miR-148a suppresses inflammation in lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis

The bta-miR-22-3p can alleviate LPS-induced inflammatory response in yak endometrial epithelial cells by targeting KSR2

Bovine endometritis is a common reproductive system disease in dairy cows that leads to decreased milk production and reproductive performance, causing significant economic losses for farmers. Research has shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) play a significant role in regulating the expression of biological genes and are closely related to the occurrence of inflammation, including bta-miR-22-3p. However, the specific molecular mechanisms by which miRNAs regulate bovine endometritis remain unclear. To investigate the regulatory mechanism of bta-miR-22-3p in yak endometritis, uterine tissues were collected from three healthy bos grunniens and three bos grunniens with endometritis, approximately 21 days postpartum. Various methods were employed, including real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), Western blot (WB), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immunofluorescence (IF). The results demonstrated that overexpression of bta-miR-22-3p led to a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in factors related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and associated inflammatory factors, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (P38), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Furthermore, dual-luciferase assays confirmed that the kinase suppressor of the Ras 2 (KSR2) gene is a downstream target of bta-miR-22-3p. Overexpression of bta-miR-22-3p inhibited the expression of KSR2. When KSR2 was inhibited, the levels of MAPK signaling pathway-related factors and inflammation also significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Thus, bta-miR-22-3p suppresses the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway through the inhibition of KSR2, resulting in a reduction of inflammatory factors. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that bta-miR-22-3p targets the KSR2 gene to alleviate LPS (Lipopolysaccharide)-induced inflammatory damage.

Application of lipopolysaccharide in establishing inflammatory models

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a unique component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, possesses immune-activating properties. It induces an immune response by stimulating host cells to produce a lot of inflammatory cytokines with a thermogenic effect, which may cause an inflammatory response. In the past few decades, the structure and function of LPS and its mechanism leading to inflammation have been extensively analyzed. Since LPS can cause inflammation, it is often used to establish inflammation models. These models are crucial in the study of inflammatory diseases that pose a serious threat to human health. In addition, the non-pro-inflammatory effects of LPS under certain circumstances are also being studied widely. This review summarizes the methods by which LPS has been used to establish inflammatory models at the cellular and animal levels to study related diseases. It also introduces in detail the evaluation indicators necessary for the successful establishment of these models, providing a reference for future research.

miR-331-depleted exosomes derived from injured endometrial epithelial cells promote macrophage activation during endometritis

Exosomes are natural carriers of biological macromolecules that are involved in the pathogenesis of a wide variety of inflammatory diseases. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of exosomes derived from injured endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) in the development of endometritis. We isolated exosomes derived from LPS-injured EECs and identified these exosomes as proinflammatory mediators that can be internalized by macrophages and thus induce proinflammatory macrophage activation. We further found that miR-331 expression was sharply downregulated in exosomes derived from LPS-injured EECs and that macrophages treated with these exosomes also presented a lower level of miR-331. Importantly, the pathogenic role of exosomal miR-331 in promoting endometrial inflammation was revealed by the ability of adoptively transferred EECs-derived exosomes to cause macrophage activation, and this was reversed by miR-331 overexpression. Mechanistically, overexpression of miR-331 in macrophages mitigated NF-κB p65 phosphorylation by inhibiting the Notch1/IKKα pathway, which in turn curbed macrophage activation. In vivo assays further unveiled that miR-331 expression is negatively correlated with proinflammatory macrophage activation and that miR-331 upregulation markedly slowed disease progression in mice with endometritis. The exosome/miR-331/Notch1 axis plays a critical pathological role in endometrial inflammation, representing a new therapeutic target for endometritis.

Potential mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for LPS-associated female fertility decline

As a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can be recognized by toll-like receptors (TLRs) and induce inflammation through MyD88 or the TIR domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) pathway. Previous studies have found that LPS-associated inflammatory/immune challenges were associated with ovarian dysfunction and reduced female fertility. However, the etiology and pathogenesis of female fertility decline associated with LPS are currently complex and multifaceted. In this review, PubMed was used to search for references on LPS and fertility decline so as to elucidate the potential mechanisms of LPS-associated female fertility decline and summarize therapeutic strategies that may improve LPS-associated fertility decline.

Sheep (Ovis aries) Milk Exosomal miRNAs Attenuate Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice via TLR4 and TRAF-1 Inhibition

Mammalian milk exosomal miRNAs play an important role in maintaining intestinal immune homeostasis and protecting epithelial barrier function, but the specific miRNAs and whether miRNA-mediated mechanisms are responsible for these benefits remain a matter of investigation. This study isolated sheep milk-derived exosomes (sheep MDEs), identifying the enriched miRNAs in sheep MDEs, oar-miR-148a, and oar-let-7b as key components targeting TLR4 and TRAF1, which was validated by a dual-luciferase reporter assay. In dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis mice, administration of sheep MDEs alleviated colitis symptoms, reduced colonic inflammation, and systemic oxidative stress, as well as significantly increased colonic oar-miR-148a and oar-let-7b while reducing toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and TNF-receptor-associated factor 1 (TRAF1) level. Further characterization in TNF-α-challenged Caco-2 cells showed that overexpression of these miRNAs suppressed the TLR4/TRAF1-IκBα-p65 pathway and reduced IL-6 and IL-12 production. These findings indicate that sheep MDEs exert gastrointestinal anti-inflammatory effects through the miRNA-mediated modulation of TLR4 and TRAF1, highlighting their potential in managing colitis.

Up-regulation of inflammatory, oxidative stress, and apoptotic mediators via inflammatory, oxidative stress, and apoptosis-associated pathways in bovine endometritis

Endometritis is the inflammation of the endothelial lining of the uterine lumen and is multifactorial in etiology. Escherichia (E.) coli is a Gram-negative bacteria, generally considered as a primary causative agent for bovine endometritis. Bovine endometritis is characterized by the activation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) by E. coli, which in turn triggers inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. The objective of this study was to investigate the gene expression of inflammatory, oxidative stress, and apoptotic markers related to endometritis in the uteri of cows. Twenty uterine tissues were collected from the abattoir. Histologically, congestion, edema, hyperemia, and hemorrhagic lesions with massive infiltration of neutrophil and cell necrosis were detected markedly (P < 0.05) in infected uterine samples. Additionally, we identify E. coli using the ybbW gene (177 base pairs; E. coli-specific gene) from infected uterine samples. Moreover, qPCR and western blot results indicated that TLR2, TLR4, proinflammatory mediators, and apoptosis-mediated genes upregulated except Bcl-2, which is antiapoptotic, and there were downregulations of oxidative stress-related genes in the infected uterine tissue. The results of our study suggested that different gene expression regimes related to the immune system reflex were activated in infected uteri. This research gives a novel understanding of active immunological response in bovine endometritis.

Rosiglitazone alleviates LPS-induced endometritis via suppression of TLR4-mediated NF-κB activation

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of Rosiglitazone (RGZ) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced Endometritis and explore its possible mechanism.

METHODS

The preventive and therapeutic effects of RGZ on Endometritis were studied in vivo and in vitro. A total of 40 female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the following 4 groups: RGZ+LPS, RGZ control, LPS and DMSO control. The mice uterine tissue sections were performed with HE and immunohistochemical staining. Human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs) were cultured, and different concentrations of LPS stimulation groups and RGZ and/or a TLR4 signaling inhibitor TAK-242 pretreatment +LPS groups were established to further elucidate the underlying mechanisms of this protective effect of RGZ.

