinfectants Reduce Lupus-Associated Splenomegaly by Targeting Neutrophil Migration and T-Cell Fate. Front Immunol 2020; 11:575179. [PMID: 33193366 PMCID: PMC7609861 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.575179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypersensitivity reactions and immune dysregulation have been reported with the use of quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants (QACs). We hypothesized that QAC exposure would exacerbate autoimmunity associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus). Surprisingly, however, we found that compared to QAC-free mice, ambient exposure of lupus-prone mice to QACs led to smaller spleens with no change in circulating autoantibodies or the severity of glomerulonephritis. This suggests that QACs may have immunosuppressive effects on lupus. Using a microfluidic device, we showed that ambient exposure to QACs reduced directional migration of bone marrow-derived neutrophils toward an inflammatory chemoattractant ex vivo. Consistent with this, we found decreased infiltration of neutrophils into the spleen. While bone marrow-derived neutrophils appeared to exhibit a pro-inflammatory profile, upregulated expression of PD-L1 was observed on neutrophils that infiltrated the spleen, which in turn interacted with PD-1 on T cells and modulated their fate. Specifically, QAC exposure hindered activation of splenic T cells and increased apoptosis of effector T-cell populations. Collectively, these results suggest that ambient QAC exposure decreases lupus-associated splenomegaly likely through neutrophil-mediated toning of T-cell activation and/or apoptosis. However, our findings also indicate that even ambient exposure could alter immune cell phenotypes, functions, and their fate. Further investigations on how QACs affect immunity under steady-state conditions are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Abdelhamid
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Xavier Cabana-Puig
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Qinghui Mu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Maryam Moarefian
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Brianna Swartwout
- Translational Biology, Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Kristin Eden
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Prerna Das
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Sarah Lowen
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Mital Lavani
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Caroline N. Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Xin M. Luo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
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Kim H, Yoo J, Lim YM, Kim EJ, Yoon BI, Kim P, Yu SD, Eom IC, Shim I. Comprehensive pulmonary toxicity assessment of cetylpyridinium chloride using A549 cells and Sprague-Dawley rats. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 41:470-482. [PMID: 33022792 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), a quaternary ammonium compound and cationic surfactant, is used in personal hygiene products such as toothpaste, mouthwash, and nasal spray. Although public exposure to CPC is frequent, its pulmonary toxicity has yet to be fully characterized. Due to high risks of CPC inhalation, we aimed to comprehensively elucidate the in vitro and in vivo toxicity of CPC. The results demonstrated that CPC is highly cytotoxic against the A549 cells with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) of 5.79 μg/ml. Following CPC exposure, via intratracheal instillation (ITI), leakage of lactate dehydrogenase, a biomarker of cell injury, was significantly increased in all exposure groups. Further, repeated exposure of rats to CPC for 28 days caused a decrease in body weight of the high-exposure group and the relative weights of the lungs and kidneys of the high recovery group, but no changes were evident in the histological and serum chemical analyses. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) analysis showed a significant increase in proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels. ITI of CPC induced focal inflammation of the pulmonary parenchyma in rats' lungs. Our study demonstrated that TNF-α was the most commonly secreted proinflammatory cytokine during CPC exposure in both in vitro and in vivo models. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the BALF, which are indicators of pulmonary inflammation, significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner in all in vivo studies including the ITI, acute, and subacute inhalation assays, demonstrating that PMNs are the most sensitive parameters of pulmonary toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haewon Kim
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Jean Yoo
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Yeon-Mi Lim
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Eun-Ji Kim
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Byung-Il Yoon
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Institute of Veterinary Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Pilje Kim
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Seung Do Yu
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Ig-Chun Eom
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Ilseob Shim
- Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, South Korea
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17
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Luz A, DeLeo P, Pechacek N, Freemantle M. Human health hazard assessment of quaternary ammonium compounds: Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and alkyl (C12–C16) dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104717. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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18
