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Effect of intermittency factor on singlet oxygen and PGE2 formation in azulene-mediated photodynamic therapy: A preliminary study. Biochem Biophys Rep 2022; 31:101290. [PMID: 35677631 PMCID: PMC9168118 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2022.101290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In photodynamic therapy, intermittent irradiation modes that incorporate an interval between pulses are believed to decrease the effect of hypoxia by permitting an interval of re-oxygenation. The effect of the irradiation intermittency factor (the ratio of the irradiation pulse time to the total irradiation time) on singlet oxygen formation and inflammatory cytokine production was examined using azulene as a photosensitizer. Effects of difference intermittency factor on singlet oxygen formation and inflammatory cytokine were examined. Azulene solutions (1/10 μM) were irradiated with a 638-nm 500 mW diode laser in fractionation (intermittency factor of 5 or 9) or continuous mode using 50 mW/cm2 at 4 or 8 J/cm2. Singlet oxygen measurement was performed using a dimethyl anthracene probe. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were stimulated by 10 ng/ml rhTNF-α for 6 h, before addition of 1 and 10 μM azulene solutions and irradiation. PGE2 measurement was undertaken using a human PGE2 ELISA kit. Kruskal-Wallis with Dunn Bonferroni test was used for statistical analyses at p < 0.05.Irradiation of 1 μM azulene+4 J/cm2+intermittency factor of 9 increased singlet oxygen 3-fold (p < 0.0001). Irradiation of 10 μM azulene at either 4 J/cm2+intermittency of 9 or 8 J/cm2+intermittency factor of 5 reduced PGE2 expression in PBMCs to non-inflamed levels. Thus, at 50 mW/cm2, 10 μM azulene-mediated photodynamic therapy with a high intermittency factor and a low energy density generated sufficient singlet oxygen to suppress PGE2 in Inflamed PBMCs. Different intermittency factors can stimulate ROS formation differently. Relative high intermittency factor with azulene induces high ROS formation. Relative high intermittency factor with low energy density inhibits PGE2 production. Azulene-based photodynamic therapy suppresses inflammation.
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Pucelik B, Sułek A, Dąbrowski JM. Bacteriochlorins and their metal complexes as NIR-absorbing photosensitizers: properties, mechanisms, and applications. Coord Chem Rev 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2020.213340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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3
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Kamanli AF, Çetinel G. Comparison of pulse and super pulse radiation modes’ singlet oxygen production effect in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (AmPDT). Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2020; 30:101706. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.101706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Falk-Mahapatra R, Gollnick SO. Photodynamic Therapy and Immunity: An Update. Photochem Photobiol 2020; 96:550-559. [PMID: 32128821 DOI: 10.1111/php.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Dr. Thomas Dougherty and his Oncology Foundation of Buffalo were the first to support my (S.O.G.) research into the effects of photodynamic therapy (PDT) on the host immune system. The small grant I was awarded in 2002 launched my career as an independent researcher; at the time, there were few studies on the importance of the immune response on the efficacy of PDT and no studies demonstrating the ability of PDT to enhance antitumor immunity. Over the last decades, the interest in PDT as an enhancer of antitumor immunity and our understanding of the mechanisms by which PDT enhances antitumor immunity have dramatically increased. In this review article, we look back on the studies that laid the foundation for our understanding and provide an update on current advances and therapies that take advantage of PDT enhancement of immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra O Gollnick
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY.,Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY
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Peng W, de Bruijn HS, ten Hagen TLM, Berg K, Roodenburg JLN, van Dam GM, Witjes MJH, Robinson DJ. In-Vivo Optical Monitoring of the Efficacy of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Targeted Photodynamic Therapy: The Effect of Fluence Rate. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E190. [PMID: 31940973 PMCID: PMC7017190 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12010190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted photodynamic therapy (PDT) has the potential to improve the therapeutic effect of PDT due to significantly better tumor responses and less normal tissue damage. Here we investigated if the efficacy of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) targeted PDT using cetuximab-IRDye700DX is fluence rate dependent. Cell survival after treatment with different fluence rates was investigated in three cell lines. Singlet oxygen formation was investigated using the singlet oxygen quencher sodium azide and singlet oxygen sensor green (SOSG). The long-term response (to 90 days) of solid OSC-19-luc2-cGFP tumors in mice was determined after illumination with 20, 50, or 150 mW·cm-2. Reflectance and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to monitor therapy. Singlet oxygen was formed during illumination as shown by the increase in SOSG fluorescence and the decreased response in the presence of sodium azide. Significantly more cell death and more cures were observed after reducing the fluence rate from 150 mW·cm-2 to 20 mW·cm-2 both in-vitro and in-vivo. Photobleaching of IRDye700DX increased with lower fluence rates and correlated with efficacy. The response in EGFR targeted PDT is strongly dependent on fluence rate used. The effectiveness of targeted PDT is, like PDT, dependent on the generation of singlet oxygen and thus the availability of intracellular oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Peng
- ErasmusMC Cancer Institute, Department of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Center for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Dr. Molenwaterplein 40, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henriette S. de Bruijn
- ErasmusMC Cancer Institute, Department of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Center for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Dr. Molenwaterplein 40, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Timo L. M. ten Hagen
- ErasmusMC, Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Department of Pathology, Dr. Molenwaterplein 40, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kristian Berg
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Boks 1072 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Boks 1072 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan L. N. Roodenburg
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Go M. van Dam
- Department of Surgery, Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging and Intensive Care, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Max J. H. Witjes
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dominic J. Robinson
- ErasmusMC Cancer Institute, Department of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Center for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Dr. Molenwaterplein 40, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Ożóg Ł, Domka W, Truszkiewicz A, Tarbarkiewicz J, Aebisher D. Monitoring photodynamic oxygen consumption by endogenous oxygen contrast MRI. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2019; 25:492-498. [PMID: 30738846 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic oxygen consumption was measured by changes in spin-lattice relaxation time (T1) in aqueous solution in a clinical GE scanner at 1.5 T. Similar measurements were attempted in excised laryngeal and thyroid tissues that were infused with Rose Bengal. First, T1 was measured as a function of dissolved oxygen in argon and in oxygen pre-saturated water samples that were opened to the atmosphere in a series of steps allowing air to diffuse into or out of solution; for both argon and oxygen saturated water solutions, stepwise air re-equilibration resulted in a return to air-saturated water T1. Secondly, T1 was measured as a function of time under type II photooxidative conditions in aqueous solution. Under type II photooxidative conditions, a 492 ± 53 ms increase in T1 was measured following 300 s of visible light illumination of aqueous solutions containing the photosensitizer Rose Bengal (2.5 × 10-6 M) and the singlet oxygen trap methionine (0.0012 M). The 492 ± 53 ms increase in T1 corresponded to consumption of all the measurable dissolved oxygen (˜ 0.1 mg O2 in 15.0 mL of H2O) during photooxidation of methionine in air saturated water. This rapid oxygen consumption, indicated by an increase in T1, is due to irreversible trapping of photogenerated singlet oxygen by methionine. Thirdly, an increase in T1 was observed in Rose Bengal infused normal laryngeal tissue, and in normal and cancerous thyroid tissue samples following 20 min of exposure to visible light. An increase in T1 was not observed after 40 min of illumination which suggests that the increases in T1 observed after 20 min were not due to water uptake, but rather to photoconsumption of interstitial dissolved oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Ożóg
- Center for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Warzywna 1A, 35-959, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Wojciech Domka
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Frederic Chopin Clinical Hospital No 1 in Rzeszów, Chopin 1, 35-057, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Adrian Truszkiewicz
- Institute of Nursing and Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Aleja Rejtana 16A, 35-310, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Jacek Tarbarkiewicz
- Center for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Warzywna 1A, 35-959, Rzeszów, Poland; Department of Human Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Aleja Rejtana 16A, 35-310, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - David Aebisher
- Department of Photomedicine and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Aleja Rejtana 16A, 35-310, Rzeszów, Poland.