RESULTS

The HE results in mice showed that RGZ+LPS group had less tissue loss than LPS group. Immunohistochemical staining (IHC) results showed that the expression of TLR4 after RGZ treatment was significantly lower than that in LPS group. These findings suggested that RGZ effectively improves the pathological changes associated with LPS-induced endometritis by inhibiting TLR4. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis demonstrated that RGZ pretreatment suppresses the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and its downstream activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). In vitro, RGZ inhibited LPS-stimulated expression of proinflammatory cytokines in a dose-dependent manner and also downregulated LPS induced toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression and inhibited phosphorylation of LPS-induced nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) P65 protein.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that RGZ may inhibit LPS-induced endometritis through the TLR4-mediated NF-κB pathway.

Targeting inflammation for the treatment of endometritis in bovines

The uterine endometrial surface of bovines is in constant exposureconstantly exposed with to a multitude ofmany microbial populations that changes throughout the post-partum phase in terms of complexity and dynamics. These microbes contribute to the host pathology, leading to severe economic losses along withnd reproductive capabilities. The basic primary interface that occurs between the internal tissues of the body of the hostbetween the host body's internal tissues and the microbes is the endometrial surface of the uterus. As a result of the infinite pathogenic population, there is always a danger for the opportunistic organisms to attack. Therefore, it is paramount that any interactions, especially microbial microbes with the endometrial surface, are regulated by the host cells. However, the inflammatory response as the defense mechanism contributes a pivotal roleis pivotal in host immunity and pathology. The inflammatory cascade and pathways are important essential to eliminate this clinical problem. In this review, we will discuss and explain how the inflammation and the various components of the immune system play their role in host pathology and therapeutic strategies, taking into account the interface between the host and the microbes on the surface of the endometrium. This review is also instrumental in further explanation of inflammatory uterine disease by discussing the response of inflammation to external insult.

Unveiling the protective effects of BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p exosomes on LPS-induced endometrial injury

Researchers have reported that miR-124-3p is highly expressed in patients with chronic endometritis. However, the underlying mechanism of miR-124-3p in the development of endometritis remains unclear. This study constructed an in vitro endometrial cell injury model by treating HEECs with 2 μg/mL LPS for 48 h. Then, 1 mg/kg LPS was injected into both sides of the mouse uterus to construct an in vivo endometrial injury model. The expression of miR-124-3p in human endometrial epithelial cells (HEECs) was assessed using RT‒qPCR. Exosomes were separated from bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and cocultured with HEECs. A dual-luciferase reporter assay was performed to confirm the relationship between miR-124-3p and DUSP6. The results indicated that LPS inhibited HEEC viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The miR-124-3p inhibitor reversed the LPS-induced apoptosis and inhibition of HEEC viability. In addition, miR-124-3p could be transferred from BMSCs to HEECs by exosomes. Exosomes were derived from BMSCs treated with an NC inhibitor (BMSCs/NC Exo) or miR-124-3p inhibitor (BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo). In addition, BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo abolished the LPS-induced inhibition of HEEC viability and proliferation by inducing HEEC apoptosis. Moreover, BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo alleviated the LPS-induced inflammation of HEECs by upregulating DUSP6 and downregulating p-p65 and p-ERK. Furthermore, in an LPS-induced in vivo endometrial injury model, BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo increased the expression level of DUSP6 and decreased the expression levels of p-p65 and p-ERK. BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo protected against LPS-induced endometrial damage in vitro and in vivo by upregulating DUSP6 and downregulating p-p65 and p-ERK1/2. This study showed that BMSCs/anti-miR-124-3p Exo might be a potential alternative for the treatment of endometritis.

Enhanced expression of miR-204 attenuates LPS stimulated inflammatory injury through inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin pathway via targeting CCND2

One of the most common bacterial diseases of the reproductive system in dairy cows is endometritis, which will cause huge economic loss. Here, we investigate the mechanisms of miR-204 on LPS-stimulated endometritis in vitro and in vivo. Experiments displayed that the expression of miR-204 was lower in bovine uterine tissue samples or bovine endometrial epithelial cell line (BEND) that stimulated by LPS. Compared with the negative group, miR-204 treatment significantly suppressed the production of proinflammatory factors and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation. Additionally, the result of the dual luciferase assay showed that miR-204 targeted cyclin D2. More importantly, up-regulation of miR-204 alleviated LPS induced uterine injury was confirmed in vivo studies. Molecular experiments indicated that the expression level of tight junctional proteins Claudin3 and cadherin1 were both enchanced by miR-204 treatment. Accordingly, miR-204 may serve as a new measure to prevent and treat endometritis caused by LPS.

Interferon-tau protects bovine endometrial epithelial cells against inflammatory injury by regulating the PI3K/AKT/β-catenin/FoxO1 signaling axis

Endometritis is one of the most common causes of infertility in dairy cows, and is histopathologically characterized by inflammation and damage of endometrial epithelium. Interferon-tau (IFN-τ) is a novel type I interferon secreted by ruminant trophoblast cells with low cytotoxicity even at high doses. Previous studies suggested that IFN-τ plays an important role in inflammation. However, the mechanisms whereby IFN-τ may modulate the inflammatory responses in the bovine endometrium are unknown. In the present study, primary bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEEC) isolated from fresh and healthy uterine horns were used for in vitro studies. The integrity of BEEC was assessed by immunofluorescence staining for cytokeratin 18 (CK-18, a known epithelial marker). For the experiments, BEEC were stimulated with different concentrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 0-20 µg/mL) for different times (0-24 h). Cell viability and apoptosis were assessed via CCK-8 and flow cytometry. In a preliminary study, we observed that compared with the control group without LPS, 10 µg/mL of LPS stimulation for 24 h induced apoptosis. In a subsequent study, 20 or 40 ng/mL of IFN-τ alleviated LPS-induced apoptosis. Relative to the LPS group, western blotting further revealed that IFN-τ inhibited the protein abundance of TLR4 and phosphorylated (p-) p65 (p-p65) and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, suggesting that IFN-τ can protect BEEC against inflammatory injury. Furthermore, the protein abundance of p-phosphoinositide 3-kinase (p-PI3K), p-protein kinase B (p-AKT), p-glycogen synthase kinase-3β (p-GSK3β), β-catenin, and p-forkhead box O1 (p-FoxO1) was lower in the LPS group, whereas IFN-τ upregulated their abundance. The use of LY294002, a specific inhibitor of PI3K/AKT, attenuated the upregulation of p-PI3K, p-AKT p-GSK3β, β-catenin, and p-FoxO1 induced by IFN-τ, and also blocked the downregulation of TLR4, p-p65, and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. This suggested that the inhibition of TLR4 signaling by IFN-τ was mediated by the PI3K/AKT pathway. Furthermore, compared with the LPS group, the β-catenin agonist SB216763 led to greater p-FoxO1 and lower p-p65 and cell apoptosis. In contrast, knockdown of β-catenin using small interfering RNA had the opposite effects. To explore the role of FoxO1 on the inhibition of TLR4 by IFN-τ, we employed LY294002 to inhibit the PI3K/AKT while FoxO1 was knocked down. Results revealed that the knockdown of FoxO1 blocked the upregulation of TLR4 and p-p65 induced by LY294002, and enhanced the inhibition of IFN-τ on TLR4, p-p65, and cell apoptosis. Overall, these findings confirmed that IFN-τ can protect endometrial epithelial cells against inflammatory injury via suppressing TLR4 activation through the regulation of the PI3K/AKT/β-catenin/FoxO1 axis. These represent new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory function of IFN-τ in BEEC, and also provide a theoretical basis for further studies on the in vivo application of IFN-τ to help prevent negative effects of endometritis.