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Improving wood durability against G. Trabeum and C. versicolor using starch based antifungal coating from Dioscorea hispida sp. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2020.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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19
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Chemicals inhaled from spray cleaning and disinfection products and their respiratory effects. A comprehensive review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 229:113592. [PMID: 32810683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Spray cleaning and disinfection products have been associated with adverse respiratory effects in professional cleaners and among residents doing domestic cleaning. This review combines information about use of spray products from epidemiological and clinical studies, in vivo and in vitro toxicological studies of cleaning chemicals, as well as human and field exposure studies. The most frequent chemicals in spray cleaning and disinfection products were compiled, based on registrations in the Danish Product Registry. The chemicals were divided into acids, bases, disinfectants, fragrances, organic solvents, propellants, and tensides. In addition, an assessment of selected cleaning and disinfectant chemicals in spray products was carried out. Chemicals of concern regarding respiratory effects (e.g. asthma) are corrosive chemicals such as strong acids and bases (including ammonia and hypochlorite) and quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs). However, the evidence for respiratory effects after inhalation of QACs is ambiguous. Common fragrances are generally not considered to be of concern following inhalation. Solvents including glycols and glycol ethers as well as propellants are generally weak airway irritants and not expected to induce sensitization in the airways. Mixing of certain cleaning products can produce corrosive airborne chemicals. We discuss different hypotheses for the mechanisms behind the development of respiratory effects of inhalation of chemicals in cleaning agents. An integrative assessment is needed to understand how these chemicals can cause the various respiratory effects.
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20
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Kwon YS, Jung JW, Kim YJ, Park CB, Shon JC, Kim JH, Park JW, Kim SG, Seo JS. Proteomic analysis of whole-body responses in medaka ( Oryzias latipes) exposed to benzalkonium chloride. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2020; 55:1387-1397. [PMID: 32693679 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2020.1796117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a cationic surfactant commonly used as a disinfectant, and is discharged into the aquatic environment by various water sources such as wastewater. BAC may also interact with potentially toxic substances such as persistent organic chemicals. Although studies of BAC contamination toxicity and bioaccumulation have been widely reported, the biochemical responses to BAC toxicity remain incompletely understood, and the detailed molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry-based proteomic approaches were applied to investigate the protein profiles in Oryzias latipes (medaka) chronically exposed to BAC. Fish were exposed to three different concentrations of BAC, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mg/L, for 21 days. A total of 20 proteins involved in the cytoskeleton, the oxidative stress response, the nervous and endocrine systems, signaling pathways, and cellular proteolysis were significantly upregulated by BAC exposure. The proteomic information obtained in the present study will be useful in identification of potential biomarkers for BAC toxicity, and begins to elucidate its molecular mechanisms, providing new insights into the ecotoxicity of BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sang Kwon
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Woong Jung
- Environmental Biology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Jin Kim
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Beom Park
- Ecotoxicology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Cheol Shon
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hwan Kim
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - June-Woo Park
- Environmental Biology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Gon Kim
- Gyeongnam Oriental Anti-aging Institute, Sancheong, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Su Seo
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
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Kim SH, Kwon D, Lee S, Son SW, Kwon JT, Kim PJ, Lee YH, Jung YS. Concentration- and Time-Dependent Effects of Benzalkonium Chloride in Human Lung Epithelial Cells: Necrosis, Apoptosis, or Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition. TOXICS 2020; 8:toxics8010017. [PMID: 32121658 PMCID: PMC7151738 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC), an antimicrobial agent in inhalable medications and household sprays, has been reported to be toxic to pulmonary organs. Although cell membrane damage has been considered as the main cytotoxic mechanism of BAC, its concentration- and time-dependent cellular effects on lung epithelium have not been fully understood. In the present study, human lung epithelial (H358) cells were exposed to 0.2–40 μg/mL of BAC for 30 min or 21 days. Cell membranes were rapidly disrupted by 30 min exposure, but 24 h incubation of BAC (4–40 μg/mL) predominantly caused apoptosis rather than necrosis. BAC (2–4 μg/mL) induced mitochondrial depolarization, which may be associated with increased expression of pro-apoptotic proteins (caspase-3, PARP, Bax, p53, and p21), and decreased levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. The protein expression levels of IRE1α, BiP, CHOP, and p-JNK were also elevated by BAC (2–4 μg/mL) suggesting the possible involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress in inducing apoptosis. Long-term (7–21 days) incubation with BAC (0.2–0.6 μg/mL) did not affect cell viability but led to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as shown by the decrease of E-cadherin and the increase of N-cadherin, fibronectin, and vimentin, caused by the upregulation of EMT transcription factors, such as Snail, Slug, Twist1, Zeb1, and Zeb2. Therefore, we conclude that apoptosis could be an important mechanism of acute BAC cytotoxicity in lung epithelial cells, and chronic exposure to BAC even at sub-lethal doses can promote pulmonary EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sou Hyun Kim
