1
|
Di Giusto B, Bain A. Local ecological factors, not interference competition, drive the foundress number of two species of fig wasp sharing Ficus septica figs. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0290439. [PMID: 38165887 PMCID: PMC10760673 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have challenged assumptions about the classic fig-fig wasp pollination mutualism model, suggesting that further investigation into the receptive phase of fig development is needed. This study assessed the pollination mechanisms of Ficus septica in southern Taiwan and identified two species of wasps as the primary pollinators. Machine learning was used to identify and rank the factors that explain the relative abundance of these wasps. The two wasp species showed the highest level of cohabitation ever reported in the literature, with three-quarters of the figs containing multiple foundresses. The study also reported re-emerged foundresses and a 10% ratio of pollinated figs without foundresses. Local factors, such as the sampling period and tree identity, were the best predictors of the presence and number of each foundress species, with fig size also affecting the number of foundresses. The study highlights the variability in pollinator abundance between figs, crops, and trees. It also shows that the local environment of the trees and the availability of figs are crucial factors in determining which figs the pollinator wasps choose. These findings challenge assumptions about the classic mutualism model and suggest that long-term surveys are needed to estimate the relative contributions of each partner and provide data for evolutionary and ecological models. This study also provides valuable insights into the factors that affect the abundance and interactions of pollinator wasps during the receptive phase of fig development, with implications for understanding the behaviour of pollinating wasps and advancing our knowledge of population dynamics in Ficus species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Di Giusto
- Journalism and Mass Communication Program, International College, Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Anthony Bain
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- International Ph.D. Program for Science, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chen WH, Bain A, Wang SY, Ho YC, Tzeng HY. Mediation of a Mutualistic Conflict for Pollination via Fig Phenology and Odor Recognition between Ficus and Fig Wasp. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2603. [PMID: 36235469 PMCID: PMC9572538 DOI: 10.3390/plants11192603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The vegetative and reproductive growth of plants provide the basic tempo for an ecosystem, and when species are interdependent, phenology becomes crucial to regulating the quantity and quality of the interactions. In plant-insect interactions, the plants signal the beginning of their reproductive period with visual and chemical cues; however, in the case of Ficus mutualism, the cues are strictly chemical. The volatile organic compounds emitted by a fig species are a unique, specific blend that provides a signal to mutualistic wasps that the figs are receptive for pollination. In this study, we studied both the phenological pattern of Ficus septica in Central Taiwan and its emissions of volatile compounds at receptivity. This dioecious fig species displays a pattern of continuous vegetative and reproductive production all through the year with a decrease in winter. In parallel, the odor blends emitted by male and female trees are similar but with seasonal variations; these are minimal during winter and increase with the size of the wasp population during the favorable season. In addition, the pollinating females cannot distinguish between the male and female summer odor blends. The link between odor similarity, pollinators and intersexual conflict is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Hsuan Chen
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
- Chiayi Forest District Office, Forestry Bureau, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, Chiayi City 60000, Taiwan
| | - Anthony Bain
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
- International PhD Program for Science, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Yang Wang
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
- Academy of Circular Economy, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chiao Ho
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
- Hsinchu Forest District Office, Forestry Bureau, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, Chiayi City 30191, Taiwan
| | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pollinator sharing, copollination, and speciation by host shifting among six closely related dioecious fig species. Commun Biol 2022; 5:284. [PMID: 35396571 PMCID: PMC8993897 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03223-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The obligate pollination mutualism between figs (Ficus, Moraceae) and pollinator wasps (Agaonidae, Hymenoptera) is a classic example of cospeciation. However, examples of phylogenetic incongruencies between figs and their pollinators suggest that pollinators may speciate by host shifting. To investigate the mechanism of speciation by host shifting, we examined the phylogenetic relationships and population genetic structures of six closely related fig species and their pollinators from southern China and Taiwan-Ryukyu islands using various molecular markers. The results revealed 1) an extraordinary case of pollinator sharing, in which five distinct fig species share a single pollinator species in southern China; 2) two types of copollination, namely, sympatric copollination by pollinator duplication or pollinator migration, and allopatric copollination by host migration and new pollinator acquisition; 3) fig species from southern China have colonized Taiwan repeatedly and one of these events has been followed by host shifting, reestablishment of host specificity, and pollinator speciation, in order. Based on our results, we propose a model for pollinator speciation by host shifting in which the reestablishment of host-specificity plays a central role in the speciation process. These findings provide important insights into understanding the mechanisms underlying pollinator speciation and host specificity in obligate pollination mutualism. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses reveal mechanisms of pollinator sharing, copollination and speciation by host-shift in fig-wasp mutualism.
