Cordycepin ameliorates cardiac hypertrophy via activating the AMPKα pathway

The effects of acetylated cordycepin derivatives on promoting vascular angiogenesis and attenuating myocardial ischemic injury

Background

Enhanced angiogenesis following myocardial infarction (MI) is beneficial to preserve cardiac function. The present study aimed to investigate whether acetylated derivatives of cordycepin altered its original antitumor properties and exerted cardioprotective effects by promoting angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

Cordycepin and its derivatives with single (DA), double (DAA), and triple acetyl groups (DAAA) were assessed. The cell viability of leukemia U937 cells, malignant hepatoma Huh-7 cells, and human umbilical vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) treated with cordycepin, DA, DAA, and DAAA were determined. The expression of β-catenin in U937 cells, as well as the expression of p65, p38 and other related signal regulators in HUVECs elicited by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) were also observed. Angiogenesis was determined by tube formation in HUVECs and Matrigel plug assay in mice. Cardiac function following administration of DAAA was evaluated in mice MI model simulated by coronary artery ligation.

Results

The inhibitory effects of cordycepin and its acetylated derivatives on U937 cells, Huh-7 cells, HUVECs, and the expression of β-catenin in U937 cells were mitigated with increasing acetylation. Intriguingly, DAAA preserved the cell viability of HUVECs compared to other acetylated derivatives. Although DAAA had a significantly diminished antitumor effect compared to cordycepin, it promoted angiogenesis in mice and tube formation in HUVECs and attenuated LPS-induced phosphorylation of p65 and p38. Additionally, administration of DAAA improved cardiac function following coronary artery ligation in mice.

Conclusion

DAAA could be considered a promising adjunctive therapy to prevent post-MI heart failure through promoting angiogenesis.

Cordyceps: Alleviating ischemic cardiovascular and cerebrovascular injury - A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cordyceps has a long medicinal history as a nourishing herb in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Ischemic cardio-cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs), including cerebral ischemic/reperfusion injury (CI/RI) and myocardial ischemic/reperfusion injury (MI/RI), are major contributors to mortality and disability in humans. Numerous studies have indicated that Cordyceps or its artificial substitutes have significant bioactivity on ischemic CCVDs, however, there is a lack of relevant reviews.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review was conducted to investigate the chemical elements, pharmacological effects, clinical application and drug safety of Cordycepson ischemic CCVDs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive search was conducted on the Web of Science, PubMed, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang databases using the keywords "Cordyceps", "Cerebral ischemic/reperfusion injury", and "Myocardial ischemic/reperfusion injury" or their synonyms. The retrieved literature was then categorized and summarized.

RESULTS

The study findings indicated that Cordyceps and its bioactive components, including adenosine, cordycepin, mannitol, polysaccharide, and protein, have the potential to protect against CI/RI and MI/RI by improving blood perfusion, mitigating damage from reactive oxygen species, suppressing inflammation, preventing cellular apoptosis, and promoting tissue regeneration. Individually, Cordyceps could reduce neuronal excitatory toxicity and blood-brain barrier damage caused by cerebral ischemia. It can also significantly improve cardiac energy metabolism disorders and inhibit calcium overload caused by myocardial ischemia. Additionally, Cordyceps exerts a significant preventive or curative influence on the factors responsible for heart/brain ischemia, including hypertension, thrombosis, atherosclerosis, and arrhythmia.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates Cordyceps' prospective efficacy and safety in the prevention or treatment of CI/RI and MI/RI, providing novel insights for managing ischemic CCVDs.