- Lab of Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
| | - Doyoung Kwon
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Seunghyun Lee
- Lab of Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
| | - Seung Won Son
- Lab of Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
| | - Jung-Taek Kwon
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon 22689, Korea
| | - Pil-Je Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon 22689, Korea
| | - Yun-Hee Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.L.); (Y.-S.J.); Tel.: +82-2-880-2139 (Y.-H.L.); 82-51-510-2816 (Y.-S.J.)
| | - Young-Suk Jung
- Lab of Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.L.); (Y.-S.J.); Tel.: +82-2-880-2139 (Y.-H.L.); 82-51-510-2816 (Y.-S.J.)
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Kanno S, Hirano S, Kato H, Fukuta M, Mukai T, Aoki Y. Benzalkonium chloride and cetylpyridinium chloride induce apoptosis in human lung epithelial cells and alter surface activity of pulmonary surfactant monolayers. Chem Biol Interact 2020; 317:108962. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2020.108962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Lee H, Park K. Acute toxicity of benzalkonium chloride in Balb/c mice following intratracheal instillation and oral administration. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.5620/eht.e2019009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Lee H, Park K. Acute toxicity of benzalkonium chloride in Balb/c mice following intratracheal instillation and oral administration. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2019; 34:e2019009. [PMID: 31771318 PMCID: PMC7014950 DOI: 10.5620/eaht.e2019009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride is a cationic surfactant widely used as a disinfectant, preservative, and sanitizer in many public places as well as domestically. The purpose of this study is to compare the acute toxicity of lethal doses (LDx) and the target organs after intratracheal instillation and oral ingestion by mice, which is a preliminary test prior to the repeated dose toxicity test. When Balb/c mice were treated with a single dose of benzalkonium chloride via oral administration, LD50 was 241.7 mg/kg. However, it was comparatively decreased to 8.5 mg/kg following intratracheal treatment, which suggests that lung may be the main target of toxicity. Although the histopathology showed inflammatory responses in the lung after intratracheal instillation, it still did not confirm that the inflammatory responses were the key factors inducing death in the treated animal. Acute and fatal mechanisms such as bronchoconstriction or neurotoxicity associated with benzalkonium chloride exposure should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Handule Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women's University, Seoul 02748, Korea
| | - Kwangsik Park
- College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women's University, Seoul 02748, Korea
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Effects of benzalkonium chloride on cell viability, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress of human alveolar epithelial cells cultured in a dynamic culture condition. Toxicol In Vitro 2019; 59:221-227. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Inhalation toxicity of benzalkonium chloride and triethylene glycol mixture in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2019; 378:114609. [PMID: 31173787 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC), a disinfectant, and triethylene glycol (TEG), an organic solvent/sanitizer, are frequently combined in commercially available household sprays. To assess the respiratory effect of this combination, Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to an aerosol containing BAC (0.5%, w/v) and TEG (10%, w/v) for up to 2 weeks in a whole-body inhalation chamber. BAC (4.1-4.5 mg/m3, sprayed from 0.5% solution) promoted pulmonary cell damage and inflammation as depicted by the increase in total protein, lactate dehydrogenase, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, whereas TEG (85.3-94.5 mg/m3, sprayed from 10% solution) did not affect the lung. Rats exposed to the BAC/TEG mixture for 2 weeks showed severe respiratory symptoms (sneezing, wheezing, breath shortness, and chest tightness), but no lung damage or inflammation was observed. However, significant ulceration and degenerative necrosis were observed in the nasal cavities of rats repeatedly exposed to the BAC/TEG mixture. The mass median aerodynamic diameters of the aqueous, BAC, TEG and BAC/TEG aerosols were 1.24, 1.27, 3.11 and 3.24 μm, respectively, indicating that TEG-containing aerosols have larger particles than those of the aqueous and BAC alone aerosols. These results suggest that the toxic effects of BAC and BAC/TEG aerosols on the different respiratory organs may be associated with the difference in particle diameter, since particle size is important in determining the deposition site of inhaled materials.
