My Pride and Joy? Predicting Favoritism and Disfavoritism in Mother-Adult Child Relations

Trajectories of Intergenerational Emotional Closeness in Multi-Child Aging Families in China

Intergenerational emotional closeness (IEC) in multi-child families manifests not only in the overall parent-child relationship but also by the extent of its within-family differentiation. This study aimed to identify distinct trajectories of collective IEC in multi-child families and to examine its potential associated factors. The study used four waves of the China Family Panel Studies (2010-2018). Based on a sample of 3474 older adults (age >60), growth mixture modelling and logistic regression were conducted. Two latent trajectory patterns of IEC were identified: increasingly tight-knit (93%) and persistently collectively ambivalent (7%). Compared to the latter trajectory, older adults who had a married/cohabiting partner, had better health and received support from all children, were more likely to have increasingly tight-knit trajectories of IEC. The study tells a story more about emotional cohesion between Chinese older adults and multiple offspring over time. Aging families experiencing persistently collectively ambivalent IEC deserve more attention.

Prodigal Children: Why Older Mothers Favor Their Once-Deviant Adult Children

OBJECTIVES

Past research suggests that adult children who reform their deviant behaviors (i.e., problems with drugs/alcohol or the law) are more likely to become favored by their mothers, yet the reasons underlying this phenomenon are unclear. This study employs a longitudinal, qualitative approach to explore why adult children's behavioral reforms shape changes in maternal favoritism.

METHOD

Analyses are based on qualitative interview data collected at 2 points 7 years apart from older mothers regarding their adult children in 20 families. Each of these families had a "prodigal child"-a child for whom desistance from deviant behaviors between the 2 waves was accompanied by newfound maternal favoritism.

RESULTS

Findings revealed 2 conditions under which mothers came to favor reformed deviants over their siblings. First, this occurred when adult children's behavioral reformations were accompanied by mothers' perceptions of these children as having grown more family-oriented. Second, this occurred when mothers came to see reformed deviants as exhibiting a stronger need and appreciation for maternal support, relative to their siblings.

DISCUSSION

Mothers' perceptions of children's behavioral reformations as being accompanied by greater dedication to family or reflecting a need for their mothers' support offer 2 explanations for why previously deviant adult children may become mothers' favored offspring. These findings contribute to a growing body of scholarship on the complexity of intergenerational relations by shedding new light on changing patterns of favoritism in families with a history of parental disappointment, conflict, and strain.

Mothers' Functional Limitations and Relationship Quality With Adult Children: Exploring the Moderating Roles of Race and Gender

Theory and research on intergenerational relations emphasize the salient role that mothers and their adult children play in one another's lives. However, little is known about how mothers' health may shape mother-child relationship quality in later-life. We utilized data from the Within Family Differences Study to explore how mothers' functional limitations affect multiple dimensions of mother-child relationship quality, as reported by mothers and their offspring, with particular emphasis on whether race, child's gender, or generational position moderated these associations. Although mothers' reports of relationship quality were not predicted by their functional limitations, adult children reported higher ambivalence when they perceived their mothers had limitations. Further, adult children in White families reported higher ambivalence when mothers had limitations than did those in Black families. This study highlights the importance of considering the roles of structural factors in shaping the conditions under which health limitations affect mother-child ties.

Maternal Differential Treatment and Psychological Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Marital Tension and Sibling Tension?

OBJECTIVES

Past research used equity theory and social comparison theory to explain the direct effect of maternal differential treatment (MDT) on psychological well-being. However, this focus on psychological pathways ignores possible social pathways, such as indirect effects of MDT on well-being through disrupting other family relationships. This study uses stress proliferation theory to argue that MDT, as a primary stressor in mother-child relationships, can produce secondary stressors in other family relationships (e.g., sibling tension and marital tension), which in turn leads to lower psychological well-being.

METHODS

To investigate this mechanism, we conducted multilevel mediation analysis using data collected from 720 adult children nested within 308 families, as part of the Within-Family Differences Study.

RESULTS

We found that sibling tension mediates the association between adult children's perceptions of maternal disfavoritism and their psychological well-being-a process we call the stress proliferation of maternal disfavoritism. In contrast, adult children's perceptions of maternal favoritism cannot trigger this stress proliferation process of producing marital tension nor sibling tension.

DISCUSSION

The evaluation of the stress proliferation process of maternal favoritism and disfavoritism can help us to understand the difference in effects across various dimensions of MDT. This study contributes to the literature on social relationships as social determinants of health by investigating how intergenerational relationships are connected to other family relationships to affect family members' health.

