Concurrent Infection withAnaplasma phagocytophilumandMycoplasma haemolamaein a Young Alpaca

Anaemia in South American camelids - an overview of clinical and laboratory diagnostics

South American camelids (SACs) play an increasing role in veterinary care in Europe. Many alpacas or llamas presented to veterinarians suffer from anaemia, regularly with a packed cell volume (PCV) below 0.10 l/l, which is a life-threatening condition for the animals. This review article presents clinical and laboratory diagnostic tools for the diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. Clinical identification of anaemic animals can be performed by assessing the FAMACHA© score and the Body Condition Score (BCS), since anaemia in alpacas and llamas correlates with pale mucous membranes and a lowered BCS. Haematological examination of a blood sample can provide a more differentiated diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. A common finding is regenerative anaemia with an increased number of reticulocytes that is often caused by blood loss due to Haemonchus contortus. Changes in a blood smear from an alpaca or llama with regenerative anaemia may include normoblasts (nucleated red blood cells), anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, polychromasia, Howell-Jolly bodies or basophilic stippling. Furthermore, non-regenerative anaemia, often caused by trace element deficiency or cachexia, can also occur.

Tick-borne pathogens in camels: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence in dromedaries

Published data on tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in camels worldwide have been collected to provide an overview of the global prevalence and species diversity of camelid TBPs. Several TBPs have been detected in dromedary camels, raising concerns regarding their role as natural or maintenance hosts for tick-borne pathogens. Insubstantial evidence exists regarding the natural infection of camels with Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Anaplasma spp., and Ehrlichia spp., particularly because most of the camels were considered healthy at the time of sampling. Based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, a pooled prevalence of 35.3% (95% CI: 22.6-48.1%) was estimated for Anaplasma, which was the most frequently tested TBP in dromedaries, and DNA of Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma platys, and A. platys-like were isolated, of which ruminants and dogs are reservoirs. Similarly, the estimated pooled prevalence for the two piroplasmid genera; Babesia and Theileria was approximately equal (10-12%) regardless of the detection method (microscopy or PCR testing). Nevertheless, Babesia caballi, Theileria equi, and Theileria annulata DNA have frequently been detected in camels but they have not yet been proven to be natural hosts. Scarce data detected Babesia microti, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) DNA in blood of dromedaries, although ticks of the genus Ixodes are distributed in limited areas where dromedaries are raised. Interestingly, a pooled seroprevalence of 47.7% (26.3-69.2%) was estimated for Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and viral RNA was detected in dromedary blood; however, their contribution to maintain the viral transmission cycles requires further experimental investigation. The substantially low incidence and scarcity of data on Rickettsia and Ehrlichia species could imply that camels were accidentally infected. In contrast, camels may play a role in the spread of Coxiella burnetii, which is primarily transmitted through the inhalation of aerosols emitted by diseased animals and contaminated environments. Bactrian camels showed no symptoms due to the examined TBPs, meanwhile, clinical disease was seen in alpacas infected with A. phagocytophilum. Similar to dromedaries, accidental tick bites may be the cause of TBP DNA found in the blood of Bactrian camels.

Molecular survey and genetic characterization of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from Southern Chile

This study aimed to perform a molecular survey and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in domestic South American Camelids from Southern Chile. Conventional PCR (cPCR) for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. based on 16S rRNA gene (620bp fragment) was performed in 87 EDTA-blood samples taken from 48 llamas (Lama glama) and 39 and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from to Temuco, La Araucanía region and Valdivia, Los Rios region, Southern Chile. 16S rRNA hemotropic Mycoplasma PCR-positive were sequenced for species identification, phylogenetic and haplotype analyses, and further tested by cPCR targeting a fragment (160-210 bp) of the RNaseP (rnpB) gene. Based upon 16S rRNA cPCR results, the overall hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. occurrence in Southern camelids was 9.2% (8/87 [95% CI (4.0-17.3%)]), with five positive alpacas (12.8%; 5/39 [95% CI (4.3-27.4%)]) and three llamas (6.3%; 3/48 [95% CI (1.7-17.2%)]). All 16S rRNA PCR-positive samples were negative for the rnpB gene. Obtained 16S sequences presented high identity (99-100%) by BLASTn analysis to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' from an alpaca in the United Kingdom. Phylogenetic and haplotype analyses of the 16s rRNA gene showed high similarity among 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' sequences of this study and the ones from North America, Europe, and Asia evidencing a low diversity of Chilean samples, with only one haplotype detected (#1). Haplotype #1 from South American Camelids in Chile was worldwide distributed and observed in North America, Europe, and Asia. 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' detected for the first time in South American camelids in Southern Chile had low diversity and was worldwide spread.