Characterization of circulating microRNA profiles of postpartum dairy cows with persistent subclinical endometritis

Subclinical endometritis (SCE) is an unresolved inflammation of the endometrium of postpartum dairy cows, seriously affecting fertility. Current diagnosis, which relies on uterine cytology or even more invasive biopsy sampling, would benefit from the identification of blood-based diagnostic biomarkers. Due to the known role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in other diseases, this case-control study evaluated the cell-free circulating miRNA profiles of SCE cows, and the network of transcripts predicted to interact with those miRNAs, previously identified as differentially expressed genes (DEG) in the endometrium of the same cows. Healthy (H, n = 6) and persistent SCE (n = 11) cows characterized by endometrial cytology and biopsy were blood sampled at 21 and 44 d postpartum (DPP). Following extraction of cell-free plasma miRNAs and RNA-seq analysis, differential abundance analysis of miRNAs was performed with the DESeq2 R package (adjusted p-value of 0.05), and in silico prediction of miRNA-interacting genes on a sequence complementary basis was conducted using the miRWalk database. The principal component analysis showed a clear clustering between groups of uterine health phenotypes (H vs. SCE), although the clustering between groups was less pronounced at 44 DPP than at 21 DPP. No effect of the stage (21 vs. 44 DPP) was observed. A total of 799 known circulating miRNAs were identified, from which 34 demonstrated differential abundance between H and SCE cows (12 less abundant and 22 more abundant in SCE than in H cows). These 34 miRNAs are predicted to interact with 10,104 transcripts, among which 43, 81, and 147 were previously identified as differentially expressed in, respectively, endometrial luminal epithelial, glandular epithelial, and stromal cells of the same cows. This accounts for approximately half of the DEG identified between those H and SCE cows, including genes involved in endometrial cell proliferation, angiogenesis and immune response, whose dysregulation in SCE cows may impair pregnancy establishment. From 219 miRNAs with mean normalized read counts above 100, the presence and abundance of miR-425-3p and miR-2285z had the highest discriminatory level to differentiate SCE from H cows. In conclusion, despite apparent confinement to the endometrium, SCE is associated with a distinct circulating miRNA profile, which may represent a link between the systemic changes associated with disease and the endometrial immune response. The validation of a miRNA panel consisting of circulating cell-free miR-425-3p and miR-2285z may prove a relevant advancement for the noninvasive diagnosis of persistent SCE.

TNFAIP3 interacting protein 2 relieves lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory injury in endometritis by inhibiting NF-kappaB activation

BACKGROUND

Endometritis seriously affects the health of women, and it is important to identify new targets for its treatment.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the role of TNFAIP3 interacting protein 2 (TNIP2) in endometritis through human endometrial epithelial cells (hEECs) stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

METHODS

hEECs were induced with LPS to build a cellular model of endometritis. Cell growth and apoptosis were detected by cell counting kit-8 and flow cytometry. The TNIP2 mRNA and protein levels were measured using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot analysis, respectively. The caspase3 activity was calculated using a Caspase3 activity kit. Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were determined by enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay. The reactive oxygen species (ROS), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were determined using the corresponding kits. Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) pathway was determined by western blot assay.

RESULTS

TNIP2 was downregulated in the LPS-induced endometritis cell model. Cell viability was reduced, apoptosis was enhanced, and IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels increased in LPS-induced hEECs. Additionally, LDH activity and ROS concentration were upregulated, whereas CAT and SOD activities were downregulated in LPS-induced hEECs. These results were reversed by TNIP2 overexpression. Moreover, the results hinted that NF-κB was involved in the effects of TNIP2 on the LPS-induced endometritis cell model.

CONCLUSION

TNIP2 alleviated endometritis by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway, suggesting a potential therapeutic target for endometritis.

Plasma microRNAs as non-invasive biomarkers in bovine endometritis caused by Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria

The purpose was to identify differentially expressed plasma microRNAs (miRNAs) in cows with clinical and subclinical endometritis. In this study clinical endometritis (CE; n = 23) based on vaginal discharge score (VDS), subclinical endometritis (SCE; n = 17) based on VDS (0), and endometrial cytology (the presence of 8.00% polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) on days 21-31 and 5.00% on days 41-51 days in milk (DIM) and healthy cows (n = 21) based on vaginal discharge score (0), and endometrial cytology (< 5.00% PMN on days 21 - 31 and < 5.00% on days 41 - 51 DIM) were selected. The results showed that the expression level of miR-146a was significantly higher in the CE (19.17-fold), and SCE (6.22-fold) groups than those of healthy cows. The relative transcript abundance of miR-223 was considerably down-regulated in the CE (0.26-fold) and SCE (0.06-fold) compared to the healthy cows. The expression levels of miR-146a and miR-223 were significantly higher in the CE group which could be caused by Gram-negative bacterial infection. Our results showed that the expression level of plasma miRNAs postpartum could be used as a reliable marker to distinguish between SCE, CE and healthy cows.

miRNA, lncRNA and circRNA: targeted molecules with therapeutic promises in Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) is primarily recognized as a respiratory pathogen that causes community-acquired pneumonia, which can lead to acute upper and lower airway inflammation and extrapulmonary syndrome. Refractory pneumonia caused by MP can cause severe complications and even be life-threatening, particularly in infants and the elderly. It is well-known that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) represented by miRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs have been manifested to be widely involved in the regulation of gene expression. Growing evidence indicates that these ncRNAs have distinct differentiated expression in MP infection and affect multiple biological processes, playing an indispensable role in the initiation and promotion of MP infection. However, the epigenetic mechanisms involved in the development of MP infection remain unclear. This article reviews the mechanisms by which miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs mediate MP infection, such as inflammatory responses, apoptosis and pulmonary fibrosis. Focusing on miRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs associated with MP infection could provide new insights into this disease's early diagnosis and therapeutic approaches.

The biological functions of maternal-derived extracellular vesicles during pregnancy and lactation and its impact on offspring health

During pregnancy and lactation, mothers provide not only nutrients, but also many bioactive components for their offspring through placenta and breast milk, which are essential for offspring development. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanovesicles containing a variety of biologically active molecules and participate in the intercellular communication. In the past decade, an increasing number of studies have reported that maternal-derived EVs play a crucial role in offspring growth, development, and immune system establishment. Hereby, we summarized the characteristics of EVs; biological functions of maternal-derived EVs during pregnancy, including implantation, decidualization, placentation, embryo development and birth of offspring; biological function of breast milk-derived EVs (BMEs) on infant oral and intestinal diseases, immune system, neurodevelopment, and metabolism. In summary, emerging studies have revealed that maternal-derived EVs play a pivotal role in offspring health. As such, maternal-derived EVs may be used as promising biomarkers in offspring disease diagnosis and treatment. However, existing research on maternal-derived EVs and offspring health is largely limited to animal and cellular studies. Evidence from human studies is needed.

