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Nederlof RA, van der Veen D, Perrault JR, Bast R, Barron HW, Bakker J. Emerging Insights into Brevetoxicosis in Sea Turtles. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:991. [PMID: 38612230 PMCID: PMC11010821 DOI: 10.3390/ani14070991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the current understanding of how brevetoxins, produced by Karenia brevis during harmful algal blooms, impact sea turtle health. Sea turtles may be exposed to brevetoxins through ingestion, inhalation, maternal transfer, and potentially absorption through the skin. Brevetoxins bind to voltage-gated sodium channels in the central nervous system, disrupting cellular function and inducing neurological symptoms in affected sea turtles. Moreover, the current evidence suggests a broader and longer-term impact on sea turtle health beyond what is seen during stranding events. Diagnosis relies on the detection of brevetoxins in tissues and plasma from stranded turtles. The current treatment of choice, intravenous lipid emulsion therapy, may rapidly reduce symptoms and brevetoxin concentrations, improving survival rates. Monitoring, prevention, and control strategies for harmful algal blooms are discussed. However, as the frequency and severity of blooms are expected to increase due to climate change and increased environmental pollution, continued research is needed to better understand the sublethal effects of brevetoxins on sea turtles and the impact on hatchlings, as well as the pharmacokinetic mechanisms underlying brevetoxicosis. Moreover, research into the optimization of treatments may help to protect endangered sea turtle populations in the face of this growing threat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Justin R. Perrault
- Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA; (J.R.P.); (H.W.B.)
| | - Robin Bast
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife, Inc., Sanibel, FL 33957, USA;
| | - Heather W. Barron
- Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA; (J.R.P.); (H.W.B.)
| | - Jaco Bakker
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Lange Kleiweg 161, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands;
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Upadhyay RK, Kumari S, Kumar P, Rai V. Spatial distribution of microalgae in marine systems: A reaction–diffusion model. ECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecocom.2019.100771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Jang SH, Jeong HJ, Lee MJ, Kim JH, You JH. Gyrodinium jinhaense n. sp., a New Heterotrophic Unarmored Dinoflagellate from the Coastal Waters of Korea. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2019; 66:821-835. [PMID: 30882970 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Four unarmored heterotrophic dinoflagellates were isolated from the coastal waters of southern Korea. The rDNA sequences of four clonal cultures were determined, and the morphology of one of the four strains was examined using light and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The large subunit (LSU) and small subunit (SSU) rDNA sequences of each of the strains differed by 0-0.9% from those of the other strains, and the SSU rDNA sequence of the strain differed by 1.8-4.4% from those of other Gyrodinium species, whereas the LSU (D1-D2) rDNA sequence differed by 12.4-22.2%. Furthermore, phylogenetic trees showed that Gyrodinium jinhaense n. sp. formed a distinctive clade among the other Gyrodinium species. Meanwhile, microscopy revealed an elliptical bisected apical structure complex and a cingulum that was displaced by approximately one-quarter of the cell length, which confirmed that the dinoflagellate belonged to the genus Gyrodinium. However, the cell surface was ornamented with 16 longitudinal striations, both on the episome and hyposome, unlike other Gyrodinium species. Furthermore, the cells were observed to have pusule systems and trichocysts but lacked mucocysts. Based on morphology and molecular data, we consider this strain to be a new species in the genus Gyrodinium and thus, propose that it be assigned to the name G. jinhaense n. sp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Hyeon Jang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.,Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, 16229, Korea
| | - Moo Joon Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Ji Hye Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun You
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