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Kwon D, Lim Y, Kwon J, Shim I, Kim E, Lee D, Yoon B, Kim P, Kim H. Evaluation of pulmonary toxicity of benzalkonium chloride and triethylene glycol mixtures using in vitro and in vivo systems. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2019; 34:561-572. [PMID: 30786124 PMCID: PMC6594094 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a widely used disinfectant/preservative, and respiratory exposure to this compound has been reported to be highly toxic. Spray-form household products have been known to contain BAC together with triethylene glycol (TEG) in their solutions. The purpose of this study was to estimate the toxicity of BAC and TEG mixtures to pulmonary organs using in vitro and in vivo experiments. Human alveolar epithelial (A549) cells incubated with BAC (1-10 μg/mL) for 24 hours showed significant cytotoxicity, while TEG (up to 1000 μg/mL) did not affect cell viability. However, TEG in combination with BAC aggravated cell damage and inhibited colony formation as compared to BAC alone. TEG also exacerbated BAC-promoted production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduction of glutathione (GSH) level in A549 cells. However, pretreatment of the cells with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) alleviated the cytotoxicity, indicating oxidative stress could be a mechanism of the toxicity. Quantification of intracellular BAC by LC/MS/MS showed that cellular distribution/absorption of BAC was enhanced in A549 cells when it was exposed together with TEG. Intratracheal instillation of BAC (400 μg/kg) in rats was toxic to the pulmonary tissues while that of TEG (up to 1000 μg/kg) did not show any harmful effect. A combination of nontoxic doses of BAC (200 μg/kg) and TEG (1000 μg/kg) promoted significant lung injury in rats, as shown by increased protein content and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF). Moreover, BAC/TEG mixture recruited inflammatory cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), in terminal bronchioles and elevated cytokine levels, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in BALF. These results suggest that TEG can potentiate BAC-induced pulmonary toxicity and inflammation, and thus respiratory exposure to the air mist from spray-form products containing this chemical combination is potentially harmful to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doyoung Kwon
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Yeon‐Mi Lim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Jung‐Taek Kwon
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Ilseob Shim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Eunji Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Doo‐Hee Lee
- Environmental Measurement & Analysis CenterNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Byung‐Il Yoon
- College of Veterinary MedicineKangwon National UniversityChuncheon‐siGangwon‐doRepublic of Korea
| | - Pilje Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Hyun‐Mi Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
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Connolly M, Zhang Y, Mahri S, Brown DM, Ortuño N, Jordá-Beneyto M, Maciaszek K, Stone V, Fernandes TF, Johnston HJ. The influence of organic modification on the cytotoxicity of clay particles to keratinocytes, hepatocytes and macrophages; an investigation towards the safe use of polymer-clay nanocomposite packaging. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 126:178-191. [PMID: 30797875 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Organically modified clays can be used as nanofillers in polymer-clay nanocomposites to create bio-based packaging with improved strength and barrier properties. The impact of organic modification on the physico-chemical properties and toxicity of clays has yet to be fully investigated but is essential to ensure their safe use. Two organoclays, named N116_HDTA and N116_TMSA, were prepared using a commercially available sodium bentonite clay and the organic modifiers hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (HDTA) and octadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (TMSA). An in vitro hazard assessment was performed using HaCaT skin cells, C3A liver cells, and J774.1 macrophage-like cells. Organic modification with HDTA and TMSA increased the hazard potential of the organoclays in all cell models, as evidenced by the higher levels of cytotoxicity measured. N116_TMSA caused the greatest loss in viability with IC50 values of 3.2, 3.6 and 6.1 μg/cm2 calculated using J774.1, HaCaT and C3A cell lines, respectively. Cytotoxic effects were dictated by the amount of free or displaced organic modifier present in the exposure suspensions. The parent bentonite clay also caused distinct cytotoxic effects in J774.1 macrophage-like cells with associated TNF-α release. Such information on the hazard profile of organoclays, can feed into risk assessments for these materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Connolly
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Yu Zhang