The role of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their therapeutic applications in endometrial cancer

Endometrial cancer (EC) is developed nations' most prevalent form of gynecologic cancer. Patients are frequently diagnosed with EC when the tumor is still limited to the uterus. Patients without tumor metastasis have a 5-year survival rate ranging from 80 to 90%; however, almost 16.8% of EC patients develop a metastatic form of the tumor. In the early stages of tumorigenesis, the immune system is able to identify aberrant cells as non-self, therefore providing the optimal pro-inflammatory microenvironment for the elimination of cancer cells. Although, chronic inflammation can be a crucial aspect of tumor development. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), as the main pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in innate immunity, may stimulate an inflammatory response and provide cell survival in the tumor microenvironment (TME). TLRs are vital immunomodulators that may significantly impact the development of gynecologic malignancies. Therefore, TLR inhibitors are being researched for their possible benefits in treating gynecologic cancers. The aim of this study is to review the current knowledge in this field and provide some insight into the therapeutic potential of TLR inhibitors in EC.

miR-148a regulation interferes in inflammatory cytokine and parasitic load in canine leishmaniasis

Canine leishmaniasis (CanL) is a severe public health threat. Infected animals mediate transmission of the Leishmania protozoan to humans via the sandfly's bite during a blood meal. CanL progression depends on the degree of suppression of the immune response, possibly associated with microRNAs (miR), which can modulate mRNA translation into proteins and (consequently) regulate cell function. Increased miR-148a in splenic leukocytes (SL) of dogs with CanL was observed in previous studies, and in silico analysis, identified possible pathways involved in immune response regulation that are affected by this miR. Therefore, we evaluated the involvement of miR-148a in the regulation of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12, IL-1β, iNOS, MHCII, CD80, CD3, T-bet, and GATA-3 transcription factors and their relationship with parasite load in SL of dogs with CanL. Splenic leukocytes obtained from healthy and diseased dogs were transfected with miR-148a mimic and inhibitor oligonucleotides. After 48 hours, expression levels of MHCII, CD80, iNOS, CD3, T-bet, and GATA-3 were evaluated by flow cytometry, and concentrations of TNF-α, IL-12, IL-6, and IL-1β were measured in culture supernatants by capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Transfection of SL with miR-148a mimics decreased iNOS levels in cells and TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12 in the supernatants of cultured SL from CanL dogs. Interestingly, transfection with miR-148a inhibitor decreased parasite load in SL cells. These results suggest a direct or not regulatory role of this miR in the immune response to Leishmania infantum infection. We conclude that miR-148a can modulate immune responses by regulating inflammatory cytokines during CanL. Our results contribute to understanding the complex host/parasite interaction in CanL and could assist the development of treatments.

Protective Effect of Clostridium butyricum on Escherichia coli-Induced Endometritis in Mice via Ameliorating Endometrial Barrier and Inhibiting Inflammatory Response

Endometritis is a common reproductive disease occurs both in human and animals. Clostridium butyricum is a Gram-positive anaerobic bacterium that can ferment various carbohydrates into butyric acid. In this study, we investigated the effects of C. butyricum on Escherichia coli-induced endometritis and clarified the underlying mechanism. We first verified the protective effect of C. butyricum in vivo by establishing a mouse model of E. coli-induced endometritis. It was determined that C. butyricum pretreatment significantly reversed E. coli-induced uterine histopathological changes. Meanwhile, C. butyricum pretreatment significantly decreased the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and the levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and malondialdehyde (MDA). We found that C. butyricum could inhibit TLR4-mediated phosphorylation of NF-κB and the activity of histone deacetylase (HDAC). Furthermore, C. butyricum significantly increased the expression of the tight junction proteins (TJPs) ZO-1, claudin-3, and occludin. Additionally, treatment with C. butyricum culture supernatant dramatically suppressed the degree of inflammation in the uterus, and inactivated C. butyricum did not exert a protective effect. We subsequently investigated butyrate levels in both the uterus and blood and observed a marked augment in the C. butyricum treatment group. Collectively, our data suggest that C. butyricum maintains epithelial barrier function and suppresses inflammatory response during E. coli-induced endometritis and that the protective effect of C. butyricum may be related to the production of butyrate. IMPORTANCE Endometritis is a common reproductive disease both in human and animals. It impairs female fertility by disrupting endometrial function. Antibiotics are widely used to treat endometritis in clinical practice, but the misuse of antibiotics often leads to antibiotic resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new therapeutic agents to treat bacterial endometritis and overcome bacterial resistance. In this study, we found that C. butyricum could protect from E. coli-induced endometritis.

Dynamic regulation of the transcriptome and proteome of the equine embryo during maternal recognition of pregnancy

During initial maternal recognition of pregnancy (MRP), the equine embryo displays a series of unique events characterized by rapid blastocyst expansion, secretion of a diverse array of molecules, and transuterine migration to interact with the uterine surface. Up to date, the intricate transcriptome and proteome changes of the embryo underlying these events have not been critically studied in horses. Thus, the objective of this study was to perform an integrative transcriptomic (including mRNA, miRNAs, and other small non-coding RNAs) and proteomic analysis of embryos collected from days 10 to 13 of gestation. The results revealed dynamic transcriptome profiles with a total of 1311 differentially expressed genes, including 18 microRNAs (miRNAs). Two main profiles for mRNAs and miRNAs were identified, one with higher expression in embryos ≤5 mm and the second with higher expression in embryos ≥7 mm. At the protein level, similar results were obtained, with 259 differentially abundant proteins between small and large embryos. Overall, the findings demonstrated fine-tuned transcriptomic and proteomic regulations in the developing embryo associated with embryo growth. The identification of specific regulation of mRNAs, proteins, and miRNAs on days 12 and 13 of gestation suggested these molecules as pivotal for embryo development and as involved in MRP, and in establishment of pregnancy in general. In addition, the results revealed new insights into prostaglandin synthesis by the equine embryo, miRNAs and genes potentially involved in modulation of the maternal immune response, regulation of endometrial receptivity and of late implantation in the mare.

Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Model of Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms of Action, Research Application and Future Directions for Its Use

Despite advances in antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapies, inflammation and its consequences still remain a significant problem in medicine. Acute inflammatory responses are responsible for directly life-threating conditions such as septic shock; on the other hand, chronic inflammation can cause degeneration of body tissues leading to severe impairment of their function. Neuroinflammation is defined as an inflammatory response in the central nervous system involving microglia, astrocytes, and cytokines including chemokines. It is considered an important cause of neurodegerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a strong immunogenic particle present in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It is a major triggering factor for the inflammatory cascade in response to a Gram-negative bacteria infection. The use of LPS as a strong pro-inflammatory agent is a well-known model of inflammation applied in both in vivo and in vitro studies. This review offers a summary of the pathogenesis associated with LPS exposure, especially in the field of neuroinflammation. Moreover, we analyzed different in vivo LPS models utilized in the area of neuroscience. This paper presents recent knowledge and is focused on new insights in the LPS experimental model.

microRNA-148a in Exosomes Derived from Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Alleviates Cardiomyocyte Apoptosis in Atrial Fibrillation by Inhibiting SMOC2

Exosomes-related microRNAs (miRNAs) have been considered to be the significant biomarkers contributing to the development of atrial fibrillation (AF). We observed the implicit mechanism of exosomes-miR-148a derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in AF. The AF cell and mice models were established firstly. QRT-PCR and Western blot analysis were applied to detect the expression of miR-148a, SPARC-associated modular calcium-binding protein 2 (SMOC2), Bcl-2, Bax, and caspase-3. BMSCs were separated from healthy mice and exosomes were obtained from BMSCs. BMSCs were transfected with mimics and inhibitor, and HL-1 cells were treated with mimics and pcDNA3.1. MTT assay were used to detect cell viability of cells. Flow cytometric analysis and TUNEL analysis were used for detecting cell apoptosis of cells. In our study, exosomes derived from BMSCs inhibited the development of AF, and miR-148a acted a vital role in this segment. SMOC2 was a target gene of miR-148a and promoted apoptosis of HL-1 cells. Additionally, miR-148a mimics decreased cellular apoptosis, eliminated SMOC2 expression, and elevated Bcl-2 expression in AF-treated cells. Collectively, miR-148a overexpressed in BMSC-exosomes restrained cardiomyocytes apoptosis by inhibiting SMOC2.