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Jeong HJ, You JH, Lee KH, Kim SJ, Lee SY. Feeding by common heterotrophic protists on the mixotrophic alga Gymnodinium smaydae (Dinophyceae), one of the fastest growing dinoflagellates. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2018; 54:734-743. [PMID: 30080927 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Gymnodinium smaydae is one of the fastest growing dinoflagellates. However, its population dynamics are affected by both growth and mortality due to predation. Thus, feeding by common heterotrophic dinoflagellates Gyrodinium dominans, Gyrodinium moestrupii, Oblea rotunda, Oxyrrhis marina, and Polykrikos kofoidii, and the naked ciliate Pelagostrobilidium sp. on G. smaydae was investigated in the laboratory. Furthermore, growth and ingestion rates of O. marina, G. dominans, and Pelagostrobilidium sp. on G. smaydae in response to prey concentration were also determined. Oxyrrhis marina, G. dominans, G. moestrupii, and Pelagostrobilidium sp. were able to feed on G. smaydae, but P. kofoidii and O. rotunda did not feed on this dinoflagellate. The maximum growth rate of O. marina on G. smaydae was 0.411 per day. However, G. smaydae did not support the positive growth of Pelagostrobilidium sp. The maximum ingestion rates of O. marina and Pelagostrobilidium sp. on G. smaydae were 0.27 and 6.91 ng C · predator-1 · d-1 , respectively. At the given mean prey concentrations, the highest growth and ingestion rates of G. dominans on G. smaydae were 0.114 per day and 0.04 ng C · predator-1 · d-1 , respectively. The maximum growth and ingestion rates of O. marina on G. smaydae are lower than those on most of the other algal prey species. Therefore, O. marina may be an effective predator of G. smaydae, but G. smaydae may not be the preferred prey for supporting high growth of the predator in comparison to other species as inferred from a literature survey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
- Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, 16229, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun You
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Kyung Ha Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - So Jin Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Sung Yeon Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
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Kang HC, Jin Jeong H, So Jin K, You JH, Hee Ok J. Differential feeding by common heterotrophic protists on 12 different Alexandrium species. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 78:106-117. [PMID: 30196918 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The genus Alexandrium often forms harmful algal blooms causing human illness and large-scale mortality of fish and shellfish. Thus, Alexandrium bloom dynamics are primary concerns for scientists, government officials, aquaculture farmers, and the public. To understand bloom dynamics, mortality due to predation needs to be assessed; however, interactions between many Alexandrium species and their potential predators have not previously been reported. Thus, feeding by five common heterotrophic dinoflagellates (Oxyrrhis marina, Gyrodinium dominans, Polykrikos kofoidii, Pfiesteria piscicida, and Oblea rotunda) and a naked ciliate (Strombidinopsis sp.) on 12 Alexandrium species was examined. Furthermore, the growth and ingestion rates of P. kofoidii on A. minutum CCMP 1888 (previously A. lusitanicum), A. minutum CCMP 113, and A. tamarense were measured as a function of prey concentration. The growth rates of P. kofoidii on the other Alexandrium species at single high prey concentrations were measured, at which the growth rates on A. minutum CCMP 1888 and A. tamarense were saturated. Feeding occurrence by these predators on 12 Alexandrium species could be categorized into 6 different prey groups. Each Alexandrium species was consumed by at least one predator; however, there was no Alexandrium species that was eaten by all six predators. Cells of A. minutum CCMP 1888, A. minutum CCMP 113, and A. tamarense were fed upon by four predators, but A. affine and A. pacificum by only one predator species, P. kofoidii or Strombidinopsis sp. Furthermore, A. minutum CCMP 1888 and A. tamarense supported high growth rates of P. kofoidii, but the other Alexandrium species did not support, but rather inhibited P. kofoidii growth. With increasing prey concentrations, the growth and ingestion rates of P. kofoidii on A. minutum CCMP 1888 and A. tamarense increased and became saturated, whereas those on A. minutum CCMP 113 continuously decreased. The maximum growth rates of P. kofoidii on A. tamarense and A. minutum CCMP 1888 were 1.010 and 0.765 d-1, respectively, and P. kofoidii maximum ingestion rates were 26.2 and 11.1 ng C predator-1d-1, respectively. In contrast, the growth rates of P. kofoidii on the other Alexandrium species at single high prey concentrations were almost zero (A. pacificum) or negative. Based on the feeding occurrence and growth and ingestion rates of predators on 12 Alexandrium species, it is suggested that common heterotrophic protistan predators respond differently to different Alexandrium species, and thus ecological niches of the Alexandrium species may be different from each other. These results may provide an insight into the roles of protistan predators in bloom dynamics of Alexandrium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Chang Kang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16229, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kim So Jin