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Lesion oxygenation associates with clinical outcomes in premalignant and early stage head and neck tumors treated on a phase 1 trial of photodynamic therapy. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2017; 21:28-35. [PMID: 29113960 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2017.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We report on a Phase 1 trial of photodynamic therapy (PDT) for superficial head and neck (H&N) lesions. Due to known oxygen dependencies of PDT, translational measurements of lesion hemoglobin oxygen saturation (StO2) and blood volume (tHb) were studied for associations with patient outcomes. METHODS PDT with aminolevulinc acid (ALA) and escalating light doses was evaluated for high-grade dysplasia, carcinoma-in-situ, and microinvasive carcinomas of the H&N. Among 29 evaluable patients, most (18) had lesions of the tongue or floor of mouth (FOM). Disease was intact in 18 patients and present at surgical margins in 11 patients. In 26 patients, lesion StO2 and tHb was measured. RESULTS Local control (LC) at 24 months was 57.5% among all patients. In patients with tongue/FOM lesions LC was 42.7%, and it was 50.1% for those with intact lesions. Lesion tHb was not associated with 3-month complete response (CR), but StO2 was higher in patients with CR. In tongue/FOM lesions, baseline StO2 [mean(SE)] was 54(4)% in patients (n=12) with CR versus 23(8)% in patients (n=6) with local recurrence/persistence (p=0.01). Similarly, for intact disease, baseline StO2 was 54(3)% in patients (n=10) with CR versus 28(8)% in patients (n=5) without CR (p=0.03). In patients with intact disease, higher baseline StO2 associated with 24-month local control (p=0.02). CONCLUSIONS Measurement of the physiologic properties of target lesions may allow for identification of patients with the highest probability of benefiting from PDT. This provides opportunity for optimizing light delivery based on lesion characteristics and/or informing ongoing clinical decision-making in patients who would most benefit from PDT.
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Dąbrowski JM, Pucelik B, Regiel-Futyra A, Brindell M, Mazuryk O, Kyzioł A, Stochel G, Macyk W, Arnaut LG. Engineering of relevant photodynamic processes through structural modifications of metallotetrapyrrolic photosensitizers. Coord Chem Rev 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2016.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Pogue BW, Elliott JT, Kanick SC, Davis SC, Samkoe KS, Maytin EV, Pereira SP, Hasan T. Revisiting photodynamic therapy dosimetry: reductionist & surrogate approaches to facilitate clinical success. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:R57-89. [PMID: 26961864 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/61/7/r57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) can be a highly complex treatment, with many parameters influencing treatment efficacy. The extent to which dosimetry is used to monitor and standardize treatment delivery varies widely, ranging from measurement of a single surrogate marker to comprehensive approaches that aim to measure or estimate as many relevant parameters as possible. Today, most clinical PDT treatments are still administered with little more than application of a prescribed drug dose and timed light delivery, and thus the role of patient-specific dosimetry has not reached widespread clinical adoption. This disconnect is at least partly due to the inherent conflict between the need to measure and understand multiple parameters in vivo in order to optimize treatment, and the need for expedience in the clinic and in the regulatory and commercialization process. Thus, a methodical approach to selecting primary dosimetry metrics is required at each stage of translation of a treatment procedure, moving from complex measurements to understand PDT mechanisms in pre-clinical and early phase I trials, towards the identification and application of essential dose-limiting and/or surrogate measurements in phase II/III trials. If successful, identifying the essential and/or reliable surrogate dosimetry measurements should help facilitate increased adoption of clinical PDT. In this paper, examples of essential dosimetry points and surrogate dosimetry tools that may be implemented in phase II/III trials are discussed. For example, the treatment efficacy as limited by light penetration in interstitial PDT may be predicted by the amount of contrast uptake in CT, and so this could be utilized as a surrogate dosimetry measurement to prescribe light doses based upon pre-treatment contrast. Success of clinical ALA-based skin lesion treatment is predicted almost uniquely by the explicit or implicit measurements of photosensitizer and photobleaching, yet the individualization of treatment based upon each patients measured bleaching needs to be attempted. In the case of ALA, lack of PpIX is more likely an indicator that alternative PpIX production methods must be implemented. Parsimonious dosimetry, using surrogate measurements that are clinically acceptable, might strategically help to advance PDT in a medical world that is increasingly cost and time sensitive. Careful attention to methodologies that can identify and advance the most critical dosimetric measurements, either direct or surrogate, are needed to ensure successful incorporation of PDT into niche clinical procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian W Pogue
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA. Department of Surgery, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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10
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Klimenko VV, Knyazev NA, Moiseenko FV, Rusanov AA, Bogdanov AA, Dubina MV. Pulse mode of laser photodynamic treatment induced cell apoptosis. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2016; 13:101-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Vera RE, Lamberti MJ, Rivarola VA, Rumie Vittar NB. Developing strategies to predict photodynamic therapy outcome: the role of melanoma microenvironment. Tumour Biol 2015; 36:9127-36. [PMID: 26419592 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-4059-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is among the most aggressive and treatment-resistant human skin cancer. Photodynamic therapy (PDT), a minimally invasive therapeutic modality, is a promising approach to treating melanoma. It combines a non-toxic photoactivatable drug called photosensitizer with harmless visible light to generate reactive oxygen species which mediate the antitumor effects. The aim of this review was to compile the available data about PDT on melanoma. Our comparative analysis revealed a disconnection between several hypotheses generated by in vitro therapeutic studies and in vivo and clinical assays. This fact led us to highlight new preclinical experimental platforms that mimic the complexity of tumor biology. The tumor and its stromal microenvironment have a dynamic and reciprocal interaction that plays a critical role in tumor resistance, and these interactions can be exploited for novel therapeutic targets. In this sense, we review two strategies used by photodynamic researchers: (a) developing 3D culture systems which mimic tumor architecture and (b) heterotypic cultures that resemble tumor microenvironment to favor therapeutic regimen design. After this comprehensive review of the literature, we suggest that new complementary preclinical models are required to better optimize the clinical outcome of PDT on skin melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renzo Emanuel Vera
- Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36 Km 601, Río Cuarto, 5800, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Julia Lamberti
- Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36 Km 601, Río Cuarto, 5800, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Viviana Alicia Rivarola
- Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36 Km 601, Río Cuarto, 5800, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Natalia Belén Rumie Vittar
- Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36 Km 601, Río Cuarto, 5800, Córdoba, Argentina.