Bioactive compounds from Cordyceps and their therapeutic potential

The Clavicipitaceae family's largest and most diverse genus is Cordyceps. They are most abundant and diverse in humid temperate and tropical forests and have a wide distribution in: Europe, North America, and East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly: Bhutan, China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Tibet, and the Himalayan region of India, and Sikkim. It is a well-known parasitic fungus that feeds on insects and other arthropods belonging to 10 different orders. Over 200 bioactive metabolites, that include: nucleotides and nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, sterols, and fatty acids, among others have been extracted from Cordyceps spp. demonstrating the phytochemical richness of this genus. These components have been associated with a variety of pharmacological effects, including: anti-microbial, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the bioactivity of various classes of metabolites produced by Cordyceps spp., and their therapeutic properties have been reviewed in an attempt to update the existing literature. Furthermore, one of its nucleoside and a key bioactive compound, cordycepin has been critically elaborated with regard to its biosynthesis pathway and the recently proposed protector-protégé mechanism as well as various biological and pharmacological effects, such as: suppression of purine and nucleic acid biosynthesis, induction of apoptosis, and cell cycle regulation with their mechanism of action. This review provides current knowledge on the bioactive potential of Cordyceps spp.

AMPK and metabolic disorders: The opposite roles of dietary bioactive components and food contaminants

AMPK is a key player in a variety of metabolic and physiological processes, which might be considered one of the most promising targets for both prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome and its associated diseases. Many dietary components and contaminants have been recently demonstrated to prevent or promote the development these diseases via AMPK-mediated pathways. AMPK can be activated by diverse phytochemical substances such as EGCG, chicoric acid, tomatidine, and others, all of which have been found to contribute to preventing or ameliorating chronic disorders. On the other hand, recent studies have found that metabolic disruptions induced by pesticides such as 1,3-Dichloro-2-propanol, imidacloprid, permethrin, are attributed to the inactivation of AMPK. This review may contribute to the development of functional foods for treatment of metabolic syndrome and associated diseases through modulating AMPK pathway.

Astaxanthin Alleviates the Process of Cardiac Hypertrophy by Targeting the METTL3/Circ_0078450/MiR-338-3p/GATA4 Pathway

Astaxanthin (ASX) is a natural antioxidant with preventive and therapeutic effects on various human diseases. However, the role of ASX in cardiac hypertrophy and its underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear.Cardiomyocytes (AC16) were used with angiotensin-II (Ang-II) to mimic the cardiac hypertrophy cell model. The protein levels of hypertrophy genes, GATA4, and methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) were determined by western blot analysis. Cell size was assessed using immunofluorescence staining. The expression of circ_0078450, miR-338-3p, and GATA4 were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR. Also, the interaction between miR-338-3p and circ_0078450 or GATA4 was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter and RIP assays, and the regulation of METTL3 on circ_0078450 was verified by MeRIP and RIP assays.ASX reduced the hypertrophy gene protein expression and cell size in Ang-II-induced AC16 cells. Circ_0078450 was promoted under Ang-II treatment, and ASX reduced circ_0078450 expression in Ang-II-induced AC16 cells. Circ_0078450 could sponge miR-338-3p to positively regulate GATA4 expression, and GATA4 overexpression overturned the suppressive effect of circ_0078450 knockdown on Ang-II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Also, the inhibitory effect of ASX on Ang-II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy could be reversed by circ_0078450 or GATA4 overexpression. In addition, METTL3 mediated the m6A methylation of circ_0078450 to enhance circ_0078450 expression. Moreover, METTL3 knockdown suppressed Ang-II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by inhibiting circ_0078450 expression.Our data showed that ASX repressed cardiac hypertrophy by regulating the METTL3/circ_0078450/miR-338-3p/GATA4 axis.