MicroRNA miR-24-3p Mediates the Negative Regulation of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endometrial Inflammatory Response by Targeting TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 6 (TRAF6)

Purpose

Endometritis is a female reproductive disease that affects the cattle industries development and microRNAs (miRNAs) play a pivotal role and critical regulators of the innate immune response in varieties of diseases. The present study intends to investigate the regulatory role of miR‐24-3p in the innate immune response involved in endometritis and evaluate its therapeutic potential.

Methods

Whole mice uteri and bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs) were separately stimulated with LPS. The BEECs were also transfected with miR-24-3p mimic and negative control; siTRAF6 and siNC; pcDNA3.1 empty and pcDNA3.1(+)TRAF6 separately with LPS stimulation. The expression levels of miR‐24-3p and TRAF6 were measured via quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot, respectively. LPS‐induced inflammatory response assessed by inflammatory cytokines secretion and expression via ELISA and qRT-PCR. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay validated the interaction between miR‐24-3p and TRAF6. The activation of the NF‐ĸB/MAPK pathway and p65 phosphorylation was investigated by Western blot and immunofluorescence assay, respectively.

Results

The expression of miR‐24-3p was decreased, and TRAF6 was elevated with an increased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS‐treated BEECs and mice uterus. The overexpression of miR‐24-3p suppressed LPS‐induced secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL‐1β, IL‐6, IL-8 and TNF-α) and deactivation of NF‐ĸB/MAPK pathways. The downregulation of TRAF6 inhibited LPS‐induced inflammatory response in BEECs. TRAF6 is validated as a target of miR‐24-3p, and miR‐24-3p reversed the overexpression of cloned TRAF6 on inflammation response in BEECs.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrate that the overexpression of miR‐24-3p attenuates endometrial inflammation and the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators via suppressing TRAF6. Therefore, modulating the pathogenesis of endometritis and possibly, a therapeutic potential against endometritis.

Therapeutic Role of miR-30a in Lipoteichoic Acid-Induced Endometritis via Targeting the MyD88/Nox2/ROS Signaling

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a notorious pathogenic bacterium prevalent in the environment, causes a wide range of inflammatory diseases such as endometritis. Endometritis is an inflammatory disease in humans and mammals, which prolongs uterine involution and causes great economic losses. MiR-30a plays an importan trole in the process of inflammation; however, the regulatory role of miR-30a in endometritis is still unknown. Here, we first noticed that there was an increased level of miR-30a in uterine samples of cows with endometritis. And then, bovine endometrial epithelial (BEND) cells stimulated with the virulence factor lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from S. aureus were used as an in vitro endometritis model to explore the potential role of miR-30a in the pathogenesis of endometritis. Our data showed that the induction of the miR-30a expression is dependent on NF-κB activation, and its overexpression significantly decreased the levels of IL-1β and IL-6. Furthermore, we observed that the overexpression of miR-30a inhibited its translation by binding to 3′−UTR of MyD88 mRNA, thus preventing the activation of Nox2 and NF-κB and ROS accumulation. Meanwhile, in vivo studies further revealed that upregulation of miR-30a using chemically synthesized agomirs alleviates the inflammatory conditions in an experimental mouse model of endometritis, as indicated by inhibition of ROS and NF-κB. Taken together, these findings highlight that miR-30a can attenuate LTA-elicited oxidative stress and inflammatory responses through the MyD88/Nox2/ROS/NF-κB pathway and may aid the future development of novel therapies for inflammatory diseases caused by S. aureus, including endometritis.

miR-424-5p overexpression inhibits LPS-stimulated inflammatory response in bovine endometrial epithelial cells by targeting IRAK2

Endometritis is inflammation of endometrium due to various factors and is a common cause of infertility. Several remedies used for endometritis like antibiotics, hormones, and herbs. Studies confirm that microRNAs play a significant role in various inflammatory diseases. However, the role of miR-424-5p in endometritis is not clear. In our study, histopathology, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and dual-luciferase reporter assay were used to elucidate the effect of miR-424-5p in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed inflammatory response in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs) and clarify the potential mechanism. Our results revealed that miR-424-5p mimics noticeably decrease the production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), while miR-424-5p inhibitors have inverse effects in BEECs. Moreover, overexpression of miR-424-5p on BEECs cells also suppressed NF-κB p65 activation. Afterwards, we verified that miR-424-5p inhibited Interleukin 1 Receptor Associated Kinase 2 (IRAK2) expression by binding to the 3'-UTR of IRAK2 mRNA. Further, co-transfection of miR-424-5p inhibitors and siRNA-IRAK2 revealed that negative regulation of miR-424-5p on LPS-induced inflammatory response in BEECs was mediated by IRAK2.Mutually, miR-424-5p pharmacologic stabilization represents an entirely unique medical aid for cow endometritis and other inflammation-related diseases.

MicroRNA Bta-miR-24-3p Suppressed Galectin-9 Expression through TLR4/NF-ĸB Signaling Pathway in LPS-Stimulated Bovine Endometrial Epithelial Cells

Endometritis is a major infectious disease affecting dairy development. MicroRNAs are recognized as critical regulators of the innate immune response. However, the role and mechanism of Bta-miR-24-3p in the development of endometritis are still unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Bta-miR-24-3p on the inflammatory response triggered by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and to clarify the possible mechanism. LPS-treated bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs) were cultured to investigate the role of Bta-miR-24-3p. The expression levels of Bta-miR-24-3p were downregulated, and galectin-9 (LGALS9) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The LPS-induced inflammatory response was assessed by the elevated secretion of inflammatory cytokines measured by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and TLR4 pathway was assessed by Western blot. The interaction between Bta-miR-24-3p and LGALS9 was validated by bioinformatics analysis and a luciferase reporter assay. LPS-induction in BEECs with Bta-miR-24-3p was overexpressed leads inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, LGALS9 expression, and TLR4/NF-ĸB pathway deactivation. Knockdown of LGALS9 inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response in BEECs. LGALS9 was validated as a target of Bta-miR-24-3p. Cloned overexpression of LGALS9 failed to alter the effect of Bta-miR-24-3p on the inflammatory response in BEECs. Overall, Bta-miR-24-3p attenuated the LPS-induced inflammatory response via targeting LGALS9. The immunotherapeutic stabilisation of Bta-miR-24-3p could give a therapeutic option for endometritis and other disorders commonly associated with endometritis, suggesting a novel avenue for endometritis treatment.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Mitigates Escherichia coli Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endometritis through TLR4-Mediated NF-κB Pathway

Endometritis is the inflammatory response of the endometrial lining of the uterus and is associated with low conception rates, early embryonic mortality, and prolonged inter-calving intervals, and thus poses huge economic losses to the dairy industry worldwide. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GnRb1) is a natural compound obtained from the roots of Panax ginseng, having several pharmacological and biological properties. However, the anti-inflammatory properties of GnRb1 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged endometritis through the TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway has not yet been researched. This study was planned to evaluate the mechanisms of how GnRb1 rescues LPS-induced endometritis. In the present research, histopathological findings revealed that GnRb1 ameliorated LPS-triggered uterine injury. The ELISA and RT-qPCR assay findings indicated that GnRb1 suppressed the expression level of pro-inflammatory molecules (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and boosted the level of anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine. Furthermore, the molecular study suggested that GnRb1 attenuated TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling. The results demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of GnRb1 in the mouse model of LPS-triggered endometritis via the inhibition of the TLR4-associated NF-κB pathway. Taken together, this study provides a baseline for the protective effect of GnRb1 to treat endometritis in both humans and animals.

