Interleukins: biological properties and therapeutic potential

The role of IL-17 in the pathogenesis and treatment of glioblastoma-an update on the state of the art and future perspectives

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant brain tumor, which, despite significant progress made in the last years in the field of neuro-oncology, remains an incurable disease. GBM has a poor prognosis with a median survival of 12-15 months, and its aggressive clinical course is related to rapid growth, extensive infiltration of adjacent tissues, resistance to chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy, and frequent relapse. Currently, several molecular biomarkers are used in clinical practice to predict patient prognosis and response to treatment. However, due to the overall unsatisfactory efficacy of standard multimodal treatment and the remaining poor prognosis, there is an urgent need for new biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for GBM. Recent evidence suggests that GBM tumorigenesis is associated with crosstalk between cancer, immune and stromal cells mediated by various cytokines. One of the key factors involved in this process appears to be interleukin-17 (IL-17), a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is significantly upregulated in the serum and tissue of GBM patients. IL-17 plays a key role in tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and recurrence of GBM by activating pro-oncogenic signaling pathways and promoting cell survival, proliferation, and invasion. IL-17 facilitates the immunomodulation of the tumor microenvironment by promoting immune cells infiltration and cytokine secretion. In this article we review the latest scientific reports to provide an update on the role of IL-17 role in tumorigenesis, tumor microenvironment, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of GBM.

The role of various interleukins in acute myeloid leukemia

Interleukins are signaling molecules involved in the immune system, and they play a variety of roles in different diseases and cancers. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common type of leukemia in adults, and survival rate after diagnosis is very low. Investigating the role interleukins play in AML can help understand the progression of the disease. There exists a need for more effective treatment of AML. Interleukins can be used to guide immunotherapy for AML. This review article will examine how specific interleukins play a role in AML disease progression and how they can be utilized as a future treatment option.

The role of interleukins and the widely studied TNF-α in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is a relatively common cancer with malignant tendencies. Although there is no current cure for the disease, research has been successful in figuring out the mechanisms of how the disease progresses, however, there is still a lot of unknowns, and more research must be done to find the ultimate cause of the disease. Interleukins and various cytokines play unique roles in the development of cancer. This review article summarizes the pathophysiology between certain interleukins and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Although TNF-α is not an interleukin, the article examines TNF-α due to its high correspondence with cancer. The article also describes a promising immunotherapy for the disease, while looking at immunotherapies that have been successful in other types of cancer and disease.

PPARγ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) protects neuroblastoma cells against amyloid-beta (Aβ) induced cell death and neuroinflammation via NF-κB pathway

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Aβ is the main constituent of senile plaques and is largely involved in neuronal death and neuroinflammation. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) is one of the main transcriptional coactivator and has been related to many fields such as energy metabolism, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and so on.

RESULTS

Treatment with Aβ1-42 reduced the expression of PGC-1α in both protein and RNA levels of neuroblastoma N2a cells. Aβ1-42 induced a robust activation of cleaved caspase-3 while PGC-1α suppressed this activation and protected N2a cells from Aβ-induced cell death. Overexpression of PGC-1α significantly reduced the level of main proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, PGC-1α inhibited the transportation of NF-κB p65 from cytoplasm to nucleus and IκBα degradation induced by Aβ1-42.

CONCLUSION

Our results have demonstrated that PGC-1α can protect neuroblastoma cells against Aβ-induced neuronal death and neuroinflammation. Moreover, this neuroprotective effect of PGC-1α is regulated through NF-κB pathway. Taken together, our work provides evidence that PGC-1α could be beneficial in targeting Aβ neurotoxicity.

Effect of 1.2% of simvastatin gel as a local drug delivery system on Gingival Crevicular Fluid interleukin-6 & interleukin-8 levels in non surgical treatment of chronic periodontitis patients

AIM

The present study was carried out to evaluate the effect of 1.2% simvastatin gel as local drug delivery (LDD) system on Gingival Crevicular Fluid (GCF) Interleukin -6 (IL-6) and Interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels in chronic periodontitis patients, in addition to scaling and root planing (SRP).