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Rehman FU, Zhao C, Wu C, Jiang H, Selke M, Wang X. Influence of photoactivated tetra sulphonatophenyl porphyrin and TiO2nanowhiskers on rheumatoid arthritis infected bone marrow stem cell proliferation in vitro and oxidative stress biomarkers in vivo. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra23480h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Besides the lethal effects of photodynamic therapy on neoplasms, herein we report photoactivated TSPP–TiO2nanocomposites' growth promoting effect on rheumatoid arthritis BMS cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fawad Ur Rehman
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
- China
| | - Chunqiu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
- China
| | - Changyu Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
- China
| | - Hui Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
- China
| | - Matthias Selke
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- California State University
- Los Angeles
- USA
| | - Xuemei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
- China
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Tumor Microenvironment as a Determinant of Photodynamic Therapy Resistance. RESISTANCE TO TARGETED ANTI-CANCER THERAPEUTICS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-12730-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Krzykawska-Serda M, Dąbrowski JM, Arnaut LG, Szczygieł M, Urbańska K, Stochel G, Elas M. The role of strong hypoxia in tumors after treatment in the outcome of bacteriochlorin-based photodynamic therapy. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 73:239-51. [PMID: 24835769 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Blood flow and pO2 changes after vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy (V-PDT) or cellular-targeted PDT (C-PDT) using 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(2,6-difluoro-3-N-methylsulfamoylphenyl) bacteriochlorin (F2BMet) as photosensitizer were investigated in DBA/2 mice with S91 Cloudman mouse melanoma, and correlated with long-term tumor responses. F2BMet generates both singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radicals under near-infrared radiation, which consume oxygen. Partial oxygen pressure was lowered in PDT-treated tumors and this was ascribed both to oxygen consumption during PDT and to fluctuations in oxygen transport after PDT. Similarly, microcirculatory blood flow changed as a result of the disruption of blood vessels by the treatment. A novel noninvasive approach combining electron paramagnetic resonance oximetry and laser Doppler blood perfusion measurements allowed longitudinal monitoring of hypoxia and vascular function changes in the same animals, after PDT. C-PDT induced parallel changes in tumor pO2 and blood flow, i.e., an initial decrease immediately after treatment, followed by a slow increase. In contrast, V-PDT led to a strong and persistent depletion of pO2, although the microcirculatory blood flow increased. Strong hypoxia after V-PDT led to a slight increase in VEGF level 24h after treatment. C-PDT caused a ca. 5-day delay in tumor growth, whereas V-PDT was much more efficient and led to tumor growth inhibition in 90% of animals. The tumors of 44% of mice treated with V-PDT regressed completely and did not reappear for over 1 year. In conclusion, mild and transient hypoxia after C-PDT led to intense pO2 compensatory effects and modest tumor inhibition, but strong and persistent local hypoxia after V-PDT caused tumor growth inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martyna Krzykawska-Serda
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Luis G Arnaut
- Chemistry Department, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal; Luzitin SA, 3045-016 Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Małgorzata Szczygieł
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Krystyna Urbańska
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Grażyna Stochel
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 30-060 Krakow, Poland
| | - Martyna Elas
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.
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Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:159157. [PMID: 23555074 PMCID: PMC3600246 DOI: 10.1155/2013/159157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most common multidrug resistant bacteria both in hospitals and in the community. In the last two decades, there has been growing concern about the increasing resistance to MRSA of the most potent antibiotic glycopeptides. MRSA infection poses a serious problem for physicians and their patients. Photosensitizer-mediated antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) appears to be a promising and innovative approach for treating multidrug resistant infection. In spite of encouraging reports of the use of antimicrobial PDT to inactivate MRSA in large in vitro studies, there are only few in vivo studies. Therefore, applying PDT in the clinic for MRSA infection is still a long way off.