Edible mushrooms as potential functional foods in amelioration of hypertension

Edible mushrooms are popular functional foods attributed to their rich nutritional bioactive constituent profile influencing cardiovascular function. Edible mushrooms are omnipresent in various prescribed Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension, Mediterranean diet, and fortified meal plans as they are rich in amino acids, dietary fiber, proteins, sterols, vitamins, and minerals. However, without an understanding of the influence of mushroom bioactive constituents, mechanism of action on heart and allergenicity, it is difficult to fully comprehend the role of mushrooms as dietary interventions in alleviating hypertension and other cardiovascular malfunctions. To accomplish this endeavor, we chose to review edible mushrooms and their bioactive constituents in ameliorating hypertension. Hypertension and cardiovascular diseases are interrelated and if the former is managed by dietary changes, it is postulated that overall heart health could also be improved. With a concise note on different edible varieties of mushrooms, a particular focus is presented on the antihypertensive potential of mushroom bioactive constituents, mode of action, absorption kinetics and bioavailability. Ergosterol, lovastatin, cordycepin, tocopherols, chitosan, ergothioneine, γ-aminobutyric acid, quercetin, and eritadenine are described as essential bioactives with hypotensive effects. Finally, safety concerns on allergens and limitations of consuming edible mushrooms with special reference to chemical toxins and their postulated metabolites are highlighted. It is opined that the present review will redirect toxicologists to further investigate mushroom bioactives and allergens, thereby influencing dietary interventions for heart health.

Mechanism study of Cordyceps sinensis alleviates renal ischemia–reperfusion injury

Cordyceps sinensis (C. sinensis) is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine commonly used to protect renal function and relieve kidney injury. This study aimed to reveal the renal protective mechanism of C. sinensis in renal ischemia–reperfusion injury (RIRI). First, we obtained 8 active components and 99 common targets of C. sinensis against RIRI from public databases. Second, we have retrieved 38 core targets through STRING database analysis. Third, Gene Ontology analysis of 38 core targets is indicated that C. sinensis treatment RIRI may related hormone regulation, oxidative stress, cell proliferation, and immune regulation. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis of 38 core targets is indicated that C. sinensis treatment RIRI may involve in PI3K–Akt, HIF-1, and MAPK signaling pathways, as well as advanced glycation end product (AGE)–receptor for AGE (RAGE) signaling pathway in diabetic complications. Lastly, molecular docking was used to detect the binding activity and properties of active components and core target using molecular docking. And the results showed that eight active components of C. sinensis had low affinity with core targets. In conclusion, C. sinensis may improve RIRI by regulating oxidative stress and immunity through PI3K–Akt, HIF-1, and MAPK pathways.

Isoliquiritigenin attenuates pathological cardiac hypertrophy via regulating AMPKα in vivo and in vitro

Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) is a type of flavonoid, derived from the root of the legume plant Glycyrrhiza, that has multiple pharmacological properties. However, its role in cardiac remodeling induced by pressure overload has yet to be fully elucidated. Aortic banding (AB) surgery was used to establish a cardiac hypertrophy model in male C57BL/6 mice. Mice were randomly divided into four groups (n = 20 per group) as follows: Sham + vehicle, sham + ISL, AB + vehicle and AB + ISL. ISL was administered to the mice intragastrically for 1 week after the operation. To evaluate the role of ISL in mice challenged with AB, echocardiography, histological analysis and molecular biochemistry examinations were performed. ISL treatment decreased cardiac hypertrophy and improved cardiac dysfunction induced by pressure overload. In addition, ISL decreased the cross-sectional area of cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, ISL reversed the AB-mediated increase in phosphorylated (p-)mTOR and p-ERK protein levels and further increased the protein expression of p-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)α in response to AB, whereas knockout of AMPKα abolished the protective effects of ISL. The present study suggested that ISL could suppress pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy through the activation of AMPKα. Therefore, ISL may serve as a therapeutic target for cardiac remodeling.

Protective effects of cordycepin against d-galactose-induced aging in rats: A view from the heart

AIMS

Aging is a critical contributing factor for cardiovascular diseases. The d-galactose-induced accelerated aging model is comparable to physiological aging from the cellular to the physiological level. The d-galactose treatment induces mitochondrial dysfunction, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and upregulation of senescence-related genes. Cordycepin, a functional element in Chinese traditional medicine, has multiple beneficial effects as an antioxidant and ROS scavenger, and has been reported to be effective in a number of ischemia models. This paper aims to investigate the cardioprotective effects of cordycepin in the d-galactose accelerated aging model.