METHODS

A total of 46 chronic periodontitis patients were equally divided into two groups. Group I patients were treated by SRP; Group II patients were treated by SRP followed by LDD of 1.2% simvastatin (SMV) gel. Plaque index (PI), Gingival index(GI), Sulcus Bleeding Index (SBI), Probing pocket depth (PPD) and Relative clinical attachment level (CAL) were recorded & GCF samples were collected at baseline (0day) and at 45th day from both the groups. The collected GCF samples were analysed for IL-6 and IL-8 levels with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Both the groups showed significant reduction in all the clinical parameters scores and IL-6 and IL-8 levels after non-surgical periodontal therapy (SRP for group I/SRP+1.2% SMV gel for group II) in contrast to baseline values. However, a greater reduction was observed in group II. A non-significant positive correlation was observed between clinical parameters and IL-6 and IL-8 levels except at baseline, a significant correlation was observed between PPD &IL 6 levels in group II.

CONCLUSIONS

In adjunct to SRP, 1.2% Simvastatin gel acts as an effective local drug delivery agent for the management of chronic periodontitis.

Role of inflammatory molecules in the Alzheimer's disease progression and diagnosis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex disorder and the most common form of neurodegenerative dementia. Several genetic, environmental, and physiological factors, including inflammations and metabolic influences, are involved in the progression of AD. Inflammations are composed of complicated networks of many chemokines and cytokines with diverse cells. Inflammatory molecules are needed for the protection against pathogens, and maintaining their balances is important for normal physiological function. Recent studies demonstrated that inflammation may be involved in neurodegenerative dementia. Cellular immune components, such as microglia or astrocytes, mediate the release of inflammatory molecules, including tumor necrosis factor, growth factors, adhesion molecules, or chemokines. Over- and underexpression of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules, respectively, may result in neuroinflammation and thus disease initiation and progression. In addition, levels of several inflammatory factors were reported to be altered in the brain or bodily fluids of patients with AD, reflecting their neuropathological changes. Therefore, simultaneous detection of several inflammatory molecules in the early or pre-symptomatic stage may improve the early diagnosis of AD. Further studies are needed to determine, how induction or inhibition of inflammatory factors could be used for AD therapies. This review summarizes the role or possible role of immune cells and inflammatory molecules in disease progression or prevention.

Contribution of tumor necrosis factor alpha to endotoxin-induced mucosal dysfunction in the feline jejunum

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) occupies a pivotal role in the development of shock and tissue injury during endotoxemia and septicemia, and may be an important trigger in the pathogenesis of endotoxin-induced intestinal mucosal dysfunction. This study investigated the contribution of TNFα to endotoxin-induced mucosal dysfunction and the efficacy of polyclonal anti-TNFα antibody in preventing endotoxin-induced mucosal dysfunction.

To evaluate mucosal dysfunction, jejunal blood-to-lumen clearances of chromium 51-labeled ethylenediaminetetraacetate ([51Cr]-EDTA) were measured in cats administered fetal calf serum (controls), endotoxin, TNFα, or polyclonal anti-TNFα antibody and endotoxin. Serum TNFα activity was determined using a modified in vitro cytotoxicity bioassay using the murine fibrosarcoma cell line, WEHI-164 clone 13.

Endotoxin and TNFα induced jejunal mucosal dysfunction as indicated by increases in [51 Cr]-EDTA clearance. Mucosal dysfunction was accompanied by marked increases in serum TNFα activity. Furthermore, pretreatment with polyclonal anti-TNFα antibody prevented endotoxin-induced mucosal dysfunction and markedly reduced the associated increase in serum TNFα activity. The findings of this study suggest that TNFα is an important mediator of endotoxin-induced mucosal epithelial barrier dysfunction.

The Effect of Periodontitis on Expression of Interleukin-21: A Systematic Review

Purpose. Inflammation and tissue breakdown are led by an array of inflammatory destructive mediators associated with initiation and progression of inflammatory diseases like periodontitis. Current evidence shows that these inflammatory mediators have a definitive role in the pathogenesis of various systemic diseases with an inflammatory component. Interleukin-21 (IL-21) has been associated with systemic diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease that follow a chronic inflammatory cascade. Similarly recent studies have associated Interleukin-21 levels with periodontitis. This systematic review was aimed to assess the levels of IL-21 in subjects with periodontitis. Methods. A complete literature search was done in PubMed, Medline, Science Direct, and Cochrane databases and Google Scholar based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Six relevant articles were procured. Full text was read individually by two reviewers and data extraction was done based on STROBE statement. Results. After data extraction five observational and one interventional study were obtained. All the studies showed an increased expression of IL-21 in periodontitis and the interventional study showed reduction in IL-21 levels after nonsurgical periodontal therapy (NSP). Conclusion. Interleukin-21 levels are higher in periodontitis than controls. With this limited evidence further longitudinal studies are required to consider this as a definitive inflammatory marker.