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Preise D, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Antitumor immunity promoted by vascular occluding therapy: lessons from vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy (VTP). Photochem Photobiol Sci 2011; 10:681-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00315h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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17
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Madar-Balakirski N, Tempel-Brami C, Kalchenko V, Brenner O, Varon D, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Permanent occlusion of feeding arteries and draining veins in solid mouse tumors by vascular targeted photodynamic therapy (VTP) with Tookad. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10282. [PMID: 20421983 PMCID: PMC2858664 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Antiangiogenic and anti-vascular therapies present intriguing alternatives to cancer therapy. However, despite promising preclinical results and significant delays in tumor progression, none have demonstrated long-term curative features to date. Here, we show that a single treatment session of Tookad-based vascular targeted photodynamic therapy (VTP) promotes permanent arrest of tumor blood supply by rapid occlusion of the tumor feeding arteries (FA) and draining veins (DV), leading to tumor necrosis and eradication within 24–48 h. Methodology/Principal Findings A mouse earlobe MADB106 tumor model was subjected to Tookad-VTP and monitored by three complementary, non-invasive online imaging techniques: Fluorescent intravital microscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering Imaging and photosensitized MRI. Tookad-VTP led to prompt tumor FA vasodilatation (a mean volume increase of 70%) with a transient increase (60%) in blood-flow rate. Rapid vasoconstriction, simultaneous blood clotting, vessel permeabilization and a sharp decline in the flow rates then followed, culminating in FA occlusion at 63.2 sec±1.5SEM. This blockage was deemed irreversible after 10 minutes of VTP treatment. A decrease in DV blood flow was demonstrated, with a slight lag from FA response, accompanied by frequent changes in flow direction before reaching a complete standstill. In contrast, neighboring, healthy tissue vessels of similar sizes remained intact and functional after Tookad-VTP. Conclusion/Significance Tookad-VTP selectively targets the tumor feeding and draining vessels. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first mono-therapeutic modality that primarily aims at the larger tumor vessels and leads to high cure rates, both in the preclinical and clinical arenas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noa Madar-Balakirski
- Department of Biological Regulation, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Vyacheslav Kalchenko
- Department of Veterinary Resources, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ori Brenner
- Department of Veterinary Resources, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Varon
- Department of Hematology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Avigdor Scherz
- Department of Plant Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yoram Salomon
- Department of Biological Regulation, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
- * E-mail:
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Bil J, Wlodarski P, Winiarska M, Kurzaj Z, Issat T, Jozkowicz A, Wegiel B, Dulak J, Golab J. Photodynamic therapy-driven induction of suicide cytosine deaminase gene. Cancer Lett 2010; 290:216-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2009.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 09/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Dandler J, Wilhelm B, Scheer H. Photochemistry of Bacteriochlorophylls in Human Blood Plasma: 2. Reaction Mechanism Investigated by Product Analysis and Deuterium Isotope Effect. Photochem Photobiol 2010; 86:342-52. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2009.00678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Seshadri M, Bellnier DA, Vaughan LA, Spernyak JA, Mazurchuk R, Foster TH, Henderson BW. Light delivery over extended time periods enhances the effectiveness of photodynamic therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:2796-805. [PMID: 18451247 PMCID: PMC2805854 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-4705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The rate of energy delivery is a principal factor determining the biological consequences of photodynamic therapy (PDT). In contrast to conventional high-irradiance treatments, recent preclinical and clinical studies have focused on low-irradiance schemes. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between irradiance, photosensitizer dose, and PDT dose with regard to treatment outcome and tumor oxygenation in a rat tumor model. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Using the photosensitizer HPPH (2-[1-hexyloxyethyl]-2-devinyl pyropheophorbide), a wide range of PDT doses that included clinically relevant photosensitizer concentrations was evaluated. Magnetic resonance imaging and oxygen tension measurements were done along with the Evans blue exclusion assay to assess vascular response, oxygenation status, and tumor necrosis. RESULTS In contrast to high-incident laser power (150 mW), low-power regimens (7 mW) yielded effective tumor destruction. This was largely independent of PDT dose (drug-light product), with up to 30-fold differences in photosensitizer dose and 15-fold differences in drug-light product. For all drug-light products, the duration of light treatment positively influenced tumor response. Regimens using treatment times of 120 to 240 min showed marked reduction in signal intensity in T2-weighted magnetic resonance images at both low (0.1 mg/kg) and high (3 mg/kg) drug doses compared with short-duration (6-11 min) regimens. Significantly greater reductions in pO(2) were observed with extended exposures, which persisted after completion of treatment. CONCLUSIONS These results confirm the benefit of prolonged light exposure, identify vascular response as a major contributor, and suggest that duration of light treatment (time) may be an important new treatment variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukund Seshadri
- Department of Cell Stress Biology and Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
- Preclinical Imaging Resource Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
| | - David A. Bellnier
- Department of Cell Stress Biology and Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
| | - Lurine A. Vaughan
- Department of Cell Stress Biology and Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
| | - Joseph A. Spernyak
- Preclinical Imaging Resource Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
| | - Richard Mazurchuk
- Preclinical Imaging Resource Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
| | - Thomas H. Foster
- Department of Imaging Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14642
| | - Barbara W. Henderson
- Department of Cell Stress Biology and Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
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Xiao Z, Halls S, Dickey D, Tulip J, Moore RB. Fractionated versus Standard Continuous Light Delivery in Interstitial Photodynamic Therapy of Dunning Prostate Carcinomas. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:7496-505. [DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-1561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Tempel-Brami C, Pinkas I, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Detection of light images by simple tissues as visualized by photosensitized magnetic resonance imaging. PLoS One 2007; 2:e1191. [PMID: 18030327 PMCID: PMC2077809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we show how light can be absorbed by the body of a living rat due to an injected pigment circulating in the blood stream. This process is then physiologically translated in the tissue into a chemical signature that can be perceived as an image by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We previously reported that illumination of an injected photosynthetic bacteriochlorophyll-derived pigment leads to a generation of reactive oxygen species, upon oxygen consumption in the blood stream. Consequently, paramagnetic deoxyhemoglobin accumulating in the illuminated area induces changes in image contrast, detectable by a Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD)-MRI protocol, termed photosensitized (ps)MRI. Here, we show that laser beam pulses synchronously trigger BOLD-contrast transients in the tissue, allowing representation of the luminous spatiotemporal profile, as a contrast map, on the MR monitor. Regions with enhanced BOLD-contrast (7-61 fold) were deduced as illuminated, and were found to overlap with the anatomical location of the incident light. Thus, we conclude that luminous information can be captured and translated by typical oxygen exchange processes in the blood of ordinary tissues, and made visible by psMRI (Fig. 1). This process represents a new channel for communicating environmental light into the body in certain analogy to light absorption by visual pigments in the retina where image perception takes place in the central nervous system. Potential applications of this finding may include: non-invasive intra-operative light guidance and follow-up of photodynamic interventions, determination of light diffusion in opaque tissues for optical imaging and possible assistance to the blind.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Iddo Pinkas
- Department of Plant Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Avigdor Scherz
- Department of Plant Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yoram Salomon
- Department of Biological Regulation, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot Israel