Serum small extracellular vesicles promote M1 activation of microglia after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Microglial M1 activation is detrimental to stroke outcomes. Recent studies have shown that circulating small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) can deliver miRNAs to target cells and regulate recipient cell functions. Herein, we tested the hypothesis that miRNA delivery by serum sEVs after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury promote microglial M1 activation, demonstrating that serum sEVs from middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) mice promoted proliferation and M1 activation of BV2 microglia. To explore the underlying mechanism of serum sEVs-mediated microglial activation in the early phase of cerebral I/R injury, we examined the effects of ischemic brain injury on the serum sEVs miRNAs profile in a mouse MCAO model using small RNAseq. Of the 1257 detected miRNA replications, the levels of 72 were significantly modulated. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that a panel of miRNAs was closely associated with inflammation, and in vitro experiments demonstrated that serum sEVs from MCAO mice could effectively transfer inflammatory miRNAs to BV2 microglia. Collectively, our data suggested that miRNAs delivered by serum sEVs after cerebral I/R injury promoted microglial M1 activation. The identification of microglial activation regulators in future studies will give rise to more effective treatments for stroke.

microRNAs in female infertility: An overview

Infertility impacts a considerable number of women worldwide, and it affects different aspects of family life and society. Although female infertility is known as a multifactorial disorder, there are strong genetic and epigenetic bases. Studies revealed that miRNAs play critical roles in initiation and development of female infertility related disorders. Early diagnosis and control of these diseases is an essential key for improving disease prognosis and reducing the possibility of infertility and other side effects. Investigating the possible use of miRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic options is valuable, and it merits attention. Thus, in this article, we reviewed research associated with female diseases and highlighted microRNAs that are related to the polycystic ovary syndrome (up to 30 miRNAs), premature ovarian failure (10 miRNAs), endometriosis (up to 15 miRNAs), uterine fibroids (up to 15 miRNAs), endometrial polyp (3 miRNAs), and pelvic inflammatory (6 miRNAs), which are involved in one or more ovarian or uterine disease-causing processes.

An integrated analysis of mRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs based on weighted gene co-expression network analysis involved in bovine endometritis

In dairy cattle, endometritis is a severe infectious disease that occurs following parturition. It is clear that genetic factors are involved in the etiology of endometritis, however, the molecular pathogenesis of endometritis is not entirely understood. In this study, a system biology approach was used to better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of endometritis. Forty transcriptomic datasets comprising of 20 RNA-Seq (GSE66825) and 20 miRNA-Seq (GSE66826) were obtained from the GEO database. Next, the co-expressed modules were constructed based on RNA-Seq (Rb-modules) and miRNA-Seq (mb-modules) data, separately, using a weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) approach. Preservation analysis was used to find the non-preserved Rb-modules in endometritis samples. Afterward, the non-preserved Rb-modules were assigned to the mb-modules to construct the integrated regulatory networks. Just highly connected genes (hubs) in the networks were considered and functional enrichment analysis was used to identify the biological pathways associated with the development of the disease. Furthermore, additional bioinformatic analysis including protein-protein interactions network and miRNA target prediction were applied to enhance the reliability of the results. Thirty-five Rb-modules and 10 mb-modules were identified and 19 and 10 modules were non-preserved, respectively, which were enriched in biological pathways related to endometritis like inflammation and ciliogenesis. Two non-preserved Rb-modules were significantly assigned to three mb-modules and three and two important sub-networks in the Rb-modules were identified, respectively, including important mRNAs, lncRNAs and miRNAs genes like IRAK1, CASP3, CCDC40, CCDC39, ZMYND10, FOXJ1, TLR4, IL10, STAT3, FN1, AKT1, CD68, ENSBTAG00000049936, ENSBTAG00000050527, ENSBTAG00000051242, ENSBTAG00000049287, bta-miR-449, bta-miR-484, bta-miR-149, bta-miR-30b and bta-miR-423. The potential roles of these genes have been previously demonstrated in endometritis or related pathways, which reinforced putative functions of the suggested integrated regulatory networks in the endometritis pathogenesis. These findings may help further elucidate the underlying mechanisms of bovine endometritis.

MiR-193a-3p targets LGR4 to promote the inflammatory response in endometritis

Solving the reproductive barriers of dairy cows has become one of the most critical factors determining the dairy industry's development. Clinically, inflammation disease like endometritis is the most crucial cause in reducing dairy production's financial viability. MiR-193 family can induce cell apoptosis and differentiation has been reported in various diseases. LGR4 plays a vital role in reproductive system development and immune system regulation, and it is closely related to animal reproductive function and cytokine regulation. In this study, we observed a negative relationship between miR-193a-3p and LGR4 expression level in both inflammatory tissues and cells. The expression level of miR-193a-3p and LGR4 in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BENDs) is regulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation time and dose-dependent. Subsequently, miR-193a-3p mimics and inhibitors were used to explore its functions in the inflammation response process, finding that overexpression of miR-193a-3p markedly increases the expression level of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS, such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, while the group in which transfected inhibitor is on the contrary. Of note, immunofluorescence and western blot results showed that miR-193a-3p enhanced LPS-induced NF-κB p65 phosphorylation through targeting LGR4, whereas inhibiting miR-193a-3p could suppress the activation of NF-κB pathway significantly. In conclusion, our study firstly reported the mechanism by which miR-193a-3p targets LGR4 to elevate the inflammatory response in bovine endometrium injury, thereby implying that knockdown miR-193a-3p may lay the theoretical and practical basis for drug development of alleviating endometritis in dairy cows.

Exosome-Derived MicroRNAs of Human Milk and Their Effects on Infant Health and Development

Multiple biologically active components of human milk support infant growth, health and development. Milk provides a wide spectrum of mammary epithelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MEVs) for the infant. Although the whole spectrum of MEVs appears to be of functional importance for the growing infant, the majority of recent studies report on the MEV subfraction of milk exosomes (MEX) and their miRNA cargo, which are in the focus of this review. MEX and the dominant miRNA-148a play a key role in intestinal maturation, barrier function and suppression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling and may thus be helpful for the prevention and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis. MEX and their miRNAs reach the systemic circulation and may impact epigenetic programming of various organs including the liver, thymus, brain, pancreatic islets, beige, brown and white adipose tissue as well as bones. Translational evidence indicates that MEX and their miRNAs control the expression of global cellular regulators such as DNA methyltransferase 1-which is important for the up-regulation of developmental genes including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, α-synuclein and forkhead box P3-and receptor-interacting protein 140, which is important for the regulation of multiple nuclear receptors. MEX-derived miRNA-148a and miRNA-30b may stimulate the expression of uncoupling protein 1, the key inducer of thermogenesis converting white into beige/brown adipose tissue. MEX have to be considered as signalosomes derived from the maternal lactation genome emitted to promote growth, maturation, immunological and metabolic programming of the offspring. Deeper insights into milk's molecular biology allow the conclusion that infants are both "breast-fed" and "breast-programmed". In this regard, MEX miRNA-deficient artificial formula is not an adequate substitute for breastfeeding, the birthright of all mammals.