Detection of salivary interleukin-2 in recurrent aphthous stomatitis

OBJECTIVE

The present study was undertaken to estimate and compare salivary interleukin-2 (IL-2) levels in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis, among healthy controls and their variation with age and sex.

STUDY DESIGN

Saliva was collected from 60 patients within the age range of 16-60 years which included 30 patients (17 Females and 13 Males) with recurrent aphthous stomatitis and healthy control group consisted of 30 participants (18 Females and 12 Males). IL-2 estimation was done in both the groups using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Statistical analysis of the data was done using Independent 't' test.

RESULTS

The results showed increased salivary IL-2 levels in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis compared to the healthy controls. The IL-2 levels were also increased in patients with the age group of 16-30 years compared to other age groups. Similar increase of IL-2 was also seen in female patients.

CONCLUSION

Age related and sex related alterations of IL-2 in recurrent aphthous stomatitis patients were observed.

Intra-tumoral gene delivery of feIL-2, feIFN-gamma and feGM-CSF using magnetofection as a neoadjuvant treatment option for feline fibrosarcomas: a phase-I study

Despite aggressive pre- or postoperative treatment, feline fibrosarcomas have a high relapse rate. In this study, a new treatment option based on immune stimulation by intra-tumoral delivery of three feline cytokine genes was performed. The objective of this phase-I dose-escalation study was to determine a safe dose for further evaluation in a subsequent phase-II trial. Twenty-five client-owned cats with clinical diagnosis of fibrosarcoma - primary tumours as well as recurrences - entered the study. Four increasing doses of plasmids coding for feIL-2, feIFN-gamma or feGM-CSF, respectively, were previously defined. In groups I, II, III and IV these doses were 15, 50, 150 and 450 microg per plasmid and a corresponding amount of magnetic nanoparticles. Two preoperative intra-tumoral injections of the magnetic DNA solution were followed by magnetofection. A group of four control cats received only surgical treatment. Side effects were registered and graded according to the VCOG-CTCAE scale and correlated to treatment. Statistical analyses included one-way anova, post hoc and Kruskal-Wallis tests. ELISA tests detecting plasma feIFN-gamma and plasma feGM-CSF were performed. One cat out of group IV (450 microg per plasmid) showed adverse events probably related to gene delivery. As these side effects were self-limiting and occurred only in one of eight cats in group IV, this dose was determined to be well tolerable. Altogether six cats developed local recurrences during a 1-year observation period. Four of these cats had been treated with dose IV. Regarding these observations, a subsequent phase-II trial including a representative amount of cats should be tested for the efficacy of dose IV as well as dose III.

Immunohistochemical characterization of tuberculous and non-tuberculous lesionsin naturally infected European badgers (Meles meles)

A panel of species cross-reactive antibodies was established for the immunohistochemical labelling of phagocytic and lymphoid cells in formalin-fixed normal badger tissues. These reagents were used to investigate the immunopathogenesis of both tuberculous and non-tuberculous granulomas in badgers. In normal badger tissues, antisera specific for the CD79a and CD79b epitopes strongly labelled follicular B lymphocytes and plasma cells in lymph nodes, bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue and Peyer's patches. Rabbit anti-dog IgG, IgM and IgA, and goat anti-human lambda light chain strongly labelled plasma cells, but goat anti-ferret IgA produced weak labelling. Interfollicular and occasional follicular lymphocytes and gut intraepithelial lymphocytes expressed the CD3 epitope. Mouse anti-human HLA-DR (MHC Class II) antigen strongly labelled macrophages, some follicular lymphocytes and some intestinal and respiratory epithelial cells. Mouse anti-human calprotectin (MAC387) labelled a limited number of macrophages. In infected badgers, all fusiform to angular macrophages (epithelioid cells) of all tuberculous granulomas strongly expressed HLA-DR antigen, but only a small, variable proportion of these were labelled by MAC387 antiserum. Lymphocytes in the peripheral rims of granulomas and those scattered sparsely amongst the epithelioid cells were labelled primarily with CD3 antiserum. Peripheral plasma cells were more common in larger than in smaller tubercles and usually expressed IgA or IgG. Small unencapsulated siliceous granulomas, which were present in both tuberculous and non-tuberculous badgers, consisted of aggregates of round to polyhedral epithelioid cells expressing the MHC Class II but not the MAC387 epitope. Granulomas caused by infection with presumed fungal adiaspores of Chrysosporium sp. consisted of aggregates of variably shaped macrophages that expressed MHC Class II antigen, but only a proportion expressed MAC387 antigen. The majority of lymphocytes within the peripheral rims of these granulomas were T cells, accompanied by sparse to moderate numbers of plasma cells that primarily expressed IgG or IgA. In conclusion, species cross-reactive antibodies can be used to identify the cellular components of tuberculous and non-tuberculous granulomas. Immunohistochemical examination failed to distinguish small tuberculous granulomas from adiaspiromycotic granulomas.