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Woodhams JH, Macrobert AJ, Bown SG. The role of oxygen monitoring during photodynamic therapy and its potential for treatment dosimetry. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2007; 6:1246-56. [PMID: 18046479 DOI: 10.1039/b709644e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Understanding of the biology of photodynamic therapy (PDT) has expanded tremendously over the past few years. However, in the clinical situation, it is still a challenge to match the extent of PDT effects to the extent of the disease process being treated. PDT requires drug, light and oxygen, any of which can be the limiting factor in determining efficacy at each point in a target organ. This article reviews techniques available for monitoring tissue oxygenation during PDT. Point measurements can be made using oxygen electrodes or luminescence-based optodes for direct measurements of tissue pO2, or using optical spectroscopy for measuring the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin. Imaging is considerably more complex, but may become feasible with techniques like BOLD MRI. Pre-clinical studies have shown dramatic changes in oxygenation during PDT, which vary with the photosensitizer used and the light delivery regimen. Better oxygenation throughout treatment is achieved if the light fluence rate is kept low as this reduces the rate of oxygen consumption. The relationship between tissue oxygenation and PDT effect is complex and remarkably few studies have directly correlated oxygenation changes during PDT with the final biological effect, although those that have confirm the value of maintaining good oxygenation. Real time monitoring to ensure adequate oxygenation at strategic points in target tissues during PDT is likely to be important, particularly in the image guided treatment of tumours of solid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine H Woodhams
- National Medical Laser Centre, Royal Free and University College Medical School, University College London, Charles Bell House, 67-73 Riding House Street, London, UKW1W 7EJ
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Zilberstein J, Schreiber S, Bloemers MCWM, Bendel P, Neeman M, Schechtman E, Kohen F, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Antivascular Treatment of Solid Melanoma Tumors with Bacteriochlorophyll-serine-based Photodynamic Therapy¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730257atosmt2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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25
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Limantara L, Koehler P, Wilhelm B, Porra RJ, Scheer H. Photostability of Bacteriochlorophyll a and Derivatives: Potential Sensitizers for Photodynamic Tumor Therapy. Photochem Photobiol 2006; 82:770-80. [PMID: 16438618 DOI: 10.1562/2005-09-07-ra-676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The photostabilities of bacteriochlorophyll a and several of its derivatives, which are of interest as potential sensitizers in photodynamic tumor therapy, were investigated. The pigments were irradiated with light >630 nm in organic solvents (acetone, tetrahydrofuran, pyridine, methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, 2-propanol and toluene) and in aqueous detergent solutions (cetyl-trimethyl-ammonium bromide [CTAB], lauryldimethyl-aminoxide [LDAO] or sodium dodecyl-sulfate [SDS] and Triton X-100 [TX100]). Their stabilities in these different solvents were determined in the presence and absence of an external sensitizer (pyromethyl-pheophorbide a), oxygen, sodium ascorbate and inert gas (Ar) or vacuum. The photodegradation products of bacteriochlorophyll a in acetone solution were isolated, purified by HPLC and analyzed by their absorption spectra and mass spectroscopy. Besides the well-known dehydrogenation products, such as [3-acetyl]-chlorophyll a, which were obtained as by-products, the major products had low absorption in the visible-near infrared spectral range. The spectral signature of the major component of these products was characteristic of linear open-chain tetrapyrroles, but they lacked the characteristic protonation-deprotonation behavior and reactivity of bilins with Zn(++).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leenawaty Limantara
- Department Biologie I, Bereich Botanik, Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, Germany
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Abstract
The photodynamic therapy technique involving pulsed oxygen depletion (POD) in tissue by long high-energy pulses of light was studied theoretically. The possibility of creating a uniform distribution of a therapeutic dose throughout a tumor using both surface and interstitial irradiation is shown. Possible thickness of the treated tissue layer is estimated. The comparison with other methods of nonlinear photodynamic therapy is made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Ya Kogan
- Organic Intermediates and Dyes Institute, B. Sadovaya str. 1/4, 123995 Moscow, Russia.
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Dudkowiak A, Staśkowiak E, Hanyż I, Wiktorowicz K, Cofta J, Frąckowiak D. Properties of bacteriochlorophyll c and bacteriopheophytin c in resting and stimulated lymphocytes. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Kostenich G, Kimel S, Peled S, Orenstein A. Monitoring PDT-induced damage using spectrally resolved reflectance imaging of tissue oxygenation. Cancer Lett 2005; 219:169-75. [PMID: 15723716 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2004.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2003] [Revised: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) with chlorin e6 (Chl) was monitored in vivo using vital microscopy and Fourier transform spectral imaging (FT-SI). Mammary C26 colon carcinoma, implanted intradermally in a mouse, was irradiated at 650 nm with various radiant exposures, 3 h after administration of 5 mg/kg Chl. The photodynamic response (PDR) in the skin flap with tumor was expressed as microcirculation disturbances (thrombi formation, multiple embolizations, arteriolar occlusion and venous stasis) and, dependent on the radiant exposure, was transient or permanent. These biological manifestations were accompanied by a change in hemoglobin (Hb)/oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) absorption spectra obtained in vivo by FT-SI. False-color mapping of hemoglobin oxygen saturation (OS) visualized the alteration of tissue oxygenation. The results demonstrate, for the first time, that FT-SI can serve as a sensitive non-invasive tool for OS monitoring of PDT effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genady Kostenich
- Advanced Technology Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel.
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Plaks V, Koudinova N, Nevo U, Pinthus JH, Kanety H, Eshhar Z, Ramon J, Scherz A, Neeman M, Salomon Y. Photodynamic therapy of established prostatic adenocarcinoma with TOOKAD: a biphasic apparent diffusion coefficient change as potential early MRI response marker. Neoplasia 2004; 6:224-33. [PMID: 15153334 PMCID: PMC1502095 DOI: 10.1593/neo.3352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of this study was to examine the use of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) for the assessment of early progression of photodamage induced by Pd-bacteriopheophorbide (TOOKAD)-based photodynamic therapy (PDT). TOOKAD is a novel second-generation photosensitizer for PDT of solid tumors developed in our laboratory and presently under clinical trials for prostate cancer (PC) therapy. Using the subcutaneous human prostate adenocarcinoma WISH-PC14 xenografts in nude mice as a model, a unique biphasic change in the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was observed within the first 24 hours post-PDT, with initial decrease followed by an increase in ADC. Using DW-MRI, this phenomenon enables the detection of successful tumor response to PDT within 7 hours posttreatment. This process was validated by direct, histological, and immunohistochemical examinations and also by evaluation of serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels that decreased significantly already 7 hours posttreatment. In vitro studies of multicellular cell spheroids confirmed a PDT-induced decrease in ADC, suggesting that lipid peroxidation (LPO) significantly contributes to ADC decline observed after PDT. These results demonstrate that TOOKAD-based PDT successfully eradicates prostate adenocarcinoma xenografts and suggests DW-MRI to be useful for the detection of early tumor response and treatment outcome in the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki Plaks
- Department of Biological Regulation Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | | | - Uri Nevo
- Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
- Tel-Aviv University, School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Jehonathan H Pinthus
- Department of Immunology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
- Department of Urology Endocrinology, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel
| | - Hannah Kanety
- Department of Urology Endocrinology, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel
| | - Zelig Eshhar
- Department of Immunology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Jacob Ramon
- Department of Biological Regulation Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Avigdor Scherz
- Department of Plant Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Michal Neeman
- Department of Biological Regulation Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Yoram Salomon