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hyun You
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Hee Ok
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Jeong HJ, Kang HC, You JH, Jang SH. Interactions between the Newly Described Small- and Fast-Swimming Mixotrophic Dinoflagellate Yihiella yeosuensis and Common Heterotrophic Protists. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2018; 65:612-626. [PMID: 29397033 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The mixotroph Yihiella yeosuensis is a small- and fast-swimming dinoflagellate. To investigate its protistan predators, interactions between Y. yeosuensis and 11 heterotrophic protists were explored. No potential predators were able to feed on actively swimming Y. yeosuensis cells, which escaped via rapid jumps, whereas Aduncodinium glandula, Oxyrrhis marina, and Strombidinopsis sp. (approximately 150 μm in cell length) were able to feed on weakly swimming cells that could not jump. Furthermore, Gyrodinium dominans, Luciella masanensis, and Pfiesteria piscicida were able to feed on heat-killed Yihiella cells, whereas Gyrodinium moestrupii, Noctiluca scintillans, Oblea rotunda, Polykrikos kofoidii, and Strombidium sp. (20 μm) did not feed on them. Thus, the jumping behavior of Y. yeosuensis might be primarily responsible for the observed lack of predation. With increasing Yihiella concentration, the growth rate of O. marina decreased, whereas that of Strombidinopsis did not change. However, with increasing Yihiella concentration (up to 530 ng C/ml), the ingestion rate of Strombidinopsis on Yihiella increased linearly. The highest ingestion rate was 24.1 ng C per predator per d. The low daily carbon acquisition from Yihiella relative to the body carbon content of Strombidinopsis might be responsible for its negligible growth. Thus, Y. yeosuensis might have an advantage over its competitors due to its low mortality rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.,Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, 16229, Korea
| | - Hee Chang Kang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun You
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Se Hyeon Jang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
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Ok JH, Jeong HJ, Lim AS, Lee KH. Interactions between the mixotrophic dinoflagellate Takayama helix and common heterotrophic protists. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 68:178-191. [PMID: 28962979 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The phototrophic dinoflagellate Takayama helix that is known to be harmful to abalone larvae has recently been revealed to be mixotrophic. Although mixotrophy elevates the growth rate of T. helix by 79%-185%, its absolute growth rate is still as low as 0.3d-1. Thus, if the mortality rate of T. helix due to predation is high, this dinoflagellate may not easily prevail. To investigate potential effective protistan grazers on T. helix, feeding by diverse heterotrophic dinoflagellates such as engulfment-feeding Oxyrrhis marina, Gyrodinium dominans, Gyrodinium moestrupii, Polykrikos kofoidii, and Noctiluca scintillans, peduncle-feeding Aduncodinium glandula, Gyrodiniellum shiwhaense, Luciella masanensis, and Pfiesteria piscicida, pallium-feeding Oblea rotunda and Protoperidinium pellucidum, and the naked ciliates Pelagostrobilidium sp. (ca. 40μm in cell length) and Strombidinopsis sp. (ca. 150μm in cell length) on T. helix was explored. Among the tested heterotrophic protists, O. marina, G. dominans, G. moestrupii, A. glandula, L. masanensis, P. kofoidii, P. piscicida, and Strombidinopsis sp. were able to feed on T. helix. The growth rates of all these predators except Strombidinopsis sp. with T. helix prey were lower than those without the prey. The growth rate of Strombidinopsis sp. on T. helix was almost zero although the growth rate of Strombidinopsis sp. with T. helix prey was higher than those without the prey. Moreover, T. helix fed on O. marina and P. pellucidum and lysed the cells of P. kofoidii and G. shiwhaense. With increasing the concentrations of T. helix, the growth rates of O. marina and P. kofoidii decreased, but those of G. dominans and L. masanensis largely did not change. Therefore, reciprocal predation, lysis, no feeding, and the low ingestion rates of the common protists preying on T. helix may result in a low mortality rate due to predation, thereby compensating for this species' low growth rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Hee Ok
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16229, Republic of Korea.