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Sohaib Mahri
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - David M Brown
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Natalia Ortuño
- ITENE - Packaging, Transport. & Logistics Research Institute, C/ Albert Einstein, 1, Parque Tecnológico, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Maria Jordá-Beneyto
- ITENE - Packaging, Transport. & Logistics Research Institute, C/ Albert Einstein, 1, Parque Tecnológico, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Krystyna Maciaszek
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Vicki Stone
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Teresa F Fernandes
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
| | - Helinor J Johnston
- Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
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Stueckle TA, Davidson DC, Derk R, Kornberg TG, Battelli L, Friend S, Orandle M, Wagner A, Dinu CZ, Sierros KA, Agarwal S, Gupta RK, Rojanasakul Y, Porter DW, Rojanasakul L. Short-Term Pulmonary Toxicity Assessment of Pre- and Post-incinerated Organomodified Nanoclay in Mice. ACS NANO 2018; 12:2292-2310. [PMID: 29451776 PMCID: PMC6357971 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b07281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Organomodified nanoclays (ONCs) are increasingly used as filler materials to improve nanocomposite strength, wettability, flammability, and durability. However, pulmonary risks associated with exposure along their chemical lifecycle are unknown. This study's objective was to compare pre- and post-incinerated forms of uncoated and organomodified nanoclays for potential pulmonary inflammation, toxicity, and systemic blood response. Mice were exposed via aspiration to low (30 μg) and high (300 μg) doses of preincinerated uncoated montmorillonite nanoclay (CloisNa), ONC (Clois30B), their respective incinerated forms (I-CloisNa and I-Clois30B), and crystalline silica (CS). Lung and blood tissues were collected at days 1, 7, and 28 to compare toxicity and inflammation indices. Well-dispersed CloisNa caused a robust inflammatory response characterized by neutrophils, macrophages, and particle-laden granulomas. Alternatively, Clois30B, I-Clois30B, and CS high-dose exposures elicited a low grade, persistent inflammatory response. High-dose Clois30B exposure exhibited moderate increases in lung damage markers and a delayed macrophage recruitment cytokine signature peaking at day 7 followed by a fibrotic tissue signature at day 28, similar to CloisNa. I-CloisNa exhibited acute, transient inflammation with quick recovery. Conversely, high-dose I-Clois30B caused a weak initial inflammatory signal but showed comparable pro-inflammatory signaling to CS at day 28. The data demonstrate that ONC pulmonary toxicity and inflammatory potential relies on coating presence and incineration status in that coated and incinerated nanoclay exhibited less inflammation and granuloma formation than pristine montmorillonite. High doses of both pre- and post-incinerated ONC, with different surface morphologies, may harbor potential pulmonary health hazards over long-term occupational exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A. Stueckle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Donna C. Davidson
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Ray Derk
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Tiffany G. Kornberg
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Lori Battelli
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Sherri Friend
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Marlene Orandle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Alixandra Wagner
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Cerasela Zoica Dinu
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Konstantinos A. Sierros
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Sushant Agarwal
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Rakesh K. Gupta
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Yon Rojanasakul
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Dale W. Porter
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
| | - Liying Rojanasakul
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, United States
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Abstract
The available toxicity data of benzalkonium chloride (BKC) clearly shows that it is toxic; however, the weight of evidence favors the view that at doses encountered in nasally and orally inhaled pharmaceutical preparations it is well tolerated. The adverse toxicological data predominantly come from in vitro and animal studies in which doses and exposure periods employed were excessive in relation to the clinical doses and their posology and, therefore, not directly applicable to the clinic. The conflict between the in vitro and animal data and the clinical experience can be reconciled by understanding some of the physicochemical properties of BKC, the nasal and respiratory tract microenvironments, the doses used, and the posology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil F Johnson