Factors associated with seroprevalence of bovine anaplasmosis in Mississippi, USA

Anecdotally, Veterinary Feed Directive prescriptions in the southeastern United States (U.S.) are written most often for treatment and prevention of bovine anaplasmosis (BA) but seroprevalence estimates and factors associated with this disease are currently unavailable in Mississippi (MS). Bovine anaplasmosis, a tick-borne disease of cattle caused by Anaplasma marginale, remains an economically important disease in U.S. The lack of recent seroprevalence of BA throughout the U.S. makes accurate assessment of production losses incurred by the cattle industry in the U.S. difficult, if not impossible to estimate. This study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence of and factors associated with BA in MS. Data were obtained from an active survey of 207 beef cows slaughtered between May 2013 and December, 2014 as well as from reviewing 5182 Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories (VDLs) records of specimens from MS submitted for BA testing between 2002 and 2018. From the active surveillance, the overall observed apparent seroprevalence of BA in MS with cELISA was 28.99% (95% CI: 23.23 - 35.50%) while the estimated true seroprevalence was 29.02% (22.74 - 36.07%). However, from the laboratory records, the overall apparent period seroprevalence of BA in MS between 2002 and 2018 irrespective of diagnostic assay used was 16.72% (15.73 - 17.76%) and yearly increase in the diagnosis of BA followed a significant trend (P < 0.0001). With cELISA, the apparent seroprevalence of BA was 22.11% (20.78 - 23.49%) and the estimated true seroprevalence was 21.62% (20.18 - 23.11%). However, with CFT, the apparent seroprevalence of BA was 13.50% (10.75 - 16.81%) and the estimated true seroprevalence was 47.90% (36.30 - 61.87%). Factors associated with positive BA results were age, cattle type, and quarter of the year the specimens were submitted. The odds of the outcome were 22 as high in adults, 27 times as high in beef cattle, and 2 times as high between October to December in comparisons to juveniles, dairy cattle, and between April to June, respectively. Cattle population in the counties was not associated with positive BA results. Current records from the VDLs appear to accurately estimate the seroprevalence of BA in MS and thus serves as a reliable surveillance tool BA in the state. Because the burden of BA appears to be distributed throughout the state, future prevention and control measures for BA should focus on the identified putative risk factors and be intensified throughout MS.

Factors associated with seroprevalence of bovine anaplasmosis in Texas

Bovine anaplasmosis (BA), caused by Anaplasma marginale, is an economically important tick-borne disease of cattle in the United States (U.S.) and worldwide. Anecdotally, Veterinary Feed Directive prescriptions in the southeastern U.S. are written mostly for treatment/prevention of BA. However, there are no recent temporal seroprevalence estimates of BA in Texas (TX). Thus, this study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence of and factors associated with BA in TX. Data were obtained from an active slaughter survey (n = 215) performed between August and December 2014 as well as from reviewing Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratories (TVMDLs) records of specimens submitted for BA testing from January 2002 to June 2012 (n = 15,460). Irrespective of the assay used, the overall apparent seroprevalence of BA in TX between 2002 and 2012 was 15.91% (95% CI: 15.34 - 16.50%) and the yearly increase in seroprevalence followed a significant trend (P < .0001). With cELISA, the apparent seroprevalence of BA was 13.49% (95% CI: 9.56 - 18.7%) and 13.02% (95% CI: 9.74 - 17.18%) for the slaughter survey and TVMDLs records between October and December 2011, respectively. Whereas the estimated true seroprevalence for the same period was 12.35% (95% CI: 8.04 - 18.05%) and 12.78% (95% CI: 9.19 - 17.30%), respectively. Factors associated with positive BA results were age, breed, diagnostic assay used, year and quarter of the year the specimens were submitted. The odds of the outcome were 1.5 times as high when cattle were adults (vs juvenile). In comparison to other breeds, the odds of the outcome were 11.57, 7.16, and 2.5 times higher in Hereford, Angus, and mixed breeds, respectively. When compared to 2003, the odds of the diagnosis of BA was approximately 2 times as high in 2010 but 3 times as high in 2002, 2005, and 2011 and approximately 4 times as high in 2006 and 2007. In comparison to the duration from October to December, the odds of the outcome were approximately 1.5 as high from January to March and from July to September durations. Counties with specimen submissions for BA testing had a significantly greater cattle population (p = .0061) and number of cattle farms (p < .001) than counties without specimen submissions. Subsequent prevention and control measures for BA should target these factors and should prioritize on counties with higher cattle population in the eastern part of TX. Furthermore, TVMDLs records appear sufficient for the surveillance of BA in TX.