| | - An Suk Lim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Brain Korea 21 plus, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Ha Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Kwon JE, Jeong HJ, Kim SJ, Jang SH, Lee KH, Seong KA. Newly discovered role of the heterotrophic nanoflagellate Katablepharis japonica, a predator of toxic or harmful dinoflagellates and raphidophytes. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 68:224-239. [PMID: 28962983 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Heterotrophic nanoflagellates are ubiquitous and known to be major predators of bacteria. The feeding of free-living heterotrophic nanoflagellates on phytoplankton is poorly understood, although these two components usually co-exist. To investigate the feeding and ecological roles of major heterotrophic nanoflagellates Katablepharis spp., the feeding ability of Katablepharis japonica on bacteria and phytoplankton species and the type of the prey that K. japonica can feed on were explored. Furthermore, the growth and ingestion rates of K. japonica on the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea-a suitable algal prey item-heterotrophic bacteria, and the cyanobacteria Synechococcus sp., as a function of prey concentration were determined. Among the prey tested, K. japonica ingested heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus sp., the prasinophyte Pyramimonas sp., the cryptophytes Rhodomonas salina and Teleaulax sp., the raphidophytes Heterosigma akashiwo and Chattonella ovata, the dinoflagellates Heterocapsa rotundata, Amphidinium carterae, Prorocentrum donghaiense, Alexandrium minutum, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Gymnodinium catenatum, A. sanguinea, Coolia malayensis, and the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum, however, it did not feed on the dinoflagellates Alexandrium catenella, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Heterocapsa triquetra, Lingulodinium polyedra, Prorocentrum cordatum, P. micans, and Scrippsiella acuminata and the diatom Skeletonema costatum. Many K. japonica cells attacked and ingested a prey cell together after pecking and rupturing the surface of the prey cell and then uptaking the materials that emerged from the ruptured cell surface. Cells of A. sanguinea supported positive growth of K. japonica, but neither heterotrophic bacteria nor Synechococcus sp. supported growth. The maximum specific growth rate of K. japonica on A. sanguinea was 1.01 d-1. In addition, the maximum ingestion rate of K. japonica for A. sanguinea was 0.13ngC predator-1d-1 (0.06 cells predator-1d-1). The maximum ingestion rate of K. japonica for heterotrophic bacteria was 0.019ngC predator-1d-1 (266 bacteria predator-1d-1), and the highest ingestion rate of K. japonica for Synechococcus sp. at the given prey concentrations of up to ca. 107 cells ml-1 was 0.01ngC predator-1d-1 (48 Synechococcus predator-1d-1). The maximum daily carbon acquisition from A. sanguinea, heterotrophic bacteria, and Synechococcus sp. were 307, 43, and 22%, respectively, of the body carbon of the predator. Thus, low ingestion rates of K. japonica on heterotrophic bacteria and Synechococcus sp. may be responsible for the lack of growth. The results of the present study clearly show that K. japonica is a predator of diverse phytoplankton, including toxic or harmful algae, and may also affect the dynamics of red tides caused by these prey species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Eun Kwon
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16229, Republic of Korea.