METHODS

In the current study, we employed the d-galactose accelerated aging model to study the cardioprotective effect of cordycepin. Eight-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats, randomly divided into five groups, were given vehicle, d-galactose (150 mg/kg/day), and cordycepin at 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg per day. At the end of the 8-week treatment, rat cardiac structure and function were assessed with echocardiographic imaging and hemodynamic parameter analysis.

RESULTS

Cordycepin upregulated the expression of Klotho in serum and heart tissues. The expressions of senescence markers β-galactosidase, p21, and oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA) were downregulated by cordycepin treatment. Reduction of levels and activity of the antioxidant factors superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) induced by by d-galactose treatment was ameliorated by cordycepin. Furthermore, cordycepin activated AMPK signaling in d-galactose-treated rats. After 8 weeks of treatment, we found that cordycepin improved myocardia contractility and hypertension caused by d-galactose treatment. Mechanistically, reduced expression of the Klotho protein SOD1 caused by d-galactose was recovered in rats co-treated with cordycepin.

CONCLUSION

Cordycepin could protect against cardiac dysfunction in a d-galactose-induced aging rat model, suggesting the therapeutic cardioprotective potential of cordycepin in aging. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2022; 22: 433-440.

Cordycepin alleviates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury by enhancing autophagy via AMPK-mTOR pathway

To estimate the cardioprotective mechanism of cordycepin on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. The left anterior descending artery of mice was ligated transiently to establish the myocardial I/R model. TTC/Evans Blue staining and TUNEL assay were performed to quantify the infarct size and apoptosis index. The cardiac function was evaluated by echocardiography. Neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (NRVCs) underwent hypoxia and reoxygenation (H/R). MTS and LDH were detected to measured cell viability and necrosis respectively. The results suggested that cordycepin could markedly decrease apoptosis, reduce infarct size, and improve cardiac function in mice subjected to I/R injury, alongside with enhanced autophagy. In NRVCs, cordycepin treatment obviously reduced ROS production. In addition, cordycepin partly promoted autophagy in the context of H/R injury by regulating AMPK/mTOR pathway. Our data demonstrated that cordycepin exerts cardio-protective effect and promotes cardiac functional recovery following myocardial I/R by enhancing autophagy via AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway.

New Insights Into the Biosynthesis of Typical Bioactive Components in the Traditional Chinese Medicinal Fungus Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris, a traditional medicinal ingredient with a long history of application in China, is regarded as a high-value fungus due to its production of various bioactive ingredients with a wide range of pharmacological effects in clinical treatment. Several typical bioactive ingredients, such as cordycepin, D-mannitol, cordyceps polysaccharides, and N⁶-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine (HEA), have received increasing attention due to their antitumor, antioxidant, antidiabetic, radioprotective, antiviral and immunomodulatory activities. Here, we systematically sorted out the latest research progress on the chemical characteristics, biosynthetic gene clusters and pathways of these four typical bioactive ingredients. This summary will lay a foundation for obtaining low-cost and high-quality bioactive ingredients in large amounts using microbial cell factories in the future.

Cordycepin Decreases Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Diabetic Hearts via Upregulating AMPK/Mfn2-dependent Mitochondrial Fusion