- Pharma Toxicology Safety Solutions LLC , Highland Park, Illinois
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31
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LeBouf RF, Virji MA, Ranpara A, Stefaniak AB. Air and Surface Sampling Method for Assessing Exposures to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Ann Work Expo Health 2017; 61:724-736. [PMID: 28927165 PMCID: PMC5826613 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxx037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This method was designed for sampling select quaternary ammonium (quat) compounds in air or on surfaces followed by analysis using ultraperformance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Target quats were benzethonium chloride, didecyldimethylammonium bromide, benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride, and benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride. For air sampling, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filters are recommended for 15-min to 24-hour sampling. For surface sampling, Pro-wipe® 880 (PW) media was chosen. Samples were extracted in 60:40 acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid for 1 hour on an orbital shaker. Method detection limits range from 0.3 to 2 ng/ml depending on media and analyte. Matrix effects of media are minimized through the use of multiple reaction monitoring versus selected ion recording. Upper confidence limits on accuracy meet the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 25% criterion for PTFE and PW media for all analytes. Using PTFE and PW analyzed with multiple reaction monitoring, the method quantifies levels among the different quats compounds with high precision (<10% relative standard deviation) and low bias (<11%). The method is sensitive enough with very low method detection limits to capture quats on air sampling filters with only a 15-min sample duration with a maximum assessed storage time of 103 days before sample extraction. This method will support future exposure assessment and quantitative epidemiologic studies to explore exposure-response relationships and establish levels of quats exposures associated with adverse health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan F. LeBouf
- Field Studies Branch, Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Mohammed Abbas Virji
- Field Studies Branch, Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Anand Ranpara
- Field Studies Branch, Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Aleksandr B. Stefaniak
- Field Studies Branch, Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
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Jiao Y, Niu LN, Ma S, Li J, Tay FR, Chen JH. Quaternary ammonium-based biomedical materials: State-of-the-art, toxicological aspects and antimicrobial resistance. Prog Polym Sci 2017; 71:53-90. [PMID: 32287485 PMCID: PMC7111226 DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Microbial infections affect humans worldwide. Many quaternary ammonium compounds have been synthesized that are not only antibacterial, but also possess antifungal, antiviral and anti-matrix metalloproteinase capabilities. Incorporation of quaternary ammonium moieties into polymers represents one of the most promising strategies for preparation of antimicrobial biomaterials. Various polymerization techniques have been employed to prepare antimicrobial surfaces with quaternary ammonium functionalities; in particular, syntheses involving controlled radical polymerization techniques enable precise control over macromolecular structure, order and functionality. Although recent publications report exciting advances in the biomedical field, some of these technological developments have also been accompanied by potential toxicological and antimicrobial resistance challenges. Recent evidenced-based data on the biomedical applications of antimicrobial quaternary ammonium-containing biomaterials that are based on randomized human clinical trials, the golden standard in contemporary medicinal science, are included in the present review. This should help increase visibility, stimulate debates and spur conversations within a wider scientific community on the implications and plausibility for future developments of quaternary ammonium-based antimicrobial biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, 710032, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
- Department of Stomatology, PLA Army General Hospital, 100700, Beijing, China
| | - Li-na Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, 710032, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sai Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, 710032, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Oncology, Xijing Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, 710032, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Franklin R. Tay
- Department of Endodontics, The Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
- Corresponding authors.
| | - Ji-hua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, 710032, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
- Corresponding authors.