Effect of Anapsos (Polypodium leucotomos extract) on in vitro production of cytokines

AIMS

The aim of the study was to test the immunomodulating capacity of Anapsos, Polypodium leucotomos extract, in vitro in an attempt to explore how this extract acts from an immunological point of view and thus to identify a common link capable of explaining most of its effects.

METHODS

Polypodium leucotomos rhizomes were harvested in Guatemala and the extract, Anapsos, obtained. Mononuclear cells were obtained by density gradient centrifugation from healthy donors, and stimulated with phytohemagglutinin or Pokeweed with and without Anapsos and with Anapsos alone. Cell proliferation was determined by thymidine incorporation. Cells were also stimulated and the following cytokines determined by ELISA at 0, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h: IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, IL-2, INF-8, IL-4 and IL-10.

RESULTS

Anapsos, Polypodium leucotomos extract, has a modulating effect on the in vitro production and release of cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy subjects. At doses effective in vivo, Anapsos can stimulate PBMNc proliferation, delay IL-1 beta secretion and at the same time increase that of IL-2, IL-10, and INF-gamma.

CONCLUSIONS

Anapsos may have an antagonistic effect on some of the cytokines released on cell stimulation with LPS and/or PHA, which suggests that this product has a pleiotropic effect on different populations in the immune system.

Effect of orally administered heat-killed Enterococcus Faecalis FK-23 preparation on neutropenia in dogs treated with cyclophosphamide

Dogs injected intravenously for 3 days with cyclophosphamide (CY) at a dose of 10 mg/kg were given 100 mg/kg of Enterococcus faecalis FK-23 preparation (FK-23) perorally for 14 days to confirm the beneficial effects of the latter drug in neutropenic dogs when orally administered. Although FK-23 treatment did not inhibit CY-induced neutropenia, it augmented neutrophil-reconstituting capacity in these dogs. Increases in the myeloid/ erythroid ratio and neutrophilic lineages were found in the bone marrow of FK-23 administered dogs. The oral administration significantly restored the reduced activity of neutrophil phagocytosis and chemiluminescence in dogs treated with CY. These findings indicate that FK-23 administered perorally not only augments neutrophil reconstitution through the activation of bone marrow but also functions in dogs treated with CY. It may thus be a useful supportive agent to reduce the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of chemotherapeutic agents such as CY.

Expression of interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha by macrophages in canine lymph nodes with mineral-associated lymphadenopathy, granulomatous lymphadenitis or reactive hyperplasia

The distribution of CD3+ T lymphocytes and the expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) by macrophages in canine lymph nodes with mineral-associated lymph-adenopathy, granulomatous lymphadenitis or reactive hyperplasia was examined immunohistochemically. In areas of preserved lymph node architecture, CD3+ T lymphocytes were located in the paracortex, with scattered cells in the follicular mantle and germinal centre, and small aggregates in the medullary cords. T cells were prominent within areas of diffuse granulomatous inflammation and formed a peripheral rim around microgranulomas. TNF alpha expression was demonstrated in macrophages from seven of 11 dogs with mineral-associated lymphadenopathy, one of five dogs with granulomatous lymphadenitis and three of five with reactive hyperplasia. Positive macrophage staining for IL-1 beta and IL-6 was seen in two lymph nodes with reactive hyperplasia. Lymph nodes from control (clinically normal) dogs showed no evidence of cytokine expression. Neutrophils expressing IL-1 beta were observed within the medullary sinuses of two lymph nodes with mineral-associated lymphadenopathy and one with reactive hyperplasia, and in the inflammatory infiltrate in one lymph node with granulomatous lymph-adenitis. The sensitivity of immunohistochemical examination as a means of detecting cytokines in abnormal tissue is discussed.