| | - So Jin Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Hyeon Jang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Ha Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong Ah Seong
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Republic of Korea
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Jeong HJ, Kim JS, Lee KH, Seong KA, Yoo YD, Kang NS, Kim TH, Song JY, Kwon JE. Differential interactions between the nematocyst-bearing mixotrophic dinoflagellate Paragymnodinium shiwhaense and common heterotrophic protists and copepods: Killer or prey. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 62:37-51. [PMID: 28118891 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
To investigate interactions between the nematocyst-bearing mixotrophic dinoflagellate Paragymnodinium shiwhaense and different heterotrophic protist and copepod species, feeding by common heterotrophic dinoflagellates (Oxyrrhis marina and Gyrodinium dominans), naked ciliates (Strobilidium sp. approximately 35μm in cell length and Strombidinopsis sp. approximately 100μm in cell length), and calanoid copepods Acartia spp. (A. hongi and A. omorii) on P. shiwhaense was explored. In addition, the feeding activities of P. shiwhaense on these heterotrophic protists were investigated. Furthermore, the growth and ingestion rates of O. marina, G. dominans, Strobilidium sp., Strombidinopsis sp., and Acartia spp. as a function of P. shiwhaense concentration were measured. O. marina, G. dominans, and Strombidinopsis sp. were able to feed on P. shiwhaense, but Strobilidium sp. was not. However, the growth rates of O. marina, G. dominans, Strobilidium sp., and Strombidinopsis sp. feeding on P. shiwhaense were very low or negative at almost all concentrations of P. shiwhaense. P. shiwhaense frequently fed on O. marina and Strobilidium sp., but did not feed on Strombidinopsis sp. and G. dominans. G. dominans cells swelled and became dead when incubated with filtrate from the experimental bottles (G. dominans+P. shiwhaense) that had been incubated for one day. The ingestion rates of O. marina, G. dominans, and Strobilidium sp. on P. shiwhaense were almost zero at all P. shiwhaense concentrations, while those of Strombidinopsis sp. increased with prey concentration. The maximum ingestion rate of Strombidinopsis sp. on P. shiwhaense was 5.3ngC predator-1d-1 (41 cells predator-1d-1), which was much lower than ingestion rates reported in the literature for other mixotrophic dinoflagellate prey species. With increasing prey concentrations, the ingestion rates of Acartia spp. on P. shiwhaense increased up to 930ngCml-1 (7180cellsml-1) at the highest prey concentration. The highest ingestion rate of Acartia spp. on P. shiwhaense was 4240ngC predator-1d-1 (32,610 cells predator-1d-1), which is comparable to ingestion rates from previous studies on other dinoflagellate prey species calculated at similar prey concentrations. Thus, P. shiwhaense might play diverse ecological roles in marine planktonic communities by having an advantage over competing phytoplankton in anti-predation against potential protistan grazers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16229, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jae Seong Kim
- Water and Eco-Bio Corporation, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyung Ha Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong Ah Seong
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Du Yoo
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam Seon Kang
- Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea, Seochun-gun, Chungchungnam-do, 33662, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Hoon Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Yoon Song
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Eun Kwon
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Jeong HJ, Ok JH, Lim AS, Kwon JE, Kim SJ, Lee SY. Mixotrophy in the phototrophic dinoflagellate Takayama helix (family Kareniaceae): Predator of diverse toxic and harmful dinoflagellates. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 60:92-106. [PMID: 28073566 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Takayama spp. are phototrophic dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae and have caused fish kills in several countries. Understanding their trophic mode and interactions with co-occurring phytoplankton species are critical steps in comprehending their ecological roles in marine ecosystems, bloom dynamics, and dinoflagellate evolution. To investigate the trophic mode and interactions of Takayama spp., the ability of Takayama helix to feed on diverse algal species was examined, and the mechanisms of prey ingestion were determined. Furthermore, growth and ingestion rates of T. helix feeding on the dinoflagellates Alexandrium lusitanicum and Alexandrium tamarense, which are two optimal prey items, were determined as a function of prey concentration. T. helix ingested large dinoflagellates ≥15μm in size, except for the dinoflagellates Karenia mikimotoi, Akashiwo sanguinea, and Prorocentrum micans (i.e., it fed on Alexandrium