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Grimaldi N, Andrade F, Segovia N, Ferrer-Tasies L, Sala S, Veciana J, Ventosa N. Lipid-based nanovesicles for nanomedicine. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:6520-6545. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00409a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Multifunctional lipid-based nanovesicles (L-NVs) prepared by molecular self-assembly of membrane components together with (bio)-active molecules, by means of compressed CO2-media or other non-conventional methods lead to highly homogeneous, tailor-made nanovesicles that are used for advanced nanomedicine. Confocal microscopy image of siRNA transfection using L-NVs, reprinted with permission from de Jonge,et al.,Gene Therapy, 2006,13, 400–411.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Grimaldi
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Nanomol Technologies SA
| | - F. Andrade
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería
| | - N. Segovia
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería
| | - L. Ferrer-Tasies
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Nanomol Technologies SA
| | - S. Sala
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería
| | - J. Veciana
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería
| | - N. Ventosa
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC)
- Campus Universitari de Bellaterra
- Cerdanyola del Vallès
- Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería
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Xiang L, Wang XK, Li YW, Huang XP, Wu XL, Zhao HM, Li H, Cai QY, Mo CH. Analysis of Trace Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) in Vegetables Using Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:6689-6697. [PMID: 26165915 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective method was developed for determining three quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) including dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, and didodecyldimethylammonium chloride in various vegetables using ultrasonic-assisted extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The variety and acidity of extraction solvents, extraction times, and cleanup efficiency of sorbents were estimated to obtain an optimized procedure for extraction of the QACs in nine vegetable matrices. Excellent linearities (R(2) > 0.992) were obtained for the analytes in the nine matrices. The limits of detection and quantitation were 0.7-6.0 and 2.3-20.0 μg/kg (dry weight, dw) in various matrices, respectively. The recoveries in the nine matrices ranged from 70.5% to 108.0% with relative standard deviations below 18.0%. The developed method was applied to determine the QACs in 27 vegetable samples collected from Guangzhou in southern China, showing very high detection frequency with a concentration of 23-180 μg/kg (dw).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xiang
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiong-Ke Wang
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yan-Wen Li
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xian-Pei Huang
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiao-Lian Wu
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Hai-Ming Zhao
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Hui Li
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Quan-Ying Cai
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Ce-Hui Mo
- †Key Laboratory of Water/Soil Toxic Pollutants Control and Bioremediation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutions, School of Environment, and ‡Department of Ecology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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Zhang C, Cui F, Zeng GM, Jiang M, Yang ZZ, Yu ZG, Zhu MY, Shen LQ. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs): a review on occurrence, fate and toxicity in the environment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 518-519:352-62. [PMID: 25770948 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are widely applied in household and industrial products. Most uses of QACs can be expected to lead to their release to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and then dispersed into various environmental compartments through sewage effluent and sludge land application. Although QACs are considered to be aerobically biodegradable, the degradation is affected by its chemical structures, dissolved oxygen concentration, complexing with anionic surfactants, etc. High abundance of QACs has been detected in sediment and sludge samples due to its strong sorption and resistance to biodegradation under anoxic/anaerobic conditions. QACs are toxic to a lot of aquatic organisms including fish, daphnids, algae, rotifer and microorganisms employed in wastewater treatment systems. And antibiotic resistance has emerged in microorganisms due to excessive use of QACs in household and industrial applications. The occurrence of QACs in the environment is correlated with anthropogenic activities, such as wastewater discharge from WWTPs or single source polluters, and sludge land application. This article also reviews the analytical methods for determination of QACs in environmental compartments including surface water, wastewater, sewage sludge and sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