Aucubin ameliorates the LPS-induced inflammatory response in bovine endometrial epithelial cells by inhibiting NF-κB and activating the Keap1/Nrf2 signalling pathway

Cows are susceptible to pathogenic bacterial infection after pregnancy, leading to inflammation of the endometrium. Aucubin (AU) has been proven to exhibit highly effective anti-inflammatory activity, but its ability to protect against endometritis in dairy cows remains unclear. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of AU on the LPS-induced inflammatory response of bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs). After pre-treating BEECs with AU (10, 20 and 50 μM) for 6 hr, the cells were stimulated with LPS for 3 hr. Subsequently, BEECs apoptosis was analysed by flow cytometry, the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA was detected by qRT-PCR, and changes in NF-κB and Keap1/Nrf2 signalling were analysed by western blotting and immunofluorescence analyses. The results showed that AU can reduce TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2 and iNOS mRNA expression in BEECs and reduce cell apoptosis. Furthermore, AU significantly reduced the level of NF-κB p65 and IκB phosphorylation and inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. AU also activated the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway, promoting the nuclear transfer of Nrf2 and increasing Keap1, Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1 mRNA and protein levels. Taken together, these results indicate that AU ameliorates the LPS-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting NF-κB and activating the Keap1/Nrf2 signalling pathway, which has a protective effect on BEECs.

MicroRNA: Could It Play a Role in Bovine Endometritis?

Endometritis in dairy cows is a major economic problem worldwide; without advances in lifestyle management and drug treatment, it causes high morbidity and death. Micro ribonucleic acid (miRNAs) these days is seen as an important part of gene control networks. It is a class of small nucleotides 20-25, single-stranded RNA molecules. In endometritis, the inflammatory response caused by the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli) alters the expression of miRNA which can regulate the innate immune system. This manuscript reviews (1) the interaction of miRNAs with the signaling of NF-κB and dysregulation of miRNAs and NF-κB activity in endometritis and (2) the activity of miR-let-7c, miR-148a, and miR-488 in NF-κB activation and their effect on endometritis. Cows with reduced immunity are more vulnerable to transition diseases, such as endometritis. During post-partum, cows undergo stress, metabolic disorders, hormonal imbalance, negative energy balance, and changes in diet. One of the many categories of regulatory molecules, which explain its natural function and pathological impact on NF-κB dysregulation, is important to inform the complexity of the immune system and to develop treatments for endometritis. It shows that miRNAs could have multiple applications in veterinary medicine. Nevertheless, a comprehensive study of is essential which should be aimed at exploring the role of microRNA at physiological level and its effect due to dysfunction and dysregulation.

7-Difluoromethoxy-5,4'-dimethoxy-genistein attenuates macrophages apoptosis to promote plaque stability via TIPE2/TLR4 axis in high fat diet-fed ApoE-/- mice

Promoting plaque stability is of great significance for prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. 7-difluoromethoxy-5,4'-dimethoxygenistein (DFMG) is a novel active compound synthesized using genistein, which exerts anti-atherosclerotic effect. In this study, we evaluated effects of DFMG on plaque stability in ApoE^-/- mice fed with high fat diet (HFD), and explored the molecular mechanism by using ApoE^-/-TLR4^-/- mice and RAW264.7 cells. Here, we found that DFMG significantly reduced plaque areas, macrophages infiltration and apoptosis, and TLR4 expression in HFD-fed ApoE^-/- mice. Meanwhile, DFMG increased collagen fibers, smooth muscle cells and TIPE2 expression in plaques and media. Besides, TLR4 knockout promoted the protective effects of DFMG on plaques. In vitro, DFMG decreased lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)-induced macrophages apoptosis and TLR4, while upregulated TIPE2. Moreover, TIPE2 reduced TLR4, MyD88, p-NF-κB p65^Ser276, cleaved Caspase-3 overproduction, and enhanced effects of DFMG on LPC-induced macrophages. Overall, our study demonstrates that DFMG can promote plaque stability by reducing macrophage apoptosis through TIPE2/TLR4 signaling pathway, which suggests DFMG should be used to develop food additives or drugs for preventing atherosclerosis.

Enforced expression of miR-92b blunts E. coli lipopolysaccharide-mediated inflammatory injury by activating the PI3K/AKT/β-catenin pathway via targeting PTEN

Endometritis is a reproductive disorder characterized by an inflammatory response in the endometrium, which causes significant economic losses to the dairy farming industry. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are implicated in the inflammatory response and immune regulation following infection by pathogenic bacteria. Recent miRNA microarray analysis showed an altered expression of miR-92b in cows with endometritis. In the present study, we set out to investigate the regulatory mechanism of miR-92b in endometritis. Here, qPCR results first validated that miR-92b was down-regulated during endometritis. And then, bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEND cells) stimulated by high concentration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were employed as an in vitro inflammatory injury model. Our data showed that overexpression of miR-92b significantly suppressed the activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor-κB (NF‐κB) in LPS-stimulated BEND cells, thereby reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines release and inhibiting cell apoptosis. Looking into the molecular mechanisms of regulation of inflammatory injury by miR-92b, we observed that overexpression of miR-92b restrained TLR4/NF‐κB by activating the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT)/β-catenin pathway. Furthermore, the luciferase reporter assay suggested that miR-92b targeted inhibition of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), an inhibitor of the PI3K/AKT/β-catenin pathway. Importantly, in vivo experiments confirmed that up-regulation of miR-92b attenuated the pathological injury in an experimental murine model of LPS-induced endometritis. Collectively, these findings show that enforced expression of miR-92b alleviates LPS-induced inflammatory injury by activating the PI3K/AKT/β-catenin pathway via targeting PTEN, suggesting a potential application for miR-92b-based therapy to treat endometritis or other inflammatory diseases.

Analysis of miRNA expression changes in bovine endometrial stromal cells treated with lipopolysaccharide

After parturition, bovine uterine stromal cells are often exposed to complex bacterial and viral stimuli owing to epithelial cell rupture, resulting in an inflammatory response. In this study, we used an in vitro model to study the response of bovine endometrial stromal cells to inflammatory mediators and the associated regulated microRNAs in response to lipopolysaccharide. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a bacterial wall component in gram-negative bacteria that causes inflammation upon immune recognition, which is used to create in vitro inflammation models. Thus, we used high-throughput RNA sequencing to identify miRNAs that may have an anti-inflammatory role in the LPS-induced inflammatory response. Two groups of bovine uterine cells were treated with phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and LPS, respectively. Compared with the control (PBS) group, the LPS-treated group had 219 differentially expressed miRNAs, of which 113 were upregulated, and 106 were downregulated. Gene ontology enrichment analysis revealed that the target genes of differentially expressed miRNAs were significantly enriched in several activities, such as transferase activity, small molecule binding, and protein binding. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis indicated that the target genes of differential miRNAs were significantly enriched in fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, MAPK signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway. By analyzing differentially expressed miRNAs, we found that miR-200c, miR-1247-3p, and let-7b are directly related to the inflammatory response. For instance, miR-200c target genes (MAP3K1, MAP4K3, MAPKAPK5, MAP3K8, MAP3K5) and let-7b target genes (CASP3, IL13, MAPK8, CXCL10) were significantly enriched in the MAPK and IL-17 signaling pathways, respectively. In summary, our research provides insight into the molecular mechanism underlying LPS-induced inflammation in vitro, which may unveil new targets for the treatment of endometritis.