Factors associated with Seroprevalence of Anaplasma marginale in Kentucky cattle

Bovine anaplasmosis (BA) is tick-borne disease of cattle caused by Anaplasma marginale and it remains an economically important disease in the United States (U.S.). We have anecdotal information that Veterinary Feed Directive prescriptions in Kentucky (KY) are written most often for treatment and prevention of BA. However, there are no recent prevalence estimates of this disease in KY. Thus, this study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence of and factors associated with BA in KY. Data were obtained from an active slaughter survey (n = 232) performed between May and July 2013 as well as from reviewing The University of Kentucky Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (UKVDL) records of specimens submitted for BA testing from 2002-2012 (n = 2,573). With competitive ELISA, the apparent prevalence of BA in KY was 10.78% (95% CI: 7.41-15.42%) and 11.58% (95% CI: 10.31-12.98%) for the slaughter survey and laboratory records, respectively. Whereas the estimated true prevalence was 9.44% (95% CI: 5.65-14.48%) and 10.3% (95% CI: 8.92-11.8%), respectively. From the laboratory records, factors associated with positive BA results were age, breed, whether specimens were submitted singularly or as a group, year and quarter of the year the specimens were submitted. The odds of the outcome were 5 times as high when cattle were adults (vs juvenile) and almost 4 times as high when specimens were submitted singularly (vs group). In comparison to Holstein breed, the odds of the outcome were 3.5 and 2.5 times higher in Angus and mixed breeds, respectively. The odds of a diagnosis of BA varied in an undulating pattern by year of sample submission. When compared to 2011, the odds of a diagnosis of BA was approximately 3 times as high in 2005, 2008, and 2009 and approximately 5 times as high in 2004, 2006, and 2012. In comparison to the duration from January to March, the odds of the outcome were almost 20 times as high from July to September but 10 times as high from October to December durations. Counties with specimen submissions for BA testing had a significantly greater cattle population and number of cattle farms than counties without specimen submissions. Future prevention and control measures for BA should target these factors and should be weighted more on counties with higher cattle population. Furthermore, current records from the UKVDL appear sufficient for the surveillance of BA in KY.

Llamas and alpacas in Europe: Endoparasites of the digestive tract and their pharmacotherapeutic control

There are distinctive specifications for veterinary medical care of South American camelids (SACs), namely, llamas, alpacas, vicunas and guanacos. Camelids are classified as food-producing animals, but as veterinary medicinal products are often only licensed for domestic food-producing species such as horses, goats, sheep and cattle, treatment of SACs generally requires off-label use of drugs. Endoparasitism is a major health concern in camelids and can result in severe clinical diseases and economic losses. There is still a lack of work on the pharmacokinetics, safety and efficacy for most antiparasitic drugs used in SACs. Even when choosing an appropriate route of administration, several aspects must be considered such as the fact that pour-on formulations are largely ineffective in camelids due to the unique features of llama and alpaca skin and hair that result in extremely low drug bioavailability. This review focuses on the main endoparasites of the digestive tract in llamas and alpacas in Europe and pharmacotherapeutic options based on current knowledge.