Collapse
|
4
|
Yu H, Tian E, Zheng L, Deng X, Cheng Y, Chen L, Wu W, Tanming W, Zhang D, Compton SG, Kjellberg F. Multiple parapatric pollinators have radiated across a continental fig tree displaying clinal genetic variation. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:2391-2405. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.15046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
- Centre for Plant Ecology, CAS Core Botanical Gardens Guangzhou China
| | - Enwei Tian
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | - Linna Zheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | - Xiaoxia Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | - Yufen Cheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | - Lianfu Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | - Wei Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digital Botanical Garden and Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden The Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou China
| | | | - Dayong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology and MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences Beijing Normal University Beijing China
| | | | - Finn Kjellberg
- CEFE, CNR, EPHE, IRD Université de Montpellier, Université Paul‐Valéry Montpellier Montpellier France
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Woodruff GC, Phillips PC. Field studies reveal a close relative of C. elegans thrives in the fresh figs of Ficus septica and disperses on its Ceratosolen pollinating wasps. BMC Ecol 2018; 18:26. [PMID: 30129423 PMCID: PMC6102938 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-018-0182-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biotic interactions are ubiquitous and require information from ecology, evolutionary biology, and functional genetics in order to be understood. However, study systems that are amenable to investigations across such disparate fields are rare. Figs and fig wasps are a classic system for ecology and evolutionary biology with poor functional genetics; Caenorhabditis elegans is a classic system for functional genetics with poor ecology. In order to help bridge these disciplines, here we describe the natural history of a close relative of C. elegans, Caenorhabditis inopinata, that is associated with the fig Ficus septica and its pollinating Ceratosolen wasps. RESULTS To understand the natural context of fig-associated Caenorhabditis, fresh F. septica figs from four Okinawan islands were sampled, dissected, and observed under microscopy. C. inopinata was found in all islands where F. septica figs were found. C.i nopinata was routinely found in the fig interior and almost never observed on the outside surface. C. inopinata was only found in pollinated figs, and C. inopinata was more likely to be observed in figs with more foundress pollinating wasps. Actively reproducing C. inopinata dominated early phase figs, whereas late phase figs with emerging wasp progeny harbored C. inopinata dauer larvae. Additionally, C. inopinata was observed dismounting from Ceratosolen pollinating wasps that were placed on agar plates. C. inopinata was not found on non-pollinating, parasitic Philotrypesis wasps. Finally, C. inopinata was only observed in F. septica figs among five Okinawan Ficus species sampled. CONCLUSION These are the first detailed field observations of C. inopinata, and they suggest a natural history where this species proliferates in early phase F. septica figs and disperses from late phase figs on Ceratosolen pollinating fig wasps. While consistent with other examples of nematode diversification in the fig microcosm, the fig and wasp host specificity of C. inopinata is highly divergent from the life histories of its close relatives and frames hypotheses for future investigations. This natural co-occurrence of the fig/fig wasp and C. inopinata study systems sets the stage for an integrated research program that can help to explain the evolution of interspecific interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin C Woodruff
- Forest Pathology Laboratory, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan.
- Department of Biology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA.