Immunomodulation by pycnogenol in retrovirus-infected or ethanol-fed mice

Pycnogenol is a commercial mixture of bioflavonoids that exhibits antioxidative activity. The effects of dietary pycnogenol on immune dysfunction in normal mice as well as those fed ethanol or infected with the LP-BM5 murine retrovirus were determined. The ethanol consumption and retrovirus infection caused abnormalities in the function and/or structure of a broad array of cells involved in humoral and cellular immunity. Pycnogenol enhanced in vitro IL-2 production by mitogen-stimulated splenocytes if its production was suppressed in ethanol-fed or retrovirus-infected mice. Mitogenesis of splenocytes did not show a significant change in mice treated with pycnogenol. It reduced the elevated levels of interleukin-6 produced in vitro by cells from retrovirus infected mice and IL-10 secreted by spleen cells from mice consuming ethanol. Natural killer cell cytotoxicity was increased with pycnogenol treatment.

Hematopoietic growth factors: frontiers for cure

Hematopoietic growth factors are cytokines that regulate the growth, development, and function of hematopoetic lineages. These hematopoietic growth factors have great potential for improving the quality of life and for reducing toxicity. This article reviews some of the most clinically relevant hematopoietic growth factors and what is known about their use in veterinary medicine. In particular, the following hematopoietic growth factors are discussed: erythropoietin, stem-cell factor, interleukin-3, interleukin-5, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

Histologic response of the heifer mammary gland to intramammary infusion of interleukin-2 or interferon-gamma

The histologic and cytologic responses of heifer mammary glands infected with Staphylococcus aureus were studied after infusion of interleukin-2 or interferon-gamma. Two groups of 4 heifers each, which were infected experimentally with S. aureus in all 4 mammary quarters, were infused in diagonal quarters with 7.5 x 10(5) units of interleukin-2 or 10(5) units of interferon-gamma; remaining quarters received PBS. Heifers in both trials were slaughtered 14 d after cytokine infusion, and mammary tissues were collected for histological examination. Uninfected quarters from 2 additional heifers were left untreated to compare infected with uninfected tissues for both trials. Morphologic evaluation and leukocyte infiltration scores were performed on tissue sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and plasma cells were quantified on sections stained with immunoperoxidase. Infected quarters had lower percentages of alveolar epithelial and luminal areas and higher percentages of stromal area than did uninfected quarters in the interleukin-2 trial, but no differences were observed between infected quarters that had been treated with PBS or interleukin-2. Likewise, interferon-gamma treatment had no effect on mammary parenchymal components in the infected quarters. Interleukin-2 treatment significantly elevated leukocytosis into the mammary gland parenchyma compared with infected quarters treated with PBS and uninfected quarters. Among the leukocyte types evaluated, eosinophilic infiltration was elevated in interleukin-2 quarters over that of PBS controls. In both trials, concentrations of plasma cells bearing Ig were elevated in infected versus uninfected quarters. Plasma cell concentrations also were higher in cytokine than PBS controls, especially in interleukin-2 quarters. Results suggested that neither cytokine influenced the histology of infected mammary tissues, but both interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma increased, although insignificantly, the prevalence of all isotypes of plasma cells bearing Ig, suggesting enhancement of the local immune response to IMI.

Applications of genetic engineering technology in feline medicine

Genetic engineering technology is a rapidly developing field that has almost unlimited potential for the production of safer and more effective vaccines, therapeutic proteins, and more specific and sensitive diagnostic reagents. Although applications in veterinary medicine of genetically engineered products are presently limited by availability of species-specific reagents, the use of recombinant DNA products is increasing. Because of the recent discovery of FIV and the relevance of FIV as an animal model for the study of human immunodeficiency virus, feline genetic research is gaining in importance. Research using FIV as a human AIDS model ideally will yield many new species-specific feline recombinant DNA products that have important applications in feline medicine and research.