- Department of Biological Regulation Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Wang HW, Putt ME, Emanuele MJ, Shin DB, Glatstein E, Yodh AG, Busch TM. Treatment-induced changes in tumor oxygenation predict photodynamic therapy outcome. Cancer Res 2004; 64:7553-61. [PMID: 15492282 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-3632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) requires oxygen to cause tumor damage, yet therapy itself can deplete or enhance tumor oxygenation. In the present work we measured the PDT-induced change in tumor oxygenation and explored its utility for predicting long-term response to treatment. The tissue hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO(2)) of murine tumors was noninvasively measured by broadband diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. In initial validation studies, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve for mouse blood was accurately recreated based on measurements during deoxygenation of a tissue phantom of mouse erythrocytes. In vivo studies exhibited excellent correlation between carbogen-induced changes in SO(2) and pO(2) of radiation-induced fibrosarcoma tumors measured by reflectance spectroscopy and the Eppendorf pO(2) histograph, respectively. In PDT studies radiation-induced fibrosarcoma tumor SO(2) was measured immediately before and after Photofrin-PDT (135 J/cm(2), 38 mW/cm(2)). Animals were subsequently followed for tumor growth to a volume of 400 mm(3) (time-to-400 mm(3)) or the presence of tumor cure (no tumor growth at 90 days after treatment). In animals that recurred, the PDT-induced change in tumor SO(2), i.e., relative-SO(2) (SO(2) after PDT/SO(2) before PDT) was positively correlated with treatment durability (time-to-400 mm(3)). The predictive value of relative-SO(2) was confirmed in a second group of animals with enhanced pre-PDT oxygenation due to carbogen breathing. Furthermore, when all of the animals were considered (those that recurred and those that were cured) a highly significant association was found between increasing relative-SO(2) and increasing probability of survival, i.e., absence of recurrence. As independent variables, the SO(2) after PDT, the pre-PDT tumor volume, and light penetration depth all failed to predict response. As an independent variable, the SO(2) before PDT demonstrated a weak negative association with treatment durability; this association was driven by a correlation between decreasing pre-PDT SO(2) and increasing relative-SO(2). These data suggest that monitoring of PDT-induced changes in tumor oxygenation may be a valuable prognostic indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsing-Wen Wang
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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Photodynamic Therapy of Established Prostatic Adenocarcinoma with TOOKAD: A Biphasic Apparent Diffusion Coefficient Change as Potential Early MRI Response Marker. Neoplasia 2004. [DOI: 10.1593/neo.03352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Henderson BW, Gollnick SO, Snyder JW, Busch TM, Kousis PC, Cheney RT, Morgan J. Choice of oxygen-conserving treatment regimen determines the inflammatory response and outcome of photodynamic therapy of tumors. Cancer Res 2004; 64:2120-6. [PMID: 15026352 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-3513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The rate of light delivery (fluence rate) plays a critical role in photodynamic therapy (PDT) through its control of tumor oxygenation. This study tests the hypothesis that fluence rate also influences the inflammatory responses associated with PDT. PDT regimens of two different fluences (48 and 128 J/cm(2)) were designed for the Colo 26 murine tumor that either conserved or depleted tissue oxygen during PDT using two fluence rates (14 and 112 mW/cm(2)). Tumor oxygenation, extent and regional distribution of tumor damage, and vascular damage were correlated with induction of inflammation as measured by interleukin 6, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 and 2 expression, presence of inflammatory cells, and treatment outcome. Oxygen-conserving low fluence rate PDT of 14 mW/cm(2) at a fluence of 128 J/cm(2) yielded approximately 70-80% tumor cures, whereas the same fluence at the oxygen-depleting fluence rate of 112 mW/cm(2) yielded approximately 10-15% tumor cures. Low fluence rate induced higher levels of apoptosis than high fluence rate PDT as indicated by caspase-3 activity and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick end labeling analysis. The latter revealed PDT-protected tumor regions distant from vessels in the high fluence rate conditions, confirming regional tumor hypoxia shown by 2-(2-nitroimidazol-1[H]-yl)-N-(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl) acetamide staining. High fluence at a low fluence rate led to ablation of CD31-stained endothelium, whereas the same fluence at a high fluence rate maintained vessel endothelium. The highest levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and neutrophilic infiltrates were measured with 48 J/cm(2) delivered at 14 mW/cm(2) ( approximately 10-20% cures). The optimally curative PDT regimen (128 J/cm(2) at 14 mW/cm(2)) produced minimal inflammation. Depletion of neutrophils did not significantly change the high cure rates of that regimen but abolished curability in the maximally inflammatory regimen. The data show that a strong inflammatory response can contribute substantially to local tumor control when the PDT regimen is suboptimal. Local inflammation is not a critical factor for tumor control under optimal PDT treatment conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara W Henderson
- Department of Cellular Stress Biology and the Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Elm & Carlton Streets, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA.
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Kelleher DK, Thews O, Scherz A, Salomon Y, Vaupel P. Combined hyperthermia and chlorophyll-based photodynamic therapy: tumour growth and metabolic microenvironment. Br J Cancer 2004; 89:2333-9. [PMID: 14676815 PMCID: PMC2395271 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of combined and simultaneously applied localised 43 degrees C hyperthermia (HT) and an antivascular bacteriochlorophyll-serine-based photodynamic therapy (Bchl-ser-PDT) on tumour growth and several microenvironmental parameters were examined. Rats bearing DS-sarcomas were allocated to treatment groups: (i) sham-treatment (control), (ii) Bchl-ser-PDT (20 mg kg(-1) i.v.), (iii) localised HT, (iv) Bchl-ser-PDT+HT. The light source used was an infrared-A irradiator, which, by use of appropriate filters, delivered the different ranges of wavelengths required. Following treatment, tumour volume was monitored. The greatest tumour growth inhibition was seen with Bchl-ser-PDT+HT, and subsequent experiments identified the pathophysiological basis for this effect. Red blood cell flux in tumour microvessels declined rapidly upon Bchl-ser-PDT+HT, reaching approximately 10% of initial values by the end of treatment. Similarly, tumour oxygenation worsened, reaching almost anoxic levels by the end of the treatment period. Assessment of metabolic parameters showed a pronounced increase in lactate levels and a decrease in ATP concentrations after combined treatment. The results presented suggest that vascular collapse and flow stasis resulting in a deterioration of tumour oxygenation and a switch from oxidative to glycolytic glucose turnover are key elements in the tumour eradication seen with this novel approach in which an antivascular PDT and HT are combined and simultaneously applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Kelleher
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Duesbergweg 6 D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
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Gross S, Gilead A, Scherz A, Neeman M, Salomon Y. Monitoring photodynamic therapy of solid tumors online by BOLD-contrast MRI. Nat Med 2003; 9:1327-31. [PMID: 14502284 DOI: 10.1038/nm940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2002] [Accepted: 08/02/2003] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Antivascular photodynamic therapy (PDT) of tumors with palladium-bacteriopheophorbide (TOOKAD) relies on in situ photosensitization of the circulating drug by local generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species, which leads to rapid vascular occlusion, stasis, necrosis and tumor eradication. Intravascular production of reactive oxygen species is associated with photoconsumption of O(2) and consequent evolution of paramagnetic deoxyhemoglobin. In this study we evaluate the use of blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for real-time monitoring of PDT efficacy. Using a solid tumor model, we show that TOOKAD-PDT generates appreciable attenuation (25-40%) of the magnetic resonance signal, solely at the illuminated tumor site. This phenomenon is independent of, though augmented by, ensuing changes in blood flow. These results were validated by immunohistochemistry and intravital microscopy. The concept of photosensitized BOLD-contrast MRI may have intraoperative applications in interactive guidance and monitoring of antivascular cancer therapy, PDT treatment of macular degeneration, interventional cardiology and possibly other biomedical disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimon Gross
- Department of Biological Regulation, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Kogan BY. Nonlinear photodynamic therapy. Saturation of a photochemical dose by photosensitizer bleaching. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2003; 2:673-6. [PMID: 12859152 DOI: 10.1039/b208616f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy with total photobleaching of a photosensitizer was studied theoretically. The possibilities of having constant therapeutic dose within a large extent of a tissue and even of obtaining the maximal dose at a particular depth were considered. The use of both surface irradiation or interstitial irradiation were evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Ya Kogan
- Organic Intermediates and Dyes Institute, B. Sadovaya str. 1/4, 123995 Moscow, Russia.