| | - Patrick C Phillips
- Department of Biology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rodriguez LJ, Bain A, Chou LS, Conchou L, Cruaud A, Gonzales R, Hossaert-McKey M, Rasplus JY, Tzeng HY, Kjellberg F. Diversification and spatial structuring in the mutualism between Ficus septica and its pollinating wasps in insular South East Asia. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:207. [PMID: 28851272 PMCID: PMC5576367 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-1034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interspecific interactions have long been assumed to play an important role in diversification. Mutualistic interactions, such as nursery pollination mutualisms, have been proposed as good candidates for diversification through co-speciation because of their intricate nature. However, little is known about how speciation and diversification proceeds in emblematic nursery pollination systems such as figs and fig wasps. Here, we analyse diversification in connection with spatial structuring in the obligate mutualistic association between Ficus septica and its pollinating wasps throughout the Philippines and Taiwan. RESULTS Ceratosolen wasps pollinating F. septica are structured into a set of three vicariant black coloured species, and a fourth yellow coloured species whose distribution overlaps with those of the black species. However, two black pollinator species were found to co-occur on Lanyu island. Microsatellite data on F. septica indicates the presence of three gene pools that broadly mirrors the distribution of the three black clades. Moreover, receptive fig odours, the specific message used by pollinating wasps to locate their host tree, varied among locations. CONCLUSIONS F. septica and its black pollinator clades exhibited similar geographic structuring. This could be due originally to geographic barriers leading to isolation, local adaptation, and finally co-structuring. Nevertheless, the co-occurrence of two black pollinator species on Lanyu island suggests that the parapatric distribution of the black clades is now maintained by the inability of migrating individuals of black pollinators to establish populations outside their range. On the other hand, the distribution of the yellow clade strongly suggests an initial case of character displacement followed by subsequent range extension: in our study system, phenotypic or microevolutionary plasticity has allowed the yellow clade to colonise hosts presenting distinct odours. Hence, while variation in receptive fig odours allows specificity in the interaction, this variation does not necessarily lead to coevolutionary plant-insect diversification. Globally, our results evidence evolutionary plasticity in the fig-fig wasp mutualism. This is the first documentation of the presence of two distinct processes in pollinating fig wasp diversification on a host species: the formation of vicariant species and the co-occurrence of other species over large parts of their ranges probably made possible by character displacement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lillian Jennifer Rodriguez
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
- INRA, UMR 1062 CBGP, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
| | - Anthony Bain
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lien-Siang Chou
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lucie Conchou
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
- Institut d’Ecologie et des Sciences de l’Environnement de Paris—ECOSENS, INRA-UPMC, Versailles, France
| | | | - Regielene Gonzales
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Martine Hossaert-McKey
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Finn Kjellberg
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Local coexistence and genetic isolation of three pollinator species on the same fig tree species. Heredity (Edinb) 2017; 118:486-490. [PMID: 28074845 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2016.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular tools increasingly reveal cryptic lineages and species that were previously unnoticed by traditional taxonomy. The discovery of cryptic species in sympatry prompts the question of how they coexist in the apparent absence of ecological divergence. However, this assumes first that the molecular taxonomy used to identify cryptic lineages delimits species boundaries accurately. This issue is important, because many diversity studies rely heavily or solely on data from mitochondrial DNA sequences for species delimitation, and several factors may lead to poor identification of species boundaries. We used a multilocus population genetics approach to show that three mtDNA-defined cryptic lineages of the fig wasp Pleistodontes imperialis Saunders, which pollinate Port Jackson figs (Ficus rubiginosa) in north-eastern Australia, represent reproductively isolated species. These species coexist locally, with about 13% of figs (where mating occurs) containing wasps from two or three species. However, there was no evidence for gene flow between them. Confirmed cases of coexisting cryptic species provide excellent opportunities for future studies of the ecological and evolutionary forces shaping both species coexistence and fig/pollinator coevolution.
Collapse
|
8
|
Wachi N, Kusumi J, Tzeng HY, Su ZH. Genome-wide sequence data suggest the possibility of pollinator sharing by host shift in dioecious figs (Moraceae,Ficus). Mol Ecol 2016; 25:5732-5746. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nakatada Wachi
- JT Biohistory Research Hall; 1-1 Murasaki-cho Takatsuki Osaka 569-1125 Japan
| | - Junko Kusumi
- Department of Environmental Changes; Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies; Kyushu University; 744 Motooka Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
| | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung 402 Taiwan
| | - Zhi-Hui Su
- JT Biohistory Research Hall; 1-1 Murasaki-cho Takatsuki Osaka 569-1125 Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences; Graduate School of Science; Osaka University; 1-1 Machikaneyama Toyonaka Osaka 560-0043 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sutton TL, Riegler M, Cook JM. One step ahead: a parasitoid disperses farther and forms a wider geographic population than its fig wasp host. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:882-94. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy L. Sutton