Within-family patterns of intergenerational emotional closeness and psychological well-being of older parents in China

Objectives: There may be a substantial difference in the intergenerational emotional closeness among offspring in a multi-child family, both regarding the overall level as well as the extent to which older parents differentiate emotional closeness between their children. This study addressed different within-family patterns based on the average level and differentiation of older parent-child emotional closeness. It also examined the associations between these distinct patterns and the psychological well-being of older parents in China.Method: We derived a final sample of 4247 older parents (aged 60+) with 14,461 children from the baseline wave (2010) of the China Family Panel Studies. A latent profile analysis was applied to classify within-family patterns based on two indicators: within-family mean level and differentiation of parent-child emotional closeness among offspring. Ordered logistic regression and ordinary least square (OLS) regression were used to investigate the associations between these patterns and older adults' life satisfaction and depression, respectively.Results: Two family patterns of parent-child emotional closeness were identified: tight-knit (91.50%) and highly ambivalent (8.50%). Compared with the former, older parents having highly ambivalent relationships across multiple offspring tended to have lower life satisfaction and higher levels of depression.Conclusion: This study highlighted the importance of capturing different within-family dynamics of intergenerational emotional closeness in Chinese families. It also pointed out the negative effects of collective ambivalence for older adults' psychological well-being.

Positive psychology as a strategy for promoting sustainable population policies

Demographic stability constitutes a paramount global environmental objective. Yet, decades of efforts, highlighting the perils of overpopulation, have failed to slow the rapid global population growth. In considering an alternative strategy, insights from the field of positive psychology are explored for their potential to inform future demographic policies. After briefly reviewing sustainable advocacy efforts, different theories behind individual fertility decisions are presented. Following, key components of prominent successful family planning interventions are analysed using a 'positive psychology' perspective. Three 'positive psychology' strategies are explored for their potential to inform sustainable population: a "direct" approach that emphasizes individual benefits rather than indirect gains through mitigation of damages; an emphasis on the convergence between the collective and individual benefits of two--child families; and application of behavioral change theories in demographic policies to better facilitate sustainable individual fertility decisions. The paper posits that a positive psychology conceptualization offers a promising way to re-think the design of demographic policies and frame sustainable population interventions.

A Decade of Research on Intergenerational Ties: Technological, Economic, Political, and Demographic Changes

Due to extended transitions to adulthood and declining marital rates, bonds between adults and parents have grown increasingly salient in individuals' lives. This review organizes research around these topics to address ties between parents and grown children in the context of broader societal changes over the past decade. Literature searches included tables of contents of premier journals (e.g., Journal of Marriage and Family), Psychological Info, and Google Scholar. The literature review revealed patterns of social and intergenerational changes. Technological advances (e.g., introduction of the smart phone) co-occurred with more frequent contact and interdependence between generations. The Great Recession and financial strains altered the nature of many parent/child ties, including increased rates of intergenerational coresidence. Individual life problems such as divorce, addiction, and physical health problems were reflected in complex changes in positive and negative relationship qualities, ambivalence, and intergenerational support. Government policies reflect societal values and in turn, affected the distribution of parents' and grown children's resources. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Demographic changes (e.g., constellation of family members, delayed marriage, same sex marriage) were also manifest in ties between adults and parents. Findings were consistent with the Intergenerational Systems in Context Model, which posits that societal transformations co-occur with changes in intergenerational relationships via reciprocal influences.

Links Between Perceptions of Successes, Problems and Health Outcomes Among Adult Chinese Children: The Mediating Role of Perceptions of Parents' Feelings and Intergenerational Relationships