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Pech O, Nagy CD, Gossner L, May A, Ell C. Photodynamic therapy of human Barrett's cancer using 5-aminolaevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX: an in-vivo dosimetry study in athymic nude mice. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002; 14:657-62. [PMID: 12072600 DOI: 10.1097/00042737-200206000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There has been a dramatic increase in recent years in the incidence of Barrett's oesophagus and the oesophageal adenocarcinoma associated with it. Alongside surgical treatment for early Barrett's carcinomas, endoscopic treatment procedures such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), which have much lower complication and mortality rates, will play an increasing role in the future. In this study, the effects of light energy dose, light fractionation and oxygenation on the efficacy of PDT were investigated for the first time in an in-vivo nude mice tumour model bearing a human Barrett's carcinoma. DESIGN A total of 387 NMRI strain (nu/nu) nude mice with thymic aplasia (total 53 controls) were transplanted with human Barrett's carcinoma and treated with laser light at 635 nm (light dose 0-200 J/cm2, fluence rate 400 mW/cm2). 5-Aminolaevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX (5-ALA-PpIX) (100 mg 5-ALA/kg body weight administered orally) was used as the photosensitizer. METHODS Fractionation studies were performed at 0, 50, 100 and 150 J/cm2. The light dose was administered in four equal fractions divided by three irradiation-free intervals of 120 s. Oxygenation studies were carried out at 150 J/cm2 with simultaneous oxygen supply of 2, 6 and 8 l oxygen/min. RESULTS Dosimetry studies demonstrated a positive correlation between increase in light dose and tumour destruction up to 150 J/cm2 when using either continuous or fractionated light delivery. The optimal light energy dose was 150 J/cm2. Neither fractionation of light nor simultaneous oxygenation enhanced the efficacy of the PDT. CONCLUSION This is the first study in the literature that proves the efficiency of PDT with 5-ALA-PpIX in human Barrett's adenocarcinoma and that demonstrates an exact dosimetry of the optimal light energy dose (150 J/cm2). No general recommendation can be made for the use of fractionation or oxygenation in clinical PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Pech
- Department of Medicine II, HSK Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, Germany
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Kay CWM, Conti F, Fuhs M, Plato M, Weber S, Bordignon E, Carbonera D, Robinson BC, Renner MW, Fajer J. Magnetic Resonance Studies and Molecular Orbital Calculations on the Doublet and Triplet States of Bacteriopurpurin: a Potential Second-Generation Photosensitizer for Photodynamic Therapy. J Phys Chem B 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp013432k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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38
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Zilberstein J, Schreiber S, Bloemers MC, Bendel P, Neeman M, Schechtman E, Kohen F, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Antivascular treatment of solid melanoma tumors with bacteriochlorophyll-serine-based photodynamic therapy. Photochem Photobiol 2001; 73:257-66. [PMID: 11281022 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)073<0257:atosmt>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
We describe here a strategy for photodynamic eradication of solid melanoma tumors that is based on photo-induced vascular destruction. The suggested protocol relies on synchronizing illumination with maximal circulating drug concentration in the tumor vasculature attained within the first minute after administrating the sensitizer. This differs from conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT) of tumors where illumination coincides with a maximal concentration differential of sensitizer in favor of the tumor, relative to the normal surrounding tissue. This time window is often achieved after a delay (3-48 h) following sensitizer administration. We used a novel photosensitizer, bacteriochlorophyll-serine (Bchl-Ser), which is water soluble, highly toxic upon illumination in the near-infrared (lambda max 765-780 nm) and clears from the circulation in less than 24 h. Nude CD1 mice bearing malignant M2R melanotic melanoma xenografts (76-212 mm3) received a single complete treatment session. Massive vascular damage was already apparent 1 h after treatment. Changes in vascular permeability were observed in vivo using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with the contrast reagent Gd-DTPA, by shortening spin-spin relaxation time because of hemorrhage formation and by determination of vascular macromolecular leakage. Twenty-four hours after treatment a complete arrest of vascular perfusion was observed by Gd-DTPA-enhanced MRI. Histopathology performed at the same time confirmed primary vascular damage with occlusive thrombi, hemorrhage and tumor necrosis. The success rate of cure of over 80% with Bchl-Ser indicates the benefits of the short and effective treatment protocol. Combining the sensitizer administration and illumination steps into one treatment session (30 min) suggests a clear advantage for future PDT of solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Zilberstein
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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Stratonnikov AA, Douplik AJ, Loschenov VB. Oxygen consumption and its transport in tissues during photodynamic therapy of tumors and whole blood. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2000; 471:515-23. [PMID: 10659185 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-4717-4_61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
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Robinson BC, Barkigia KM, Renner MW, Fajer J. Molecular Structure and Spectroscopy of a Bacteriopurpurin. A New Class of Bacteriochlorin Photosensitizers. J Phys Chem B 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/jp991138a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Byron C. Robinson
- Miravant Medical Technologies, Santa Barbara, California 93117, and Department of Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973
| | - Kathleen M. Barkigia
- Miravant Medical Technologies, Santa Barbara, California 93117, and Department of Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973
| | - Mark W. Renner
- Miravant Medical Technologies, Santa Barbara, California 93117, and Department of Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973
| | - Jack Fajer
- Miravant Medical Technologies, Santa Barbara, California 93117, and Department of Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973
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Edrei R, Kimel S. Oxygen depletion during in vitro photodynamic therapy: structure-activity relationships of sulfonated aluminum phthalocyanines. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1999; 50:197-203. [PMID: 10577051 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(99)00092-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamically induced oxygen depletion has been measured in an Ehrlich ascites mouse tumor cell line using a Clark-type electrode. Cells are loaded with aluminum phthalocyanines, sulfonated to different degrees (A1PcS(n), n = 0,2,3,4) and consisting of various isomeric species. Different cell lines and incubation procedures are used in order to investigate the cellular uptake mechanism. Uptake (in units of molecules/cell), post-irradiation redistribution and A1PcS(n) photodegradation are measured using spectroscopic techniques. For a given sensitizer, the oxygen depletion rate per cell increases sublinearly with uptake and superlinearly with cell density. In order to compare oxygen depletion rates of different compounds, we have defined the biological quantum yield (BQY) as the number of oxygen molecules that disappear per absorbed photon. The BQY is independent of uptake and cell density; therefore, it denotes the intrinsic photoactivity of a sensitizer. Sensitizers with high BQY show efficient post-irradiation intracellular redistribution. Photodegradation during irradiation is similar for all sensitizers (20-30%).