| | - Fang Cui
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Guang-ming Zeng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
| | - Min Jiang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Zhong-zhu Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Zhi-gang Yu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Meng-ying Zhu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Liu-qing Shen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China
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Toxic effect in the lungs of rats after inhalation exposure to benzalkonium chloride. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2014; 26:647-56. [PMID: 24288119 DOI: 10.2478/s13382-013-0137-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) toxic to microorganisms. Inhalation is one of the major possible routes of human exposure to BAC. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experiments were performed on female Wistar rats. The rats were exposed to aerosol of BAC water solution at the target concentration of 0 (control group) and 35 mg/m(3) for 5 days (6 h/day) and, after a 2-week interval, the animals were challenged (day 21) with BAC aerosol at the target concentration of 0 (control group) and 35 mg/m3 for 6 h. RESULTS Compared to the controls, the animals exposed to BAC aerosol were characterized by lower food intake and their body weight was significantly smaller. As regards BAC-exposed group, a significant increase was noted in relative lung mass, total protein concentration, and MIP-2 in BALF both directly after the termination of the exposure and 18 h afterwards. Significantly higher IL-6 and IgE concentrations in BALF and a decrease in the CC16 concentration in BALF were found in the exposed group immediately after the exposure. The leukocyte count in BALF was significantly higher in the animals exposed to BAC aerosol compared to the controls. In the lungs of rats exposed to BAC the following effects were observed: minimal perivascular, interstitial edema, focal aggregates of alveolar macrophages, interstitial mononuclear cell infiltrations, thickened alveolar septa and marginal lipoproteinosis. CONCLUSION Inhalation of BAC induced a strong inflammatory response and a damage to the blood-air barrier. Reduced concentrations of CC16, which is an immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory protein, in combination with increased IgE concentrations in BALF may be indicative of the immuno-inflammatory response in the animals exposed to BAC aerosol by inhalation. Histopathological examinations of tissue samples from the BAC-exposed rats revealed a number of pathological changes found only in the lungs.
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Microscopic acute lesions after caustic exposure. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 234:57-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Wolkoff P. Indoor air pollutants in office environments: assessment of comfort, health, and performance. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2012; 216:371-94. [PMID: 22954455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 07/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in office environments are generally too low to cause sensory irritation in the eyes and airways on the basis of estimated thresholds for sensory irritation. Furthermore, effects in the lungs, e.g. inflammatory effects, have not been substantiated at indoor relevant concentrations. Some VOCs, including formaldehyde, in combination may under certain environmental and occupational conditions result in reported sensory irritation. The odour thresholds of several VOCs are low enough to influence the perceived air quality that result in a number of acute effects from reported sensory irritation in eyes and airways and deterioration of performance. The odour perception (air quality) depends on a number of factors that may influence the odour impact. There is neither clear indication that office dust particles may cause sensory effects, even not particles spiked with glucans, aldehydes or phthalates, nor lung effects; some inflammatory effects may be observed among asthmatics. Ozone-initiated terpene reaction products may be of concern in ozone-enriched environments (≥0.1mg/m(3)) and elevated limonene concentrations, partly due to the production of formaldehyde. Ambient particles may cause cardio-pulmonary effects, especially in susceptible people (e.g. elderly and sick people); even, short-term effects, e.g. from traffic emission and candle smoke may possibly have modulating and delayed effects on the heart, but otherwise adverse effects in the airways and lung functions have not been observed. Secondary organic aerosols generated in indoor ozone-initiated terpene reactions appear not to cause adverse effects in the airways; rather the gaseous products are relevant. Combined exposure to particles and ozone may evoke effects in subgroups of asthmatics. Based on an analysis of thresholds for odour and sensory irritation selected compounds are recommended for measurements to assess the indoor air quality and to minimize reports of irritation symptoms, deteriorated performance, and cardiovascular and pulmonary effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peder Wolkoff
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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