Several studies have focused on adult children's successes and problems and implications for their own well-being, but few studies have paid attention to their implications for adult children's health outcomes. In the present study, we tested the links between perceptions of successes, problems, and their own health outcomes, as well as the mediating role of perceptions of parents' feelings and intergenerational relationships. Adult children (n = 314; age 18-59) completed surveys on perceptions of successes (compared with counterparts, speculated how parents rate their successes, and compared with same-gender parent); problems (self's, father's, and mother's); parents' feelings (positive and negative); intergenerational relationships (intergenerational ambivalence and instrumental solidarity); and health outcomes [subjective well-being (SWB), psychological distress (PD), and self-rated health (SRH)]. Path analysis was conducted, a bootstrapped test was used. Results showed that perceptions of successes compared with counterparts were positively correlated with SWB and SRH; perceptions of successes compared with counterparts and perceptions of successes compared with same-gender parent were positively correlated with SWB and SRH via parents' positive feelings; perceptions of successes that speculated how parents rate their successes and perceptions of successes compared with same-gender parent were negatively correlated with PD via parents' negative feelings. Self's problems were negatively correlated with SWB via direct ambivalence (DA), and were positively correlated with PD via parents' negative feelings and DA, while mother's problems were positively correlated with PD via parents' negative feelings. There were no significant correlations between father's problems and adult children's health outcomes. This study underscores the importance of considering perceptions of parents' feelings and DA in understanding the mechanisms of an individual's mental health in family systems. This study sheds lights on considering an individual's health in family systems and cultural contexts.

The Long Arm of Maternal Differential Treatment: Effects of Recalled and Current Favoritism on Adult Children's Psychological Well-Being

Objectives

In this article, we draw from classic theories of social psychology and the life course to compare the effects of current and recalled perceived maternal differential treatment (MDT) on the depressive symptoms of adult children in midlife.

Method

To address this question, we used data collected from 746 adult children nested within 293 later-life families as part of the Within-Family Differences Study.

Results

Multilevel regression revealed that both recollections of maternal differentiation from childhood and perceptions of mothers' current disfavoritism regarding conflict predicted depressive symptoms, whereas perceptions of current favoritism regarding emotional closeness did not.

Discussion

Taken together, the findings from this investigation reflect principles of theories of social comparison and the life course in that both perceptions of current MDT and MDT recalled from childhood affect children's well-being in midlife. These findings contribute to a growing body of literature highlighting the role of within-family differences in parent-child relationships on well-being across the life course.

Accuracy of Adult Children's Perceptions of Mothers' Caregiver Preferences

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Most older mothers have strong preferences regarding which offspring will serve as their future caregivers, and violation of these preferences has been found to have consequences for mothers' psychological well-being. However, no study has examined the accuracy of adult children's perceptions of their mothers' caregiver preferences. In this article, we compare mothers' stated preferences for particular caregivers with their adult children's perceptions of their mothers' preferences.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Data were collected from 675 adult children and their mothers nested within 285 families as part of the Within-Family Differences Study.

RESULTS

Only 44.6% of adult children accurately reported their mothers' preferences for particular offspring as caregivers. Consistent with our hypotheses, accuracy was higher when mothers and children shared values regarding filial piety, and lower when children were parents, had poor health, and lived further away. Surprisingly, primary caregivers were substantially less likely to accurately report mothers' caregiver preferences than were noncaregivers. This counterintuitive pattern can be explained by the finding that most mothers were cared for by children whom they did not prefer and may have therefore been reluctant to share their preferences with those caregivers.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Given the negative psychological consequences for mothers whose caregiver preferences are violated, the high level of inaccuracy found among adult children has important implications when mothers face serious health events. These findings underscore the need for intervention efforts to encourage practitioners and clinicians to collect information directly from mothers regarding preferences for particular offspring as caregivers.

A Family Affair: Family Typologies of Problems and Midlife Well-Being

Background and Objectives

Midlife adults are a "pivot" generation, responding to parents' and grown children's problems. Yet, some midlife adults may have families where multiple members suffer sorrows, whereas other midlife adults may have families with few problems. This study examined: (a) typologies of problems across generations and (b) associations between profiles of problems and midlife adults' well-being.

Research Design and Methods

Midlife adults (N = 633) reported their own, each parent's (n = 868), and grown child's (n = 1,785) physical (e.g., injury, cancer), psychological (e.g., anxiety, addiction), and lifestyle problems (e.g., divorce, job loss), and parents' functional disabilities. Midlife adults reported their own depressive symptoms.

Results

Latent profile analysis revealed four family typologies: (a) lowest problems across generations (n = 364), (b) offspring and midlife adult moderate problems, parent high physical problems and disability (n = 165), (c) offspring and parent moderate problems (n = 90), and (d) offspring highest problems (n = 14). Midlife adults in the lowest problems group (Profile a) reported higher income and fewer depressive symptoms than midlife adults in the other groups.

Discussion and Implications

Midlife adults cope with challenges when grown children or parents suffer problems, and their well-being may suffer as a result. In this study, regardless of the profile, higher problems in either generation were associated with more depressive symptoms for midlife adults.