Diabetes mellitus is considered to be a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, the most common cause of death in diabetes. However, therapeutic strategies for myocardial protection in patients with diabetes are still limited. Cordycepin is a traditional Tibetan medicine with a long history of widespread use, and exerts a wide range of anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects. In recent years, although the therapeutic potential of cordycepin has attracted the attention of researchers, it remains unknown whether cordycepin plays a protective role in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury in diabetic patients. Here, using a diabetic mouse model, we found that cordycepin protected diabetic hearts from MI/R injury by promoting mitochondrial fusion and Mfn2 expression. Our in vitro results showed that cordycepin enhanced Mfn2-medicated mitochondrial fusion, improved mitochondrial function, and reduced cardiomyocyte apoptosis in high-glucose/high-fat cultured simulated ischemia/reperfusion cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, we found that knockout of Mfn2 significantly blocked the cardioprotective effects of cordycepin in diabetic mice. Finally, an AMPK-dependent pathway was found to upregulate Mfn2 expression upon cordycepin treatment, indicating that cordycepin protected diabetic hearts via AMPK/Mfn2-dependent mitochondrial fusion. Collectively, our study firstly demonstrated that cordycepin could be a potential cardioprotective agent for MI/R injury, and we established a novel mechanism by which upregulated AMPK/Mfn2-dependent mitochondrial fusion contributes to the cardioprotective role of cordycepin.

A Systematic Review of the Biological Effects of Cordycepin

We conducted a systematic review of the literature on the effects of cordycepin on cell survival and proliferation, inflammation, signal transduction and animal models. A total of 1204 publications on cordycepin were found by the cut-off date of 1 February 2021. After application of the exclusion criteria, 791 papers remained. These were read and data on the chosen subjects were extracted. We found 192 papers on the effects of cordycepin on cell survival and proliferation and calculated a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 135 µM. Cordycepin consistently repressed cell migration (26 papers) and cellular inflammation (53 papers). Evaluation of 76 papers on signal transduction indicated consistently reduced PI3K/mTOR/AKT and ERK signalling and activation of AMPK. In contrast, the effects of cordycepin on the p38 and Jun kinases were variable, as were the effects on cell cycle arrest (53 papers), suggesting these are cell-specific responses. The examination of 150 animal studies indicated that purified cordycepin has many potential therapeutic effects, including the reduction of tumour growth (37 papers), repression of pain and inflammation (9 papers), protecting brain function (11 papers), improvement of respiratory and cardiac conditions (8 and 19 papers) and amelioration of metabolic disorders (8 papers). Nearly all these data are consistent with cordycepin mediating its therapeutic effects through activating AMPK, inhibiting PI3K/mTOR/AKT and repressing the inflammatory response. We conclude that cordycepin has excellent potential as a lead for drug development, especially for age-related diseases. In addition, we discuss the remaining issues around the mechanism of action, toxicity and biodistribution of cordycepin.

Cordycepin Attenuates Palmitic Acid-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis of Vascular Endothelial Cells through Mediating PI3K/Akt/eNOS Signaling Pathway

A well-known medicinal mushroom in the field of traditional Chinese medicine, Cordyceps sinensis, is a rare natural-occurring entomopathogenic fungus, and it typically grows at high altitudes on the plateau of the Himalayan. Previous studies indicated that cordycepin, the main bioactive chemical of Cordyceps sinensis, has very potent anticancer, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, its protective effects against atherosclerotic changes in vascular endothelial cells have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we showed that pretreatment with cordycepin significantly attenuated palmitic acid (PA)-induced cytotoxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and inflammatory responses. We found that PA decreased phosphorylation of Akt, eNOS, and bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO), which in turn activated NF-[Formula: see text]B and the downstream inflammatory responses. All these detrimental events were markedly blocked by pretreatment with cordycepin. Moreover, cordycepin ameliorated destabilization of mitochondrial permeability, cytosolic calcium rises, and apoptotic features caused by PA. In addition, all these anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis effects of cordycepin were found to be inhibited by the PI3K and eNOS inhibitor, suggesting that its anti-atherosclerotic effects may partially be mediated by the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway.