Molecular and serological in-herd prevalence of Anaplasma marginale infection in Texas cattle

Bovine anaplasmosis is an infectious, non-contagious disease caused by the rickettsial pathogen Anaplasma marginale (A. marginale). The organism has a global distribution and infects erythrocytes, resulting in anemia, jaundice, fever, abortions and death. Once infected, animals remain carriers for life. The carrier status provides immunity to clinical disease, but is problematic if infected and naïve cattle are comingled. Knowledge of infection prevalence and spatial distribution is important in disease management. The objective of this study was to assess A. marginale infection in-herd prevalence in Texas cattle using both molecular and serological methods. Blood samples from 11 cattle herds within Texas were collected and analyzed by reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) and a commercial competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Samples from experimentally infected animals were also analyzed and RT-qPCR detected A. marginale infection up to 15 days before cELISA, providing empirical data to support the interpretation of herd prevalence results. Herds with high prevalence were located in the north Texas Rolling Plains and west Trans-Pecos Desert, with RT-qPCR prevalence as high as 82% and cELISA prevalence as high as 88%. Overall prevalence was significantly higher in cattle in north and west Texas compared to cattle in east Texas (p<0.0001 for prevalence based on both RT-qPCR and cELISA). The overall RT-qPCR and cELISA results exhibited 90% agreement (kappa=0.79) and provide the first A. marginale infection prevalence study for Texas cattle using two diagnostic methods. Since cattle are the most important reservoir host for A. marginale and can serve as a source of infection for tick and mechanical transmission, information on infection prevalence is beneficial in the development of prevention and control strategies.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum--a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies

The bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum has for decades been known to cause the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants in Ixodes ricinus-infested areas in northern Europe. In recent years, the bacterium has been found associated with Ixodes-tick species more or less worldwide on the northern hemisphere. A. phagocytophilum has a broad host range and may cause severe disease in several mammalian species, including humans. However, the clinical symptoms vary from subclinical to fatal conditions, and considerable underreporting of clinical incidents is suspected in both human and veterinary medicine. Several variants of A. phagocytophilum have been genetically characterized. Identification and stratification into phylogenetic subfamilies has been based on cell culturing, experimental infections, PCR, and sequencing techniques. However, few genome sequences have been completed so far, thus observations on biological, ecological, and pathological differences between genotypes of the bacterium, have yet to be elucidated by molecular and experimental infection studies. The natural transmission cycles of various A. phagocytophilum variants, the involvement of their respective hosts and vectors involved, in particular the zoonotic potential, have to be unraveled. A. phagocytophilum is able to persist between seasons of tick activity in several mammalian species and movement of hosts and infected ticks on migrating animals or birds may spread the bacterium. In the present review, we focus on the ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum, especially the role of wildlife in contribution to the spread and sustainability of the infection in domestic livestock and humans.

Genome sequence of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae" strain purdue, a red blood cell pathogen of alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama)

We report the complete genome sequence of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae," an endemic red-cell pathogen of camelids. The single, circular chromosome has 756,845 bp, a 39.3% G+C content, and 925 coding sequences (CDSs). A great proportion (49.1%) of these CDSs are organized into paralogous gene families, which can now be further explored with regard to antigenic variation.

Gastrointestinal and blood parasite determination in the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) under semi-captivity conditions

The breeding of wild animals for commercial purposes is becoming more frequent nowadays. This situation has led to an increase in contact rates between wild and domestic animals, with subsequent reciprocal transmission of parasites. In this study, we characterized the gastrointestinal and blood parasites of a group of 15 semi-captive guanacos (Lama guanicoe). We characterized gastrointestinal parasites by analyzing fecal samples through the sedimentation-flotation technique and hemoparasites by using blood smears stained with Giemsa. We found several gastrointestinal parasites including Nematoda and protozoans. The most frequently found parasites were Nematodirus sp. and Eimeria sp. In contrast with previous studies, neither Cestoda nor Fasciola were found. The only hemoparasite detected was Mycoplasma haemolamae, a parasite already described in llamas and alpacas. We conclude that the most frequent gastrointestinal parasites of semi-captive guanacos were nematodes and protozoans. Also, the hemoparasite M. haemolamae seems to be prevalent among captive populations of South American camelids. Finally, captive guanacos share several parasites with the traditional livestock. Therefore, keeping captive or semi-captive guanacos without an adequate sanitary protocol might have adverse consequences to adjacent traditional cattle farming and/or for wild animals.