Adult Children's Perceptions of Maternal Favoritism During Caregiving: Comparisons Between Turkey and the United States

This study explores cross-cultural variations in adult children's perceptions of maternal favoritism during caregiving in Turkey and the United States. Qualitative analysis of interview data from two siblings in each of 14 Turkish and 14 American families revealed differences in adult children's perceptions of and explanations for maternal favoritism. Most Turkish children perceived that their mothers favored sons because of higher filial expectations from sons. Conversely, most American children perceived that their mothers favored daughters and explained mothers' preferences as based on socioemotional factors. Furthermore, perceptions of maternal favoritism had detrimental consequences for sibling relationships in both contexts but differently. Turkish daughters reported conflicts over their favored brothers' lack of cooperation. American daughters perceived themselves as favored and felt obligated to undertake most of the caregiving burden which fueled sibling conflict. Taken together, this study highlights the importance of cultural context for understanding the within-family differences in sibling relationships during caregiving.

Translating Basic Research on the Aging Family to Caregiving Intervention: The Case of Within-Family Differences

Since its inception, the field of gerontology has sought to establish optimal connections between the scientific activities of researchers and the real-world concerns of practitioners and clinicians. The concept of translational research has emerged in recent years as a model for bridging the gap between science and service. This article provides an example of how basic research findings can be translated to provide guidance for intervention in the area of family caregiving. We review findings from an innovative program of research on within-family differences, which extends theory and research from the developmental psychological study of children to the family in later life. The within-family difference perspective focuses on how the individual parent-child dyads in a particular family differ from and are affected by other dyads. Basic research on this topic has revealed the extent of parental favoritism in later life, factors related to parental differential treatment of offspring, and the consequences of such favoritism and treatment on sibling relationship quality and psychological well-being. Four examples are provided of ways in which attention to within-family differences research could enhance caregiving interventions.

Applying Within-Family Differences Approaches to Enhance Understanding of the Complexity of Intergenerational Relations

Objectives

The role of family relationships in the lives of older adults has received substantial attention in recent decades. Scholars have increasingly looked beyond simple models of family relations to approaches that recognize the complex and sometimes contradictory nature of these ties. One of the most exciting conceptual and methodological developments is the application of within-family differences approaches. In this paper, we focus on the ways in which such within-family approaches can extend the understanding of patterns and consequences of intergenerational ties in adulthood.

Method

Following a review of the conceptual underpinnings of within-family differences approaches, we provide empirical illustrations of these approaches from three projects conducted in the United States: the Family Exchanges Study (FES), the Longitudinal Study of Generations (LSOG), and the Within-Family Differences Study (WFDS).

Results

Analyses from the FES, LSOG, and WFDS reveal differences in the consequences of patterns of intergenerational relations found when using within-family compared to between-family approaches. In particular, these analyses demonstrate considerable variation within families that shapes patterns and consequences of parent-adult child ties that is masked when such variations are not taken into account.

Discussion

Within-family differences approaches have been shown to shed new light on intergenerational relations. Despite the value of within-family designs, their use may be limited by the higher investment of finances and time required to implement such studies.

Millennials and Their Parents: Implications of the New Young Adulthood for Midlife Adults

The period of young adulthood has transformed dramatically over the past few decades. Today, scholars refer to "emerging adulthood" and "transitions to adulthood" to describe adults in their 20s. Prolonged youth has brought concomitant prolonged parenthood. This article addresses 3 areas of change in parent/child ties, increased (a) contact between generations, (b) support from parents to grown children as well as coresidence and (c) affection between the generations. We apply the Multidimensional Intergenerational Support Model (MISM) to explain these changes, considering societal (e.g., economic, technological), cultural, family demographic (e.g., fertility, stepparenting), relationship, and psychological (normative beliefs, affection) factors. Several theoretical perspectives (e.g., life course theory, family systems theory) suggest that these changes may have implications for the midlife parents' well-being. For example, parents may incur deleterious effects from (a) grown children's problems or (b) their own normative beliefs that offspring should be independent. Parents may benefit via opportunities for generativity with young adult offspring. Furthermore, current patterns may affect future parental aging. As parents incur declines of late life, they may be able to turn to caregivers with whom they have intimate bonds. Alternately, parents may be less able to obtain such care due to demographic changes involving grown children raising their own children later or who have never fully launched. It is important to consider shifts in the nature of young adulthood to prepare for midlife parents' future aging.