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment; Western Sydney University; Locked Bag 1797 Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
| | - Markus Riegler
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment; Western Sydney University; Locked Bag 1797 Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
| | - James M. Cook
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment; Western Sydney University; Locked Bag 1797 Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bain A, Tzeng HY, Wu WJ, Chou LS. Ficus (Moraceae) and fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) in Taiwan. BOTANICAL STUDIES 2015; 56:11. [PMID: 28510820 PMCID: PMC5432906 DOI: 10.1186/s40529-015-0090-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Although Ficus-associated wasp fauna have been extensively researched in Australasia, information on these fauna in Taiwan is not well accessible to scientists worldwide. In this study, we compiled records on the Ficus flora of Taiwan and its associated wasp fauna. Initial agronomic research reports on Ficus were published in Japanese in 1917, followed by reports on applied biochemistry, taxonomy, and phenology in Chinese. On the basis of the phenological knowledge of 15 species of the Ficus flora of Taiwan, recent research has examined the pollinating and nonpollinating agaonid and chalcid wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Updating records according to the current nomenclature revealed that there are 30 taxa (27 species) of native or naturalized Ficus with an unusually high proportion of dioecious species (78%). Four species were observed to exhibit mutualism with more than one pollinating wasp species, and 18 of the 27 Ficus species were reported with nonpollinating wasp species. The number of nonpollinating wasp species associated with specific Ficus species ranges from zero (F. pumila) to 24 (F. microcarpa). Approximately half of the Taiwanese fig tree species have been studied with basic information on phenology and biology described in peer-reviewed journals or theses. This review provides a solid basis for future in-depth comparative studies. This summary of knowledge will encourage and facilitate continuing research on the pollination dynamics of Ficus and the associated insect fauna in Taiwan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Bain
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd.,, Taipei, 10617 Taiwan
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive CEFE, UMR 5175 CNRS, 1919 route de Mende, Montpellier, 34293 France
| | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry, National Chung-Hsing University, 250 Kuokwang Road, Taichung, 40227 Taiwan
| | - Wen-Jer Wu
- Department of Entomology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd.,, Taipei, 10617 Taiwan
| | - Lien-Siang Chou
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd.,, Taipei, 10617 Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Conchou L, Cabioch L, Rodriguez LJV, Kjellberg F. Daily rhythm of mutualistic pollinator activity and scent emission in Ficus septica: ecological differentiation between co-occurring pollinators and potential consequences for chemical communication and facilitation of host speciation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103581. [PMID: 25105796 PMCID: PMC4126690 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mutualistic interaction between Ficus and their pollinating agaonid wasps constitutes an extreme example of plant-insect co-diversification. Most Ficus species are locally associated with a single specific agaonid wasp species. Specificity is ensured by each fig species emitting a distinctive attractive scent. However, cases of widespread coexistence of two agaonid wasp species on the same Ficus species are documented. Here we document the coexistence of two agaonid wasp species in Ficus septica: one yellow-colored and one black-colored. Our results suggest that their coexistence is facilitated by divergent ecological traits. The black species is longer-lived (a few more hours) and is hence active until later in the afternoon. Some traits of the yellow species must compensate for this advantage for their coexistence to be stable. In addition, we show that the composition of the scent emitted by receptive figs changes between sunrise and noon. The two species may therefore be exposed to somewhat different ranges of receptive fig scent composition and may consequently diverge in the way they perceive and/or respond to scents. Whether such situations may lead to host plant speciation is an open question.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Conchou
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier – EPHE, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Léa Cabioch
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier – EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Lillian J. V. Rodriguez
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier – EPHE, Montpellier, France
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Finn Kjellberg
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier – EPHE, Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Liu M, Zhao R, Chen Y, Zhang J, Compton SG, Chen XY. Competitive exclusion among fig wasps achieved via entrainment of host plant flowering phenology. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97783. [PMID: 24849458 PMCID: PMC4029822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular techniques are revealing increasing numbers of morphologically similar but co-existing cryptic species, challenging the niche theory. To understand the co-existence mechanism, we studied phenologies of morphologically similar species of fig wasps that pollinate the creeping fig (F. pumila) in eastern China. We compared phenologies of fig wasp emergence and host flowering at sites where one or both pollinators were present. At the site where both pollinators were present, we used sticky traps to capture the emerged fig wasps and identified species identity using mitochondrial DNA COI gene. We also genotyped F. pumila individuals of the three sites using polymorphic microsatellites to detect whether the host populations were differentiated. Male F. pumila produced two major crops annually, with figs receptive in spring and summer. A small partial third crop of receptive figs occurred in the autumn, but few of the second crop figs matured at that time. Hence, few pollinators were available to enter third crop figs and they mostly aborted, resulting in two generations of pollinating wasps each year, plus a partial third generation. Receptive figs were produced on male plants in spring and summer, timed to coincide with the release of short-lived adult pollinators from the same individual plants. Most plants were pollinated by a single species. Plants pollinated by Wiebesia sp. 1 released wasps earlier than those pollinated by Wiebesia sp. 3, with little overlap. Plants occupied by different pollinators were not spatially separated, nor genetically distinct. Our findings show that these differences created mismatches with the flight periods of the other Wiebesia species, largely ‘reserving’ individual plants for the resident pollinator species. This pre-emptive competitive displacement may prevent long term co-existence of the two pollinators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Liu
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Tiantong National Field Station for Forest Ecosystems, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Zhao
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Tiantong National Field Station for Forest Ecosystems, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Ecological Security and Protection Key laboratory of Sichuan Province, Mianyang Normal University, Mianyang, Sichuan, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Tiantong National Field Station for Forest Ecosystems, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Stephen G. Compton
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Xiao-Yong Chen
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Tiantong National Field Station for Forest Ecosystems, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Liu M, Zhang J, Chen Y, Compton SG, Chen XY. Contrasting genetic responses to population fragmentation in a coevolving fig and fig wasp across a mainland-island archipelago. Mol Ecol 2013; 22:4384-96. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2013] [Revised: 05/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Sciences; Tiantong National Station of Forest Ecosystem; Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration; East China Normal University; Shanghai 200241 China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Resources and Environmental Sciences; Tiantong National Station of Forest Ecosystem; Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration; East China Normal University; Shanghai 200241 China
| | - Yan Chen
- Ecological Security and Protection Key laboratory of Sichuan Province; Mianyang Normal University; Mianyang Sichuan 621000 China
| | - Stephen G. Compton
- Faculty of Biological Sciences; School of Biology; University of Leeds; Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - Xiao-Yong Chen
- School of Resources and Environmental Sciences; Tiantong National Station of Forest Ecosystem; Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration; East China Normal University; Shanghai 200241 China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
CHEN YAN, COMPTON STEPHENG, LIU MIN, CHEN XIAOYONG. Fig trees at the northern limit of their range: the distributions of cryptic pollinators indicate multiple glacial refugia. Mol Ecol 2012; 21:1687-701. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05491.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
15
|
Ghara M, Kundanati L, Borges RM. Nature's Swiss Army knives: ovipositor structure mirrors ecology in a multitrophic fig wasp community. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23642. [PMID: 21909352 PMCID: PMC3166121 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Resource partitioning is facilitated by adaptations along niche dimensions that range from morphology to behaviour. The exploitation of hidden resources may require specially adapted morphological or sensory tools for resource location and utilisation. Differences in tool diversity and complexity can determine not only how many species can utilize these hidden resources but also how they do so. Methodology and Principal Findings The sclerotisation, gross morphology and ultrastructure of the ovipositors of a seven-member community of parasitic wasps comprising of gallers and parasitoids developing within the globular syconia (closed inflorescences) of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae) was investigated. These wasps also differ in their parasitism mode (external versus internal oviposition) and their timing of oviposition into the expanding syconium during its development. The number and diversity of sensilla, as well as ovipositor teeth, increased from internally ovipositing to externally ovipositing species and from gallers to parasitoids. The extent of sclerotisation of the ovipositor tip matched the force required to penetrate the syconium at the time of oviposition of each species. The internally ovipositing pollinator had only one type of sensillum and a single notch on the ovipositor tip. Externally ovipositing species had multiple sensilla types and teeth on their ovipositors. Chemosensilla were most concentrated at ovipositor tips while mechanoreceptors were more widely distributed, facilitating the precise location of hidden hosts in these wasps which lack larval host-seeking behaviour. Ovipositor traits of one parasitoid differed from those of its syntopic galler congeners and clustered with those of parasitoids within a different wasp subfamily. Thus ovipositor tools can show lability based on adaptive necessity, and are not constrained by phylogeny. Conclusions/Significance Ovipositor structure mirrored the increasingly complex trophic ecology and requirements for host accessibility in this parasite community. Ovipositor structure could be a useful surrogate for predicting the biology of parasites in other communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahua Ghara
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Renee M. Borges
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|