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Affiliation(s)
- R Edrei
- Department of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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Dougherty TJ, Gomer CJ, Henderson BW, Jori G, Kessel D, Korbelik M, Moan J, Peng Q. Photodynamic therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90:889-905. [PMID: 9637138 PMCID: PMC4592754 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/90.12.889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3685] [Impact Index Per Article: 141.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy involves administration of a tumor-localizing photosensitizing agent, which may require metabolic synthesis (i.e., a prodrug), followed by activation of the agent by light of a specific wavelength. This therapy results in a sequence of photochemical and photobiologic processes that cause irreversible photodamage to tumor tissues. Results from preclinical and clinical studies conducted worldwide over a 25-year period have established photodynamic therapy as a useful treatment approach for some cancers. Since 1993, regulatory approval for photodynamic therapy involving use of a partially purified, commercially available hematoporphyrin derivative compound (Photofrin) in patients with early and advanced stage cancer of the lung, digestive tract, and genitourinary tract has been obtained in Canada, The Netherlands, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. We have attempted to conduct and present a comprehensive review of this rapidly expanding field. Mechanisms of subcellular and tumor localization of photosensitizing agents, as well as of molecular, cellular, and tumor responses associated with photodynamic therapy, are discussed. Technical issues regarding light dosimetry are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Qian Peng
- Correspondence to: Qian Peng, Ph.D., Department of Biophysics, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Montebello, 0310 Oslo, Norway.
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Sitnik TM, Henderson BW. The Effect of Fluence Rate on Tumor and Normal Tissue Responses to Photodynamic Therapy. Photochem Photobiol 1998. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1998.tb05228.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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McIlroy BW, Curnow A, Buonaccorsi G, Scott MA, Bown SG, MacRobert AJ. Spatial measurement of oxygen levels during photodynamic therapy using time-resolved optical spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1998; 43:47-55. [PMID: 9639914 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(98)00081-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Tissue oxygenation is one of the key dosimetric factors involved in the application of photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, quantitative studies of oxygenation levels at and surrounding the treatment site have been lacking both before, during and after treatment. With the recent development of sensitive, non-invasive, optical spectroscopic techniques based on oxygen-dependent phosphorescence quenching of probe compounds, oxygenation levels can now be measured quantitatively at selected sites with spatial resolution on the millimeter scale. We present results using the phosphorescent compound, palladium meso-tetra(carboxyphenyl)porphine, for measurement of in vivo microvascular oxygen tensions in rat liver during PDT. Time-resolved phosphorescence detection was carried out using fibre-optic sensoring, and oxygen tensions were determined from the phosphorescence lifetimes using Stern-Volmer analysis. During PDT treatment using 5-aminolaevulinic (ALA) acid-induced protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) with a 50 mg/kg ALA dose, oxygen levels near the irradiation fibre placed on the surface of the liver showed a significant decrease by a factor of ten from 20 to 2 torr after an energy dose of 60 J using 100 mW at 635 nm. Areas farther from the treatment site which were exposed to lower light doses exhibited lower reductions in oxygen levels. This spectroscopic technique is a highly sensitive means of investigating tissue oxygenation during and after treatment, and should help not only to advance the understanding of hypoxia and microvascular damage in the PDT mechanism but also contribute to improving the dosimetry of PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- B W McIlroy
- National Medical Laser Centre, University College London Medical School, UK
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Gross S, Brandis A, Chen L, Rosenbach-Belkin V, Roehrs S, Scherz A, Salomon Y. Protein-A-mediated targeting of bacteriochlorophyll-IgG to Staphylococcus aureus: a model for enhanced site-specific photocytotoxicity. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 66:872-8. [PMID: 9421974 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1997.tb03240.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A model for studying the efficiency of photodynamic action with a photosensitizer placed exclusively on the bacterial cell wall has been used. Bacteriochlorophyllide molecules, conjugated to rabbit immunoglobulin G (IgG), were synthesized. The conjugated pigment bacteriochlorophyll (Bchl)-IgG bound with high specificity to protein-A residues naturally exposed on the cell wall of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus Cowan I. In bacterial suspensions the phototoxicity of the targeted conjugates (0.5-2.5 pigment per IgG molecule) was dose dependent (LD50 = 1.7 microM) in the presence of light (lambda > 550 nm) and inhibited by native IgG but not by ovalbumin, suggesting selective interaction with protein-A on the bacterial cell wall. No dark toxicity was noticed even with the highest conjugate concentration tested. In contrast, the photocytotoxicity of bacteriochlorophyll-serine (Bchl-Ser, LD50 = 0.07 microM) used as a nontargeted control was not inhibited by IgG. In spite of its lower apparent potency, Bchl-IgG was found to be 30 times more efficacious than Bchl-Ser: At LD50, only 66,000 Bchl-IgG molecules were bound per bacterium compared to 1,900,000 molecules of Bchl-Ser. The higher efficacy of Bchl-IgG is explained by its exclusive position on the bacterial cell wall. Consequently, photogeneration of oxidative species is confined to the cell wall and its vicinity, a seemingly highly susceptible domain for photodynamic action. In considering the design of cell-specific sensitizers for bacterial and cancer therapies, it would be beneficial to identify the more discretely sensitive subcellular domains as targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gross
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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