minutum, A. lusitanicum, A. tamarense, A. pacificum, A. insuetum, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Coolia canariensis, Coolia malayensis, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gymnodinium aureolum, Gymnodinium catenatum, Gymnodinium instriatum, Heterocapsa triquetra, Lingulodinium polyedrum, and Scrippsiella trochoidea). All these edible prey items are dinoflagellates that have diverse eco-physiology such as toxic and non-toxic, single and chain forming, and planktonic and benthic forms. However, T. helix did not feed on small flagellates and dinoflagellates <13μm in size (i.e., the prymnesiophyte Isochrysis galbana; the cryptophytes Teleaulax sp., Storeatula major, and Rhodomonas salina; the raphidophyte Heterosigma akashiwo; the dinoflagellates Heterocapsa rotundata, Amphidinium carterae, Prorocentrum minimum; or the small diatom Skeletonema costatum). T. helix ingested Heterocapsa triquetra by direct engulfment, but sucked materials from the rest of the edible prey species through the intercingular region of the sulcus. With increasing mean prey concentration, the specific growth rates of T. helix on A. lusitanicum and A. tamarense increased continuously before saturating at prey concentrations of 336-620ngC mL-1. The maximum specific growth rates (mixotrophic growth) of T. helix on A. lusitanicum and A. tamarense were 0.272 and 0.268d-1, respectively, at 20°C under a 14:10 h light/dark cycle of 20μE m-2 s-1 illumination, while its growth rates (phototrophic growth) under the same light conditions without added prey were 0.152 and 0.094d-1, respectively. The maximum ingestion rates of T. helix on A. lusitanicum and A. tamarense were 1.23 and 0.48ng C predator-1d-1, respectively. The results of the present study suggest that T. helix is a mixotrophic dinoflagellate that is able to feed on a diverse range of toxic species and, thus, its mixotrophic ability should be considered when studying red tide dynamics, food webs, and dinoflagellate evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16229, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin Hee Ok
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - An Suk Lim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Brain Korea 21, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ji Eun Kwon
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - So Jin Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Yeon Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Kim JH, Jeong HJ, Lim AS, Rho JR, Lee SB. Killing potential protist predators as a survival strategy of the newly described dinoflagellate Alexandrium pohangense. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:41-55. [PMID: 28073546 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Blooms caused by some species belonging to the dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium are known to cause large-scale mortality of fish. Thus, the dynamics of these species is important and of concern to scientists, officials, and people in the aquaculture industry. To understand the dynamics of such species, their growth and mortality due to predation need to be assessed. The newly described dinoflagellate Alexandrium pohangense is known to grow slowly, with a maximum autotrophic growth rate of 0.1d-1. Thus, it may not form bloom patches if its mortality due to predation is high. Therefore, to explore the mortality of A. pohangense due to predation, feeding on this species by the common heterotrophic dinoflagellates Gyrodinium dominans, Gyrodinium moestrupii, Luciella masanensis, Noctiluca scintillans, Oxyrrhis marina, Oblea rotunda, Polykrikos kofoidii, and Pfiesteria piscicida, as well as by the ciliate Tiarina fusus, was examined. None of these potential predators was able to feed on A. pohangense. In contrast, these potential predators were killed and their bodies were dissolved when incubated with A. pohangense cells or cell-free culture filtrates. The survival of G. moestrupii, O. marina, P. kofoidii, and T. fusus on incubation with 10cellsml-1 of A. pohangense was 20-60%, while that at the equivalent culture filtrates was 20-70%. With increasing A. pohangense cell-concentration (up to 1000cellsml-1 or equivalent culture filtrates), the survival rate of G. moestrupii, O. marina, P. kofoidii, and T. fusus rapidly decreased. The lethal concentration (LC50) for G. moestrupii, O. marina, P. kofoidii, and T. fusus at the elapsed time of 24h with A. pohangense cells (cultures of 11.4, 13.3, 1.6, and 3.3cellsml-1, respectively) was lower than that with A. pohangense filtrates (culture filtrates of 35.5, 30.6, 5.5, and 5.0cellsml-1, respectively). Furthermore, most of the ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the water collected from the coast of Tongyoung, Korea, were killed when incubated with cultures of 1000 A. pohangense cells ml-1 and equivalent culture filtrates. The relatively slow growing A. pohangense may form blooms by reducing mortality due to predation through killing potential protist predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hye Kim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea.