Traditional Chinese medicine as a therapeutic option for cardiac fibrosis: Pharmacology and mechanisms

Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide and cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological process for cardiac remodeling in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiac fibrosis not only accelerates the deterioration progress of diseases but also becomes a pivotal contributor for futile treatment in clinical cardiovascular trials. Although cardiac fibrosis is common and prevalent, effective medicines to provide sufficient clinical intervention for cardiac fibrosis are still unavailable. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is the natural essence experienced boiling, fry, and other processing methods, including active ingredients, extracts, and herbal formulas, which have been applied to treat human diseases for a long history. Recently, research has increasingly focused on the great potential of TCM for the prevention and treatment of cardiac fibrosis. Here, we aim to clarify the identified pro-fibrotic mechanisms and intensively summarize the application of TCM in improving cardiac fibrosis by working on these mechanisms. Through comprehensively analyzing, TCM mainly regulates the following pathways during ameliorating cardiac fibrosis: attenuation of inflammation and oxidative stress, inhibition of cardiac fibroblasts activation, reduction of extracellular matrix accumulation, modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulation of autophagy, regulation of metabolic-dependent mechanisms, and targeting microRNAs. We also discussed the deficiencies and the development direction of anti-fibrotic therapies on cardiac fibrosis. The data reviewed here demonstrates that TCM shows a robust effect on alleviating cardiac fibrosis, which provides us a rich source of new drugs or drug candidates. Besides, we also hope this review may give some enlightenment for treating cardiac fibrosis in clinical practice.

PHLDA3 inhibition attenuates endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis in myocardial hypoxia/reoxygenation injury by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-induced apoptosis serves a crucial role in the pathogenesis of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI). Previous studies have confirmed that pleckstrin homology-like domain family A member 3 (PHLDA3) is an important mediator in ERS-associated apoptosis. The aim of the current study focused on whether PHLDA3 served protective effects on hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-injured cardiomyocytes by inhibiting ERS-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms associated with the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway were investigated. Primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were isolated and randomized into four groups: i) Control + adenovirus encoding scrambled short hairpin RNA (AdshRNA); ii) control + adenoviral vectors encoding PHLDA3 shRNA (AdshPHLDA3); iii) H/R+ AdshRNA and iv) H/R+AdshPHLDA3. AdshPHLDA3 was used to knock down PHLDA3. An H/R injury model was constructed by treatment with hypoxia for 4 h followed by reoxygenation for 6 h. A PI3K/AKT inhibitor, LY294002, was supplemented in mechanistic studies. Cell viability and LDH/CK releases were detected to evaluate myocardial damage. Flow cytometry assays were used to assess apoptotic response. Western blotting assays were used to detect protein expression. The results demonstrated that H/R induced myocardial damage and increased PHLDA3 expression. ERS-induced apoptosis was significantly increased following H/R injury, as indicated by increased apoptotic rates and ERS-associated protein expression, including those of CHOP, 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein and caspase-12. However, PHLDA3 inhibition following AdshPHLDA3 transfection reversed cell damage and ERS-associated apoptosis on H/R injury. Studies for molecular mechanisms concluded that the apoptosis-inhibition effects and cardioprotective roles of PHLDA3 inhibition were induced partly by the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway, which was verified by LY294002 treatment. In conclusion, in the process of H/R injury, PHLDA3 inhibition reduced ERS-induced apoptosis and H/R injury by activating the PI3K/AKT pathway. PHLDA3 may be a therapeutic target for the treatment of MIRI.

Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of natural cordycepin in rotenone-induced PD models through inhibiting Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission

Accumulating evidences suggest that inflammation-mediated neurons dysfunction participates in the initial and development of Parkinson's disease (PD), whereas mitochondria have been recently recognized as crucial regulators in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Cordycepin, a major component of cordyceps militaris, has been shown to possess neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory activity. However, the effects of cordycepin in rotenone-induced PD models and the possible mechanisms are still not fully understood. Here, we observed that motor dysfunction and dopaminergic neurons loss induced by rotenone exposure were ameliorated by cordycepin. Cordycepin also reversed Drp1-mediated aberrant mitochondrial fragmentation through increasing AMPK phosphorylation and maintained normal mitochondrial morphology. Additionally, cordycepin effectively increased adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) content, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and reduced mitochondrial ROS levels, as well as inhibited complex 1 activity. More importantly, cordycepin administration inhibited the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokine in rotenone-induced rats and cultured neuronal PC12 cells. Moreover, we demonstrated that the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome within neurons could be suppressed by the mitochondrial division inhibitor (Mdivi-1). Collectively, the present study provides evidence that cordycepin exerts neuroprotective effects partially through preventing neural NLRP3 inflammasome activation induced by Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fragmentation in rotenone-injected PD models.

Deletion of Microfibrillar-Associated Protein 4 Attenuates Left Ventricular Remodeling and Dysfunction in Heart Failure

Background

Cardiac remodeling predisposes individuals to heart failure if the burden is not solved, and heart failure is a growing cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The cardiac extracellular matrix not only provides structural support, but also is a core aspect of the myocardial response to various biomechanical stresses and heart failure. MFAP4 (microfibrillar‐associated protein 4) is an integrin ligand located in the extracellular matrix, whose biological functions in the heart remain poorly understood. In the current study we aimed to test the role of MFAP4 in cardiac remodeling.

Methods and Results

MFAP4‐deficient (MFAP4^−/−) and wild‐type mice were subjected to aortic banding surgery and isoproterenol to establish models of cardiac remodeling. We also evaluated the functional effects of MFAP4 on cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and cardiac electrical remodeling. The expression of MFAP4 was increased in the animal cardiac remodeling models induced by pressure overload and isoproterenol. After challenge of 8 weeks of aortic banding or 2 weeks of intraperitoneal isoproterenol, MFAP4^−/− mice exhibited lower levels of cardiac fibrosis and fewer ventricular arrhythmias than wild‐type mice. However, there was no significant effect on cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. In addition, there was no significant difference in cardiac fibrosis severity, hypertrophy, or ventricular arrhythmia incidence between wild‐type‐sham and knockout‐sham mice.

Conclusions

These findings are the first to demonstrate that MFAP4 deficiency inhibits cardiac fibrosis and ventricular arrhythmias after challenge with 8 weeks of aortic banding or 2 weeks of intraperitoneal isoproterenol but does not significantly affect the hypertrophy response. In addition, MFAP4 deficiency had no significant effect on cardiac fibrosis, hypertrophy, or ventricular arrhythmia in the sham group in this study.

Cordycepin ameliorates cardiac hypertrophy via activating the AMPKα pathway

Increase of myocardial oxidative stress is closely related to the occurrence and development of cardiac hypertrophy. Cordycepin, also known as 3'-deoxyadenosine, is a natural bioactive substance extracted from Cordyceps militaris (which is widely cultivated for commercial use in functional foods and medicine). Since cordycepin suppresses oxidative stress both in vitro and in vivo, we hypothesized that cordycepin would inhibit cardiac hypertrophy by blocking oxidative stress-dependent related signalling. In our study, a mouse model of cardiac hypertrophy was induced by aortic banding (AB) surgery. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with cordycepin (20 mg/kg/d) or the same volume of vehicle 3 days after-surgery for 4 weeks. Our data demonstrated that cordycepin prevented cardiac hypertrophy induced by AB, as assessed by haemodynamic parameters analysis and echocardiographic, histological and molecular analyses. Oxidative stress was estimated by detecting superoxide generation, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and malondialdehyde levels, and by detecting the protein levels of gp91^phox and SOD. Mechanistically, we found that cordycepin activated activated protein kinase α (AMPKα) signalling and attenuated oxidative stress both in vivo in cordycepin-treated mice and in vitro in cordycepin treated cardiomyocytes. Taken together, the results suggest that cordycepin protects against post-AB cardiac hypertrophy through activation of the AMPKα pathway, which subsequently attenuates oxidative stress.