Chlorogenic acid ameliorates mice clinical endometritis by activating Keap1/Nrf2 and inhibiting NFκB signalling pathway

OBJECTIVES

Clinical endometritis is a common reproductive disorder in mammals that seriously endangers animal health and causes economic losses worldwide. This study aims to use lipopolysaccharide and Trueperella pyogenes exotoxin as modelling reagents (LC) to perfuse the mouse uterus in order to establish a model of clinical endometritis and to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of chlorogenic acid (CGA).

METHODS

In this study, five LC uterine perfusions were selected to model clinical endometritis. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of CGA were clarified. Through HE staining, proinflammatory cytokines, blood testing, NFκB and Keap1/Nrf2 signalling pathways and other index changes to explore the protection mechanism of CGA.

KEY FINDINGS

After CGA treatment, the appearance, inflammatory damage and blood indicators of the mouse uterus returned to normal. Simultaneously, CGA could inhibit the activation of NFκB and reduce the release of inflammatory cytokines; CGA could also activate Keap1/Nrf2, promote the dissociation of Keap1 and Nrf2 and significantly increase the expression of the downstream genes HO-1 and NQO1.

CONCLUSIONS

The above results together explain that five LC uterine perfusions can be used to establish a mouse model of clinical endometritis. CGA can treat clinical endometritis by activating Keap1/Nrf2 and inhibiting the NFκB signalling pathway.

LncRNA Neat1 expedites the progression of liver fibrosis in mice through targeting miR-148a-3p and miR-22-3p to upregulate Cyth3

Liver fibrosis is a common response to chronic liver injury, ultimately leading to cirrhosis. The activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) plays a dominant role in liver fibrosis. The regulatory roles of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in multiple human diseases have been observed. This study was dedicated to investigating the regulatory effects of the lncRNA nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (Neat1) on liver fibrosis and HSC activation. Upregulation of Neat1 and cytohesin 3 (Cyth3) and downregulation of miR-148a-3p and miR-22-3p were observed in mouse fibrotic liver tissues. Knockdown of Neat1 or Cyth3 attenuated liver fibrosis and collagen deposition in vivo and the activation of HSCs in vitro. An miR-148a-3p and miR-22-3p inhibitor facilitated HSC activation and collagen fiber expression. Neat1 directly targeted miR-148a-3p and miR-22-3p to modulate Cyth3 expression. Knockdown of Neat1 inhibited Cyth3 expression via the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) mechanism of sponging miR-148a-3p and miR-22-3p to regulate liver fibrosis and HSC activation. The ceRNA regulatory network may promote a better understanding of liver fibrogenesis, contribute to an original agreement of liver fibrosis etiopathogenesis and provide insights into the development of a novel domain of lncRNA-directed therapy against liver fibrosis.

MicroRNA-Mediated Gene Regulatory Mechanisms in Mammalian Female Reproductive Health

Mammalian reproductive health affects the entire reproductive cycle starting with the ovarian function through implantation and fetal growth. Various environmental and physiological factors contribute to disturbed reproductive health status leading to infertility problems in mammalian species. In the last couple of decades a significant number of studies have been conducted to investigate the transcriptome of reproductive tissues and organs in relation to the various reproductive health issues including endometritis, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), preeclampsia, and various age-associated reproductive disorders. Among others, the post-transcriptional regulation of genes by small noncoding miRNAs contributes to the observed transcriptome dysregulation associated with reproductive pathophysiological conditions. MicroRNAs as a class of non-coding RNAs are also known to be involved in various pathophysiological conditions either in cellular cytoplasm or they can be released to the extracellular fluid via membrane-bounded extracellular vesicles and proteins. The present review summarizes the cellular and extracellular miRNAs and their association with the etiology of major reproductive pathologies including PCOS, endometritis, IUGR and age-associated disorders in various mammalian species.

MiR-505 as an anti-inflammatory regulator suppresses HMGB1/NF-κB pathway in lipopolysaccharide-mediated endometritis by targeting HMGB1

Endometritis is characterized by severe inflammation and tissue damage. It is a common clinical disease that causes infertility due to infectious diseases of the reproductive system. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are the current focus of research on the regulation of the inflammatory process and play a vital role in various inflammatory diseases. The highly conserved miR-505 regulates the mechanism of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced endometritis, but the extent to which pro-inflammatory genes are activated remains unclear. The results of this study showed that the expression of miR-505 was significantly down-regulated in mouse endometritis tissue and LPS-stimulated BEND cells. The study also showed that overexpression of miR-505 significantly suppressed the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, and this effect was reversed by inhibiting the expression of miR-505. Moreover, miR-505 inhibited the expression of HMGB1 by targeting its 3'-UTR, thereby inhibiting the activation of HMGB1/NF-κB signalling. Taken together, the results of this study further confirmed that miR-505, as an anti-inflammatory agent, regulates the activation of the HMGB1/NF-κB signalling pathway through negative feedback.

Recent advances and future directions for uterine diseases diagnosis, pathogenesis, and management in dairy cows

Researchers, veterinarians, and farmers' pursuit of a consistent diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of uterine diseases remains challenging. The diagnosis and treatment of metritis is inconsistent, a concerning situation when considered the global threat of antimicrobial resistance dissemination. Endometritis is an insidious disease absent on routine health programs in many dairy farms and from pharmaceutical therapeutics arsenal in places like the US market. Conversely, a multitude of studies advanced the understanding of how uterine diseases compromise oocyte, follicle, and embryo development, and the uterine environment having long-lasting effects on fertility. The field of uterine disease microbiome also experienced tremendous progress and created opportunities for the development of novel preventives to improve the management of uterine diseases. Activity monitors, biomarkers, genomic selection, and machine learning predictive models are other innovative developments that have been explored in recent years to help mitigate the negative impacts of uterine diseases. Albeit novel tools such as vaccines for metritis, immune modulators, probiotics, genomic selection, and selective antimicrobial therapy are promising, further research is warranted to implement these technologies in a systematic and cost-effective manner.

miR-148a suppresses inflammation in lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis

Endometritis is a postnatal reproductive disorder disease, which leads to great economic losses for the modern dairy industry. Emerging evidence indicates that microRNAs (miRNAs) play a pivotal role in a variety of diseases and have been identified as critical regulators of the innate immune response. Recent miRNome profile analysis revealed an altered expression level of miR‐148a in cows with endometritis. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the regulatory role of miR‐148a in the innate immune response involved in endometritis and estimate its potential therapeutic value. Here, we found that miR‐148a expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐stimulated endometrial epithelial cells was significantly decreased. Our results also showed that overexpression of miR‐148a using agomiR markedly reduced the production of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as IL‐1β and TNF‐α. Moreover, overexpression of miR‐148a also suppressed NF‐κB p65 activation by targeting the TLR4‐mediated pathway. Subsequently, we further verified that miR‐148a repressed TLR4 expression by binding to the 3′‐UTR of TLR4 mRNA. Additionally, an experimental mouse endometritis model was employed to evaluate the therapeutic value of miR‐148a. In vivo studies suggested that up‐regulation of miR‐148a alleviated the inflammatory conditions in the uterus as evidenced by H&E staining, qPCR and Western blot assays, while inhibition of miR‐148a had inverse effects. Collectively, pharmacologic stabilization of miR‐148a represents a novel therapy for endometritis and other inflammation‐related diseases.