| | - An Suk Lim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jung Rae Rho
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Kunsan National University, Jeonbuk 54150, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Bum Lee
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Kunsan National University, Jeonbuk 54150, Republic of Korea
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Petitpas CM, Turner JT, Keafer BA, McGillicuddy DJ, Anderson DM. Zooplankton Community Grazing Impact on a Toxic Bloom of Alexandrium fundyense in the Nauset Marsh System, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA. HARMFUL ALGAE 2015; 47:42-55. [PMID: 27721676 PMCID: PMC5055074 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Embayments and salt ponds along the coast of Massachusetts can host localized blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense. One such system, exhibiting a long history of toxicity and annual closures of shellfish beds, is the Nauset Marsh System (NMS) on Cape Cod. In order measure net growth rates of natural A. fundyense populations in the NMS during spring 2012, incubation experiments were conducted on seawater samples from two salt ponds within the NMS (Salt Pond and Mill Pond). Seawater samples containing natural populations of grazers and A. fundyense were incubated at ambient temperatures. Concentrations of A. fundyense after incubations were compared to initial abundances to determine net increases from population growth, or decreases presumed to be primarily due to grazing losses. Abundances of both microzooplankton (ciliates, rotifers, copepod nauplii and heterotrophic dinoflagellates) and mesozooplankton (copepodites and adult copepods, marine cladocerans, and meroplankton) grazers were also determined. This study documented net growth rates that were highly variable throughout the bloom, calculated from weekly bloom cell counts from the start of sampling to bloom peak in both ponds (Mill Pond range = 0.12 - 0.46 d-1; Salt Pond range = -0.02 - 0.44 d-1). Microzooplankton grazers that were observed with ingested A. fundyense cells included polychaete larvae, rotifers, tintinnids, and heterotrophic dinoflagellates of the genera Polykrikos and Gymnodinium. Significant A. fundyense net growth was observed in two incubation experiments, and only a single experiment exhibited significant population losses. For the majority of experiments, due to high variability in data, net changes in A. fundyense abundance were not significant after the 24-hr incubations. However, experimental net growth rates through bloom peak were not statistically distinguishable from estimated long-term average net growth rates of natural populations in each pond (Mill Pond = 0.27 d-1 and Salt Pond = 0.20 d-1), which led to peak bloom concentrations on the order of 106 cells l-1 in both ponds. Experimental net growth rates from the incubations underestimated the observed natural net growth rates at several time intervals prior to bloom peak, which may indicate that natural populations experienced additional sources of vegetative cells or periods of reduced losses that the 24-hr incubation experiments did not capture, or that the experimental procedure introduced containment artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian M. Petitpas
- School for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 706 South Rodney French Boulevard, New Bedford, MA 02744, USA
| | - Jefferson T. Turner
- School for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 706 South Rodney French Boulevard, New Bedford, MA 02744, USA
| | - Bruce A. Keafer
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Dennis J. McGillicuddy
- Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Donald M. Anderson
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
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Jeong HJ, Lim AS, Yoo YD, Lee MJ, Lee KH, Jang TY, Lee K. Feeding by Heterotrophic Dinoflagellates and Ciliates on the Free-living Dinoflagellate Symbiodinium
sp. (Clade E). J Eukaryot Microbiol 2013; 61:27-41. [DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - An Suk Lim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - Yeong Du Yoo
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - Moo Joon Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - Kyung Ha Lee
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - Tae Young Jang
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences; College of Natural Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-747 Korea
| | - Kitack Lee
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering; Pohang University of Science and Technology; Pohang 790-784 Korea
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